Section A- COST ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS 30%

1. Discuss costing methods and their results.(a) Compare and contrast marginal (or variable), throughput and absorption accounting methods in respect of profit reporting and stock valuation;

Marginal (or variable), throughput and absorption accounting systems of profit reporting and stock valuation.

Theory of constraints and throughput accountingThe theory of constraints was developed by Goldratt and Cox (1986) in the US in the bookcalled “The Goal”. The main aim was to help managers improve overall profitability of thecompany by looking at constraints or bottlenecks which stop or slow down production.Galloway and Waldron (1988-89) in the UK developed an accounting based technique usingthe idea of the theory of constrains, which is known as “throughput accounting”. They sawthat production or “throughput” is that which should be maximised and unbroken in order toimprove contribution of a company.A manager’s aim in this situation would be to operate the bottleneck resource at 100%capacity, whilst running non-bottleneck resources at a speed that matches this (which may notbe at 100%). This would be efficient use of resources, but also would avoid the pile up ofunnecessary work-in-progress in a JIT environment.Throughput accounting aims to maximise contribution whilst minimising conversion (labourand overhead) cost. Throughput accounting is also known as super variable costing.Throughput contribution = Sales less material costIt is assumed only materials and components are the variable cost.Conversion cost = all other fixed costReturn per factory hour calculates the benefit or contribution earned per unit of bottleneck resource.

Traditionally when absorption costing was used, managers could improve results by settingproduction levels higher than sales (therefore the carry forward of fixed overhead this periodto the next in the valuation of closing stock), however stock piling is not a good thing andsuch stock piling will not improve performance if you use the TA ratios instead to assess amanager.Method for throughput accounting analysis· Identify the bottleneck resource – This is that resource which is scarce and the aimbeing to produce until the bottleneck resource is fully utilised. Examples of this arelabour or materials.· Throughput contribution per unit – Calculate throughput contribution for each ofthe products that are being manufactured which use the bottleneck resource.Throughput contribution is sales less material costs only.· Bottleneck resource used in each product – Calculate how much of the bottleneckresource is used in the manufacture of each product.· Contribution per unit of bottleneck resource – Calculate how much throughputcontribution is earned per unit of the bottleneck resource used in the production ofeach product. To work this out we simply divide the throughput contribution per unitby the bottleneck resource used in each product.· Rank - In order of highest throughput contribution per unit of bottleneck resource andmanufacture that product which yields the most throughput contribution perbottleneck resource first, then the next highest after demand has been met on the first.This should continue until all the bottleneck resource has been used.Advantages of throughput accountingü It looks at maximising the benefit from the bottleneck resource by using itefficiently and not concerned about increasing profit through manipulation.ü Reduces stock holding costs of other resources which are not bottleneckresources as only what is needed to complete whole products will be bought.ü Simpler to calculate and easier to understand than more traditional costingmethods.Disadvantages of throughput accountingIt is a short-term decision-making tool as it ignores indirect costs which dostill need to be recovered over the long-term.Looks in detail at material cost only as the theory assumes that this is the onlyvariable cost in the short-term, but other costs such as labour may also bevariable in the short-term.Absorption costingTraditional absorption costing takes the total budgeted fixed overhead for a period anddivides by a budgeted (or normal) activity level in order to find the overhead absorptionrate. This is a simple fixed overhead costing method, allowing fixed overhead to beallocated to products, jobs, and stock or work-in-progress.Overhead absorption rate (OAR) = Budgeted production overheadNormal level of activity· Any under charge to the profit and loss account would be an ‘under absorption’

of production overhead e.g. DR profit and loss account CR Production overheadcontrol account.· Any over charge to the profit and loss account would be an ‘over absorption’ ofproduction overhead e.g. CR profit and loss account DR Production overhead controlaccount.Marginal costingA marginal cost (direct or variable cost) is a cost that can be avoided if a unit is not producedor incurred if a unit was produced. Fixed cost remains constant whether a unit is or is notproduced. Marginal (or variable) costing assigns only variable costs to cost units while fixedcosts are written off as period costs.Cost per unit:Direct costs of productionDirect labour XDirect material XDirect variable production overhead XTotal direct variable cost or total prime cost X Marginal costing stock valuationIndirect production overhead absorbed XFull production cost X Absorption costing stock valuation

(b) Discuss a report which reconciles budget and actual profit using absorption and/or marginal costing principles;Activity based costing (ABC)Activity based costing (ABC) looks in more detail about what causes fixed overhead to beincurred and works out many ‘cost drivers’ (activities).Steps in ABC1. Group types of fixed overhead together.2. Calculate from fixed overhead cost pools a fixed overhead ‘cost per driver’.3. Absorb fixed overhead using ‘multiple cost drivers’.A cost driver is any factor that causes a change in the cost activity, so it is important toidentify a causal relationship between the cost driver and the cost.

Advantages of ABCü More efficient management of resources by understanding what drives fixedoverhead incurred e.g. elimination, reduction or improvement in the efficiency ofhow resources are used can improve profitability.ü Better costing information for planning and control e.g. how different products,customers or distribution channels consume different resources.ü More realistic and competitive pricing to cover overhead.ü Better profitability analysis because there is more accuracy over costs. It is used inthe retail sector to understand the profitability of different products and services.Disadvantages of ABCTime consuming and expensive system to run and maintain e.g. ‘bespoke’

management information systems.Limited analysis if only a small range of products or a single product is produced.Danger of going into too much detail. For example the need to strike a balancebetween benefit and cost of information.Assumes fixed overhead is driven ‘directly’ by volume however in reality it tends tobehave in a ‘stepped cost’ way.It maybe seen as a 100% accurate which is not true as it is only improves ourunderstanding of overhead cost consumption but it will not tell us how the overheadswere precisely consumed.

Customer profitability analysis (CPA)Relating specific costs to serving customers or groups of customers, so that their relativeprofitability can be assessed. CPA uses ABC techniques in order to allocate cost.Customer profitability analysis (CPA) focuses on cost reduction by understanding howcustomers consume different support resources e.g. processing, delivery, sales visits,telephone support, internet support etc. It allows an organisation to concentrate on the mostprofitable of its customers.Other types of customer driven costs include1. Location2. Delivery frequency3. Quality provided4. After sales service activities5. Sales and promotion effort6. AdministrationBenefits of CPAü Customer group (segment) profitability can be better understood e.g. marketing focuson the most profitable customers.ü Unprofitable customers groups can be rationalised or strategies implemented toreduce their consumption of resources.ü More effective pricing policies e.g. financial effect of customer proposals can bebetter analysed when negotiating with customers.Limitations of CPALimited analysis if only a small range of customer groups.Time consuming and expensive system to run and maintain e.g. ‘bespoke’management information systems.Assumes fixed overhead is driven ‘directly’ by volume however in reality it tends tobehave in a ‘stepped cost’ way

Why the allocation of direct support overhead to products?Warehousing cost involves refrigeration and storage overhead, the more bulky a product is,the more floor area it consumes, a limiting factor for most retail organisations e.g. dairy orfrozen produce will cost more to store within refrigerated units. Transport with dedicatedrefrigeration will consume more overhead in delivery cost; more bulkiness means a lowernumber of units being transported each time, giving a higher unit cost per delivery. Thehigher the cubic capacity of a product the more shelf space it uses, the bigger the weight andcubic capacity the greater the handling costs for staff once a product arrives in store. Byunderstanding what drives cost when resources are consumed to support products, this willenable a retailer to maximise throughput of the most profitable products, as well as givingmore effective information to control cost and manage store resources e.g. making surevehicles carry full loads to reduce the number of journeys.Strategies to improve customer or product profitability1. Increase price2. Increase volume sold3. Reduce support activities that incur specific customer or product cost4. Withdrawal e.g. discontinue selling

Viewing either products or customers as a source of earningsProfitability analysis often ignores the ‘life cycle of earnings’ from customers orproducts e.g. students at university may have low earning potential before graduating,however could be a bigger source of earnings when they graduate and become moreaffluent.Basis of calculating earnings can be subjective e.g. what costs do we include and howdo we attach them?Decisions about earnings often ignore interdependence e.g. unprofitable products mayattract more customers into a store to buy other items.Product or customer views of earnings can conflict e.g. low profit on product A butcustomer B buys other products as well therefore a source of high earnings. So dodiscontinue A? DPP would suggest so however CPA may not.Direct product profitability (DPP)DPP is a decision making tool that helps a food merchandiser by providing a better indicationof the profitability of products on the supermarket shelves. DPP allocates direct productcosts to individual products. These costs are subtracted from gross profit to derive at DPP foreach product. The normal indirect costs attributed to products would be distribution,warehousing and retailing. DPP would ignore indirect costs such as head office overhead,only product specific fixed (indirect) cost would be analysed. e.g. shelf filling, warehousingand transportationClosing LessOpening Addor ‘CLOA’

Activity based budgeting (ABB)ABB uses cost driver data in the budgetary planning and control stage, in other words costlevels are forecast and determined by using ABC techniques. Therefore ABB is a form ofbudget preparation that focuses on the activities of an organisation. All costs are related tothose activities and can be split into primary activities (value added activities) and secondaryactivities (non-value added activities). Non-value added activities if not supporting the valueadded activities effectively, should be questioned as to whether it should exist at all.Job and batch costingJob costing is a form of specific order costing where costs are charged to individual orders orjobs for customers e.g. printers or a special purpose machine, tailor made to order.Batch costing is a form of specific order costing; similar is most ways to job costing e.g. thejob would be to manufacture a large number of identical items (or a batch), such as 1000identical commemorative mugs.Service costingCharacteristics of service organisations· Intangible e.g. cannot touch or feel what is offered· Simultaneous e.g. cannot be returned if faulty· Perishable e.g. cannot be stored· Heterogeneous e.g. differences in the exact service supplied each time not perfectlyidentical (homogenous)Why use service costing· To help control the departments costs e.g. budgetary control· To help improve the efficiency of how the service is used by other departments wheninternal or external charging takes placeExamples of cost units for service organisations· Cost per Hour· Cost per Tonne· Cost per KilogramExamples of composite cost units· Cost per tonne per mile· Cost per passenger per mile

(c) Discuss activity-based costing as compared with traditional marginal and absorption costing methods, including its relative advantages and disadvantages as a system of cost accounting;

Activity-based costing as a system of profit reporting and stock valuation.Contrasting absorption with marginal costing profitTip: The only reason why profits will differ under both methods of costing is due to the waythat each method values finished goods inventory. The marginal costing method valuesinventory at variable production cost only never full production cost. The absorption costingmethod values inventory at full production cost.When production volume > sales volume during a periodInventory levels rise (closing inventory > opening inventory) therefore a greater amount offixed overhead under absorption costing is being carried forward to the following periodwithin the valuation of the closing inventory, therefore creating a higher profit thanmarginal costing.When production volume < sales volume during a periodInventory levels fall (closing inventory < opening inventory) therefore a smaller amount offixed overhead under absorption costing is being carried forward to the following periodwithin the valuation of the closing inventory, therefore creating lower profit than marginalcosting.When production volume = sales volume during a periodInventory levels remain unchanged (closing inventory = opening inventory) therefore bothmethods would give exactly the same profit.What are the differences between Absorption costing and ABC?There are two main methods of costing, absorption and activity based costing. There are some vital differences between the two and so the pros and cons of each must be taken into account to assess the suitability of each method.The main difference is that ABC takes more than one cost driver into account, meaning that the final costing figure is more accurate than when using the standard absorption method, for example if a company made two similar products; product 1, which is a low volume item that requires many machine setups, more testing, and special engineering tasks and product 2, which is a high volume item that requires minimal setups and special operations, and is running continuously. If we were to apply the traditional absorption costing method, it would use the machine hours as the cost driver, and so product 2 would incur massively higher costs, due to it using the most machine hours, even though product one required far more additional activities, setups, and testing. This shows how the traditional method is not appropriate when a company produces multiple products/services that require very different inputs.ABC is a more accurate system for assigning costs to products, as it traces all activities and assigns them to products by using multiple cost drivers. It also allocates the usage of common business resources to each product, again by the use of cost drivers such as labour hours. It is also useful for identifying products/services that are too costly to be profitable; although they may seem to be generating a profit, they actually use up far too many resources to be profitable.However, there are disadvantages to this method; high volumes of specific data must be accurately collected, which could prove to be extremely time consuming. It can also itself incur costs, as it would be fairly costly to implement.Absorption costing also has its advantages over ABC; it is far easier to implement and run as it requires less volume of data and only takes a few cost drivers into account, normally machine/labour hours.However, disadvantages include the fact that it doesn’t take into account any indirect costs such as administration and distribution costs; it focuses on the fixed and variable costs. Also, is does not differentiate between fixed and variable costs, therefore the final costing can sometimes be inaccurate. It is also very difficult for management to make decisions based on the costing figures as they may not be accurate enough for the managers to make an informed, concise decision.Difference in Approach

The major difference between absorption costing vs. activity based costing is the approach. Absorption costing allocates costs to product units, whereas activity based costing traces the costs of product units.Absorption costing is the traditional cost accounting method that focuses on the product or service when fixing costs. It works under the simple approach of assigning resources to products or services directly.

(d) Apply standard costing methods, within costing systems, including the reconciliation of budgeted and actual profit margins;

Criticisms of standard costing in general and in advanced manufacturing environments in particular.

A standard cost is a planned (budgeted) or forecast unit cost for a product or service, which is assumed to hold good given ‘expected’ efficiency and cost levels within an organisation.A standard cost normally represents the planned (budgeted) or forecast unit cost for material,labour and overhead expected for a product or service.Types of standard cost· Ideal standard· Attainable (or expected) standard· Current standard· Loose Standard· Basic Standard· Historical StandardsPractical advice for setting standards1. Use challenging but realistic targets.2. Consult with and allow staff to participate when setting targets.3. Clear trust and communication between management and staff.4. Standards or targets used must be realistic and achievable.Standard costing can be used for· Preparation of budgets· Controlling performance· Inventory valuation· Simplifying cost bookkeeping· Motivating and rewarding staffCriticisms of standard costingSometimes it can be hard to define a ‘current’ or ‘attainable standard’.Less human intervention means labour standards are becoming less valuable.Automation produces greater uniformity and consistency of product therefore lesslikelihood of material and labour variances actually occurring.Standard costing is an internal not external control measure.Uncontrollability of any exceptions highlighted.Revision to standards too infrequent to guide or improve performance over time.Modern manufacturing techniques such as TQM and quality circles means thefrequency and materiality of variances should not occur so often.

Integration of standard costing with marginal cost accounting, absorption cost accounting and throughput accounting.

Manufacturing standards for material, labour, variable overhead and fixed overhead. Price/rate and usage/efficiency variances for materials, labour and variable overhead. Further subdivision of total usage/efficiency variances into mix and yield

components. (Note: The calculation of mix variances on both individual and average valuation

bases is required). Fixed overhead expenditure and volume variances. (Note: the subdivision of fixed

overhead volume variance into capacity and efficiency elements will not be examined).

Print pages from chapter 4

(e) Explain why and how standards are set in manufacturing and in service industries with particular reference to the maximisation of efficiency and minimisation of waste;

• Standards and variances in service industries (including the phenomenon of ‘McDonaldization’), public services (e.g. Health), (including the use of ‘diagnostic related’ or ‘reference’ groups), and the professions (e.g. labour mix variances in audit work).

The characteristics of services· Intangibility e.g. no material substance or physical existence· Legal ownership e.g. difficult to return if faulty· Instant perishability e.g. cannot be stored for future use· Heterogeneity e.g. performed different each time· Inseparability e.g. cannot be separated from the person who provides itMcDonaldizationGeorge Ritver in his book ‘The McDonaldization of Society’ listed the advantages ofproducing standard (homogenous or identical) products, the pinnacle comparison beingMcDonalds, with its fast food strategy of uniformity of operations and delivery on a globalbasis.Advantages of McDonaldizationStandardisation reduces cost and improves efficiency.ü Controlü Efficiencyü Predictabilityü Calculabilityü ProficiencyDiagnostic related or reference groups (DRG) ‘can applied to a Big Mac’Standard costing can be applied to service organisations such as the health services,accountancy practices, fast food outlets etc. The diagnostic reference group or healthcareresource group is a system of classifying hundreds of different medical treatments within thehealthcare sector. It applies standardisation by recognising that similar medical illnessesrequire essentially similar treatments and care. There are around 800 DRG classificationsthat exist within the healthcare industry sector.DRG applied to health care services· Standardise resources e.g. beds/wards/consultancy time/medication etc.· Standardise patient treatment e.g. specifications of how treatments are applied.· Standardised codes for insurance companies or payments to the NHS (or otherprivate health care providers) based on standard prices used.· Government can benchmark performance and provide league tables for hospitals.

• Sales price and sales revenue/margin volume variances (calculation of the latter on a unit basis related to revenue, gross margin and contribution margin). Application of these variances to all sectors, including professional services and retail analysis.

Print page from chapter 4• Planning and operational variances.

Planning and operational variancesPlanning variances are caused by the budget (standard) at the planning stage being wronge.g. budgeting errors or poor planning when the budget was prepared. The budget (standard)used would need revising if operational variance calculations are to be more realistic.Planning variances help ensure that all planning errors within the budget (standard) areadjusted for or removed; the standard used for operational variances would therefore be morerealistic.Operational variances are the normal variance calculations as learned and applied earlierwithin this chapter.Process of calculating planning variances1. All planning variances follow a similar proforma because they all adjust the flexedbudget up or down due to the revision of a standard. Just like operational variancesplanning variances can be favourable or adverse.

2. When the planning variance is calculated and the budget (standard) adjusted,operational variances would then be calculated using any new (revised) standards.The effect is to sub-divide variances into two components1. The planning variance which is beyond the operational control of management andstaff e.g. errors due to poor planning.2. The operational variance which is normally within the control of staff and now morerealistic as a yardstick because calculations would include any revisions to standard.Advantages of calculating planning variancesü Highlights variances between controllable and uncontrollable.ü Helps motivate managers and staff.ü Better management information for control purposes.Limitations of calculating planning variancesDetermining ‘bad planning’ or ‘bad management’ can sometimes be a thin line.Time consuming and costly than the conventional approachFactors to consider before investigation or control action is taken1. Size or ‘materiality’ of the variance.2. The general trend of the variance.3. Consideration of the type of standard used.4. Interdependence with other variances.5. The likelihood of identifying the cause of the variance if it were investigated.6. The likelihood that if the cause is controllable and can be rectified.7. The cost of investigation and correction compared to the benefits e.g. cost savings.Statistical methods for interpretationVariances can be expressed relatively rather than absolutely, the variance always expressedas a percentage of standard (never actual) cost. These percentages can be plotted on a graphover time to provide trend analysis for variances.

(f) Interpret material, labour, variable overhead, fixed overhead and sales variances, distinguishing between planning and operational variances;

• Interpretation of variances: interrelationship, significance.Variance analysisVariance analysis is a budgetary control technique, which compares planned (budgeted) orforecast costs and revenues to actual financial results, it measures the differences betweenstandard (budgeted) and actual performance. Variance analysis is used to improveoperational performance through control action by management e.g. investigation of anyvariance causes and correction of them to prevent in future any further deviations from plan.A variance is the difference between planned, budgeted or standard cost and the actualcost incurred. The same comparisons may be made for revenues.(CIMA)Reasons why variances occur· Inaccurate data used to compile standards.· Standard used either not realistic or out of date.· Efficiency of how operations were undertaken and performed by staff.· Random or chance events occurring.There are many variance proforma calculations that need to be learned and applied as part ofyour studies. These proforma are essential to learn and practice in order to truly understandand interpret what variances mean. Once variances have been calculated either ‘F’ or ‘A’ isused as terminology to indicate favourable or adverse differences between actual andstandard performance. Favourable means that actual results were better than standard.Adverse means that actual results were worse than standard. Remember variances are justreconcilable differences between a budget (standard) and actual results so in the case of anadverse variance this would mean that actual cost will be higher or profit lower whencompared to the budget, and vice versa if a variance was favourable.Interpretation of variance calculationsIn your exam you could be asked to interpret the variances you have calculated or interpret

from variances already provided to you in a question. The examiner may require you toexplain some possible reasons why a favourable or adverse variance has occurred. It isimportant to give an answer that is practical and relates to the scenario or organisation, alsoto apply consistent explanations with your answer e.g. if an adverse variance then givepossible reasons for the cause of an adverse not favourable variance. Possible causes orreasons for variances have been included in the table below.Material mix and yield (productivity) variancesWhen different types of materials can be used as substitutes for each other, a standard mixcan usually be determined to ensure a quality product at the lowest possible cost. If the actualmaterial mix varies from the standard mix, both quality and cost may be affected. The sumof the material mix and yield variances will be equal the material usage variance.The material mix variance can be calculated by using two different methods, the ‘individualvaluation bases’ which is the easiest to apply and the ‘average valuation bases’. If theexaminer does not specify which method to use, the individual valuation bases is the easiestmethod to apply, both methods give the same answer as a total mix variance, but theindividual values for each material which make up the mix variance will be differentdepending on each method used.Yield (or productivity) variances measure the amount of output (unit of product or service)from a given amount of input (total materials mixed). Producing more output than expectedfrom a given amount of material input, indicates greater efficiency of production, thevariance would be favourable, indicating that money has been saved by using material moreefficiently. Producing less output than expected from a given amount of material input,indicates lower efficiency of production, the variance would be adverse, indicating thatmoney has been wasted by using material less efficiently.Labour mix and yield (productivity) variancesWhen different types of labour e.g. different grades or skills, can be used as substitutes foreach other, the labour efficiency variance can be subdivided into a mix and yield(productivity) variance when there exists two or more types of labour that can be substitutedfor one another e.g. to provide a service or manufacture a product. The sum of the labour mixand yield variances will be equal the labour efficiency variance.The labour mix variance can be calculated by using the same two different methods that canbe applied to material mix and yield variances, the ‘individual valuation bases’ which is theeasiest to apply and the ‘average valuation bases’. If the examiner does not specify whichmethod to use, the individual valuation bases is the easiest method to apply, both methodsgive the same answer as a total mix variance, but the individual values for each type oflabour which makes up the mix variance will be different depending on each method used.The yield variance for labour is also an identical calculation when compared to materialyield. For labour mix and yield follow the same guidance as for material mix and yield butuse labour hours and labour rates rather than material usage and material prices..There can be an interdependent relationship (both connected to each other), between a mixand yield variance, for example a higher skill of labour used in substitute for a lower skill oflabour would normally give an adverse mix variance, (higher skills normally demand ahigher labour rate), but at the same time perhaps a favourable yield variance, due to thegreater experience and efficiency of the higher skill of labour substituted. (g) Prepare reports using a range of internal and external benchmarks and interpret the results;

• Benchmarking.A continuous, systematic process for evaluating the products, services and work processesof an organisation that are recognised as representing best practice, for the purpose oforganisational improvement.”(Michael Spendolini)Types of benchmarking· Internal· Best practice or functional

· Competitive· StrategicThe process· Selecting what you want to benchmark· Consider benefits against the cost of doing it· Assign responsibilities to a team· Identify potential partners/known leaders· Breakdown processes to complete· Test and measure e.g. observation, experimentation or investigation/interview· Gather information· Gap analysis· Implement changes/programmes/communicate· Monitor and control· Repeat regularly

(h) Explain the impact of just-in-time manufacturing methods on cost accounting and the use of ‘back-flush accounting’ when work-in-progress stock is minimal.

• Back-flush accounting in just-in-time production environments. The benefits of just-in-time production, total quality management and theory of constraints and the possible impacts of these methods on cost accounting and performance measurement.

Backflush accountingBackflush accounting is a method associated with a Just In Time (JIT) production system,which attaches a standard cost to the output of a unit sold within the accounting system,standard costing may also be used for the valuation of stock and work-in-progress.The main difference between this system and others is that costs are attached to outputcompleted and sold in a period, in other words costs are recognised at the point of sale ratherthan the point of production.Traditionally process accounts were used to record costs as they were allocated to productionor between the different work-in-progress accounts within the system. Large amounts ofclosing WIP and accounting transfers were valued every step of the way, by using cost perequivalent unit techniques for valuation purposes, and this was done each time output movedfrom one process or WIP account to another.Standard cost book-keeping may also be used within process accounting, with material,labour cost etc being recorded at actual cost and transferred to the process accounts atstandard cost, giving the cost variances at the end of the period within the expense accounts.Modern systems· JIT e.g. minimal or zero stock· TQM e.g. immaterial variances as little wastage or scrapBackflush accounting questions the traditional approach and asks why there is a need to havea highly detailed costing/valuation system due to very little stock/WIP and very immaterialvariances? What value does such information now add to help management? A lot of timeand energy went into creating systems in the past, that work out every step of the way, everyfraction of pence, to allocate the cost of processing to a single unit of closing WIP or finishedoutput sold, but today this is seen as a non-value added activity.Instead backflush accounting could be used.Standard costing may still be used in a back-flush accounting system; however there are onlytwo trigger points that would cause an accounting entry in this system.· When an actual cost is incurred· When units leave the system to go to a customer e.g. a sale madeAll other internal entries are minimised, eliminating or simplifying WIP accounts, with nounnecessary accounting system that records and values WIP each time it moves from oneaccount to the other and no complex method of stock valuation e.g. standard costing used.There should be immaterial or no variances or differences between actual and standard cost at

the end of a period, however if they do exist they would be transferred to cost of sales at theend of the period.Advantages of backflush accountingü A simple system as it just values stock that is sold or completed.ü Reduces the number of accounting entries.ü Excellent system if stock held is immaterial or does not change very much from oneperiod to the next.5.5 Modern manufacturing environmentBefore the 1970s the main problem was geographical distance, mainly that of communicationand logistics of moving materials. There was less effort guided towards efficiency and costreduction e.g. any cost rises were passed on to the customer by adding it to the price.From the 1970s onwards saw the establishment of global networks for acquisition of rawmaterials and components. Also high innovation, faster changing environments and shorterproduct life cycles all fuelled by.1. Higher quality lower priced goods from overseas companies2. Deregulation and privatisation of industries during the 1980s3. Better information systems/IT to manage this complexity and diversityTraditional manufacturing came from the following types.1. Job e.g. specific manufacturing to clients order2. Batch e.g. standardised or identical units manufactured in one operation3. Mass e.g. continuous production of standardised or identical unitsModern manufacturing tools and techniquesLean production or the Toyota production system (TPS)Lean production (also known as the Toyota Production System) is a manufacturingmethodology originally developed by Toyota“to get the right things to the right place at the right time.”Lean production focuses on delivering resources when and where they are needed.The Toyota Production System (TPS) was built on two main principles: Just In Time (JIT)and Jidoka e.g. continuous improvement of quality within the production system. Underlyingthe entire Toyota production process is the concept that "good thinking means good product”.Lean production techniques focus on reducing waste, cycle times, defects, inventory, traveltime of parts and non value added activities. Lean techniques can also he applied to servicese.g. process improvements can be made and sustained, although not always in the same wayas manufacturing. A service organisation generally does not hold any inventory, but it canhave a backlog of service requests and waiting lists which can impact on customer relations,in contrast to a manufacturer, no warehouse can hold that ‘service request’ backlog.Lean production tools and techniques· Getting things right first time (total quality management) e.g. minimisation of internaland external failure cost.· Minimising inventory e.g. JIT stock control to improve cash-flow management.· Minimising waste e.g. zero wastage policy.· Flexible workforce practices e.g. focus factories, cell manufacturing, teamwork,multi-skilled employees and empowerment to shorten lead times.· High commitment to human resource policy e.g. investment in training anddevelopment, quality circles and performance related reward schemes· Management and workforce culture of commitment to continuous improvementJoseph Juran an early 20th century quality management theorist, suggested a Paretorelationship existed between work systems and quality problems e.g. 85% of qualityproblems are caused by ineffective work systems. The conclusion is that management shouldconcentrate on work systems more than anything else when it comes to improving qualitywithin an organisation.10Advantages of lean productionü Increased capacity.ü Reduced wastage, idle time, reworks and production cost.

ü Improved flexibility, efficiency and lead times to respond quickly to changes incustomer demand.ü Higher quality of product or service.ü Increased customer satisfaction and brand loyalty e.g. less complaints, warrantyclaims and returns.ü Economies of scope.Economies of scope is possible when resources such as machinery or labour can be shared tomanufacture different products e.g. a condition where fewer inputs can produce a greatervariety of outputs (products), using multi skilled staff and multi purpose machinery. A greaterbusiness value and lower cost can be achieved by jointly producing different products usingthe same common inputs e.g. flexibility to diversify production without significantinvestment required, because scope exists to substitute resources from one process to another.Multi skilled operatives allow greater flexibility and economies of scope. For example ratherthan just being a ‘miller’ or ‘grinder’ or ‘welder’, operative workers could be trained to do allthree jobs. These operatives can also be trained to perform routine maintenance on machinesand equipment, in order to diagnose and correct routine problems earlier, rather than relyingon a specialised maintenance crews. Such techniques facilitate and support JIT productionmethods.Disadvantages of lean productionContinuous cost of investment in retraining displaced or reassigned operators.Learning new skills and strategies to cope with new methods.Change management a long-term educational strategy of gaining commitment, trustand support from the workforce e.g. does not happen over night and not just a‘temporary thing’ management are trying out.Poor morale, motivation and resistance from the workforce during changeover.Total productive maintenance (TPM) is a concept to improve the productivity oforganisations equipment and can contribute towards an effective lean production system.TPM aims to shorten lead times by ensuring production and machine maintenance staff workcloser together. Machine operators are empowered and trained in order to speed up routineservicing, fault diagnosis and maintenance of operating machineryBenefits of TPMü Less equipment downtime and major stoppages in production giving greaterefficiency of production flow.ü Better understanding by production staff of the performance of their equipment,helping to diagnose and rectify problems quicker and improve production flow.ü Less reworks, scrap and wastage levels through better maintenance.ü More effective teamwork helping to improve flexibility.ü Increased enthusiasm and motivation by involvement of the workforce.ü Improved service to customers by reducing lead times and improving quality.Just In Time (JIT)The JIT philosophy requires that products should only be produced if there is an internal orexternal customer waiting for them. It aims ideally for zero stock e.g. raw materials deliveredimmediately at the time they are needed, no build up of work-in-progress in production andfinished goods only produced if there is a customer waiting for them. This means cash is nottied up unnecessarily within raw material, work-in-progress or finished goods stock, allowingmore effective cash flow management for the organisation. JIT is an example of a chasedemand strategy for balancing capacity (supply) and demand.Characteristics of JIT1. Closer relationships with suppliers maintained2. Smaller and more frequent deliveries to plan and administrate3. Higher quality machines with regular maintenance to avoid delays4. Involvement and training of staff to maintain flexibilityFocus factoriesThe aim of focus factories is to reduce the cost of ‘part finished stock’ e.g. work-in-progress.Part finished stock is expensive not only to store, but it also cannot be sold because it is not

ready and could be delaying potential sales. Focus factories reorganise traditional factories,which normally take parts of several products and mass produce in anticipation of demand,instead manufacturing is organised into smaller stand alone factories or cells, with each teamresponsible for making a complete product. In contrast focus factories are ‘product’ asopposed to ‘process’ driven. This facilitates expertise to be developed, reduces waiting times,speeds up production and less inventory is held.Dedicated cell productionTraditional production has been about the specialisation of workers, machines and massproduction lines. In cell production there exists multi-skilled teams, who are responsible fordelivering work in progress or finished goods, on to the next production cell. Each team mayalso be responsible for routine maintenance, quality control and health and safety.Reorganisation production in to ‘cells’ with dedicated teams, can enhance efficiency,synergise worker skills and knowledge and improve motivation of the workforce e.g. teamspirit.12Total Quality Management (TQM)TQM is the process of embracing a quality conscious philosophy or culture, as well asadopting quality standards and procedures within an organisation, aiming towards perfectionand continuous improvement.The meaning of quality can be subjective but generally it can mean non-inferiority,superiority or usefulness of the product or service the customer is buying. A commoninterpretation of quality is "fitness for its use or purpose".Characteristics of TQM· Commitment to developing processes that achieve high product quality and customersatisfaction.· Commitment to continuous improvement.· Involvement of the entire workforce.· Quality assurance through statistical method a key component.Kaizen, the Japanese equivalent to TQM means continuous improvement by smallincremental steps.1. Get it right the first time.2. Continuous improvements e.g. aim towards zero defects, wastage and returns.3. Quality assurance procedures e.g. ISO 9000 certification.4. Benchmarking.5. Understanding customer values and engineering these into products and processes.6. Culture of ‘quality everyone’s concern’.7. Participation and teamwork encouraged.8. Cultural change in the long-term of workers perceptions and attitudes e.g. ‘qualityeveryone’s concern’ and an ‘internal customer perspective’.9. Design of better products ‘is everyone’s concern’.Therefore World Class Manufacturing (WCM) companies aimed towards the following1. Higher quality products.2. Flexibility, productivity or efficiency increases.3. Meeting customer needs e.g. competitive advantage.4. Higher customer satisfaction.This was all been facilitated by JIT methods, TQM, and changes in manufacturingtechnology, as well as closer relations with customers and suppliers and training of staff andthe use of their knowledge.Advantages of TQMü Reduced idle time, wastage, reworks and costs of production.ü Improved efficiency and lead times to respond more flexibly to customer demand.ü Higher staff morale through empowerment and involvement.ü Higher quality of product or service e.g. customer satisfaction and brand loyalty.Problems of implementing TQMLack of education about the benefits.

Lack of support from the workforce.Reluctance to try new ideas in case of failure.Staff turnover creates greater cost of training.High cost of implementation, quality systems and processes.Quality control (QC) v quality assurance (QA)Quality control systems include sampling, inspection and testing of raw materials, work-inprogressor finished goods stock. Also the monitoring of customer complaints and analysisof product faults reported from internal testing or customer returns. Quality control systemsobtain feedback about historical performance in order to improve performance of theorganisation in future (feedback control). It is the control of quality through inspection andappraisal.Quality assurance is a planned and systematic action to provide adequate confidence that anitem or product conforms to established technical requirements e.g. training of staff to ensurehigh standards, or suppliers guarantee high quality through systems and assurance standards(feed forward control). This is more aligned towards a TQM philosophy, QA whencontrasted to QC is about the concept of prevention, rather than diagnosis and cure.5.7 Costs of qualityCosts which result from imperfect systems, processes, products or services.· Prevention cost· Appraisal cost· Internal failure cost· External failure costDimensions of qualityThe dimensions of quality refer to the attributes that quality achieves.1. Product specification e.g. functionality, durability and reliability, the productproduced and delivered as specified.2. Product designed specifically to meet customer’s expectations e.g. rapid customerfeedback into the design of new products, added value and innovation.3. Product service and support e.g. physical appearance of the organisation, trust,helpfulness, courteousness, empathy, effective listening and approachability of staff.The effectiveness of customer care and the efficiency of service and support.4. Administration e.g. speed and accuracy of processing, invoicing and delivery.Even service organisations can benefit by using the above dimensions1. Customer expectations.2. Process of delivery e.g. operations.3. Attitude and behaviour of staff e.g. operations.4. Physical environment e.g. appearance of staff, vans, offices.5.9 Communication of quality within an organisation1. Establish senior management commitment and support for TQM.2. Present TQM. Create dissatisfaction with the previous state e.g. hold consultativemeetings and educate/communicate or workforce may not be motivated to change.3. Hold TQM workshops and training sessions. Participation to aid change e.g. fullconsultation and evaluation of different solutions with those effected. Establishquality circles.4. Establish standards and procedures for benchmarking.5. Restructure reward systems.6. Establish information systems to monitor and control quality.7. Review and feedback for continuous improvement.

5.10 Quality Circles (QCs)Quality circles is an American idea, whereby a group of 5 to 8 employees, normally workingin the same area, volunteer to meet on a regular basis to identify areas for improvement oranalyse work related problems in order to find solutions. Quality circle volunteers normallyattend during paid time and normally under leadership. Results and conclusions lead to the

implementation of solutions by group members. Quality circles support other concepts likeTQM and lean production; it is a form of participative management using problem solvingtechniques.· Workforce identifies areas for improvement.· Workforce analyse their work related problems to find better solutions e.g. brainstormfor new ideas and alternatives.· Workforce investigates reports and discusses their findings and implementsimprovement.Benefits of QCsü Improved quality.ü Higher customer satisfaction and goodwill.ü Reinforces TQM cultural philosophy.ü Best people to know about improvement are the workers.ü Greater morale and motivation of staff e.g. empowerment.ü Improved productivity, efficiency and less idle time.ü Entrepreneurial ideas encouraged and could lead to a competitive advantage2. explain the role of MRP and ERP systems.(a) explain the role of MRP and ERP systems in supporting standard costing systems, calculating variances and facilitating the posting of ledger entries.

• MRP and ERP systems for resource planning and the integration of accounting functions with other systems, such as purchase ordering and production planning.

Advanced manufacturing technologies (AMT)IT and its usefulness to operations have become more and more important in order to helpcompanies achieve total quality management. Below are the main AMT’s that are used mymajor companies.Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) consist of several machines along with parts andtool handling devices such as robots, arranged so that it can handle any family of products orparts for which the system has been designed and developed. Such systems aim to achievegreater economies of scope for the manufacturer, the capability of economic production ofsmall batches of a variety of products or parts with minimal set up time. These systems arehighly computerised, automated and integrated.Computer aided design (CAD) automates the development of new product designs faster.When integrated with expert systems CAD can automatically work out the stress and strain ofdifferent materials required to support new designs. Through good design it can assure betterquality of the product when it is manufactured or assembled e.g. design, drafting and displayof graphically oriented information early in the design process aids good productionplanning.Computer aided manufacturing (CAM) automates production e.g. robotic andprogrammable production cycles. This can reduce defects and wastage within the productionprocess due to a reduction in human labour required e.g. human beings are careless, clumsyand easily make mistakes.Optimised production technology (OPT) optimises the use of ‘bottleneck resources’(limiting factors) e.g. the binding constraints that limit capacity and throughput. Examplesinclude programmable production cycles to match the speed of non-bottleneck resources tothe running of bottleneck resources maintained at full capacity. OPT helps to avoid the buildup of unnecessary work in progress and supports a JIT environment.Materials requirement planning (MRP I) is an inventory control system which provides anautomated list of components and materials required for the type and number of productsentered. This allows better production planning and accuracy of inventory management.Manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) Evolved from MRP I. A system thatincorporates not only material requirements, but all manufacturing resources such as differentlabour types, machine types and other manufacturing resources required for the type andnumber of products entered. It could even produce the budgeted cost for each batch or unit ofproduct entered aiding effective production planning, control and cash-flow management. Auseful capability to answer "what-if" questions.

Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) means manufacturing supported bycomputers. The total integration of computer aided design, manufacturing, quality controland purchasing in one centralised system.Enterprise-wide systems (ERP systems) also referred to as enterprise resource planning(ERP) or enterprise computing. Enterprise-wide systems are information systems that areused throughout a company or enterprise. A company-wide computer software system usedto manage and coordinate all the resources, information and functions of a business. To beconsidered an ERP system, a software package must provide the function of at least twosystems e.g. payroll and accounting functions if integrated, could be technically consideredan ERP package. ERP is the modern extension of MRP (material requirements planning, thenlater manufacturing resource planning) systems and CIM (Computer IntegratedManufacturing).Enterprise-wide systems enable the effect on different enterprise support resources orbusiness processes to be forecast more accurately, when increasing or decreasing volumessold or produced. Such resources incorporated are not just production related; they includeforecasts for other support departments and even entire divisions. Enterprise-wide systemsrequire effective integration of information systems e.g. a central database.All functional departments are integrated in one holistic information system. As well asintegrating manufacturing, warehousing, logistics, and information technology, it would alsoinclude accounting, human resources, marketing and strategic management.‘SAP Business One’ is an integrated finance and business management software solution, itincludes everything you need to manage a business: e.g. financials, accountspayable/receivable, banking, inventory, customer relationship management, production,service management, human resources and reporting.Benefits of ERP systemsü Integration of software applications can speed up exception reporting.ü Real-time data capture and reporting of financial results.ü Presents information for all levels of management.ü Can be integrated with customers or suppliers to speed up lead times and improve thequality of supply chain management.ü More effective planning e.g. forecasting the impact changing volumes will have oncompany wide cost, sales and profitability. A useful capability to answer "what-if"questions.Limitations of ERPInadequate investment in training for end users.Bespoke and expensive to develop and maintain.High switching cost.Industry standard prescriptions for ERP systems may not gain competitive advantage.Too difficult to adopt some business process into an ERP model.Only as reliable as the programmers that programmed it.Database approach therefore risk of losing information or security breaches.3. apply principles of environmental costing.(a) apply principles of environmental costing in identifying relevant internalised costs and externalised environmental impacts of the organisation’s activities.

• Types of internalised costs relating to the environment (e.g. emissions permits, taxes, waste disposal costs) and key externalised environmental impacts, especially carbon, energy and water usage. Principles for associating such costs and impacts with activities and output.

Environmental cost accounting is how environmental costs are identified and allocated tothe material flows or other physical aspects of a firm’s operations.Internalised costs relating to the environment· Environmental costs· Environmental related taxes· Environmental losses· Environmental provisions

· Non financial disclosuresEnergy and water useageEnergy and water consumption have proven to be both very costly to businesses as well ashaving significant impact on the environment through increased carbon emissions.Businesses should look towards ways of conserving the use of these resources as far aspracticable. Energy and water consumption are closely liked as energy is needed to heat upwater and so a reduction in water useage would mean a reduction in energy useage as well.ABC and environmental cost accountingConventional management accounting has been criticised for ignoring the separateidentification, classification, measurement and reporting of environmental information,especially direct and indirect environmental costs. Environmental costs such as energy, waterand waste disposal are not traced to specific production processes and are "lumped in" withgeneral business overheads and allocated to cost objects.More companies are now identifying and measuring direct environmental costs by revisingallocation bases so as to separate out indirect environmental costs using activity basedcosting, (ABC). Environmental cost accounting can be seen as a specific application of ABC,which focuses on the environment as a key cost driver. ABC allows us to distinguish betweenenvironmental related costs normally attributed to joint environmental cost centres (e.g.incinerators or sewage plants) and environmental driven costs, which can be direct, indirectand contingent, and which are hidden in the general overhead.Using ABC, environmental costs are removed from overhead costs and traced to products andservices by identifying the resources, activities and the attendant costs and quantities used toproduce the output. This reduces the potential for cross subsidisation of dirty orenvironmentally damaging products, processes, sites and departments. ABC can be employedto chart the use and allocation of material, financial and energy resources on the basis ofprocess and product lifecycles. It should include the allocation of usual production costs suchas pollution control and the use of raw materials and energy, as well as hidden and lesstangible costs and benefits, (capital costs such as emissions monitoring equipment, andexpenses such as monitoring and testing procedures), plus liability costs. Removingenvironmental costs from overhead costs and accurately allocating them to specific productsresults in far fewer distortions in product costing.Activity based costing also applies to the end of a product's life cycle. This is particularlyimportant in Europe where environmental legislation is increasingly forcing companies to beresponsible for the 'take back' and disposal of products at their end of life, and to remediateland used for production facilities. Companies wishing to minimise product take back,recycling and site clean up costs will need to recognise and consider environmental costsduring product and process design stages where they have the greatest influence. Acomprehensive ABC model will help identify all the activities and the total resource costsrelated to preventing and remediating expected environmental damage. Currentenvironmental costs must be correctly attributed to both existing products and past products.A failure to recognise in today's production costs the costs of future disposal, recycling andremediation will underestimate the total costs of producing today's products. Activity basedcosting can also be used to create activity based energy consumption models. Here energyconsumption is translated into a cost driver. In a similar way, waste indices and indicators canbe developed, becoming waste drivers where costs can be assigned to specific wastegeneration and waste disposal.6Comprehensive analysis of environmentally related activities is also a key requirement inorder to assess levels of environmental hazard and toxicity and their associated costs. Suchanalysis identifies and assigns key cost drivers and product consumption patterns thuspermitting a good attribution of environmental costs to individual products. To the extent thatsome environmental costs are traced to specific processes, all the products converted by theseprocesses will be assigned a share of the process-specific environmental costs. Thus an ABCmodel of environmental expenses can inform product design and process selection decisionsin order to reduce total life-cycle costs of products: including materials acquisition, materials

conversion, materials disposal and recycling. In addition, ABC can be applied toenvironmental costs so as to quantify the cost saving effects of environmental measures.Disadvantages of using ABC· ABC initiatives do not automatically reveal environment driven costs, substantialinputs by environmental managers are required in order to ensure the costs of allenvironmentally related activities are included.· Using ABC to identify and allocate environmental costs requires the clear definition,monitoring and reporting of such costs.· Tracking systems for environmental wastes and toxicities of wastes frommanufacturing systems is necessary in order to most accurately assign such costs.This in turn provides data for the estimation of potential liabilities, costs of disposaland other life cycle costs.Advantages of using ABC· It integrates environmental cost accounting into the strategic management process,thus linking environmental issues into management objectives and activities.· Costs can be more accurately integrated within manufacturing planning, control andother information systems. This provides an extensive consideration of theenvironmental effects throughout the product life-cycle.· Ensures that intangible and uncertain environmental factors can be brought into anydecision-making framework, even though it may not be certain which environmentalcosts are the most relevant or material to the organisation.· It allows us to use cost data to develop superior strategies in order to gain sustainablecompetitive advantage.· The inclusion of internal environmental costs in its accounting assists a company inmaximising its current profitability.· Inclusion also helps ensure that the company recognises and accounts for its externalenvironmental costs, especially where it is likely it will be required to internalise thesecosts in the near future.

The Kyoto ProtocolThe Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change. The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is that it setsbinding targets for 37 industrialised countries and the European community for reducinggreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. These amount to an average of five per cent against 1990levels over the five-year period 2008-2012. The Protocol commits industrialised countries tostabilize GHG emissions.Recognising that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels ofGHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, theProtocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of “common butdifferentiated responsibilities.”The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered intoforce on 16 February 2005. 184 countries have ratified its Protocol to date.Under the treaty, countries must meet their targets primarily through national measures.However, the Kyoto Protocol offers them an additional means of meeting their targets by wayof three market-based mechanisms.The Kyoto mechanisms are:· Emissions trading.· Clean development mechanism (CDM).· Joint implementation (JI).The mechanisms help stimulate green investment and help countries meet their emissiontargets in a cost-effective way.Emissions trading allow countries that have emission units to spare to sell this excesscapacity to countries that are over their targets. Hence a new commodity was created in theform of emission reductions or removals. Since carbon dioxide is the principal greenhousegas, people speak simply of trading in carbon. Carbon is now tracked and traded like any

other commodity. This is known as the "carbon market."In order to address the concern that countries could "oversell" units, and subsequently beunable to meet their own emissions targets, each country is required to maintain a reserve inits national registry. This reserve, known as the "commitment period reserve", should notdrop below 90 per cent of the country’s assigned amount or 100 per cent of five times itsmost recently reviewed inventory, whichever is lowest.The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows a country to implement an emissionreductionproject in developing countries. Such projects can earn saleable certified emissionreduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towardsmeeting Kyoto targets.8A CDM project activity might involve, for example, a rural electrification project using solarpanels or the installation of more energy-efficient boilers.The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while givingindustrialised countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction orlimitation targets.Joint implementation allows a country to earn emission reduction units (ERUs) from anemission reduction or emission removal project in another member country, each equivalentto one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting its Kyoto target.Joint implementation offers parties a flexible and cost-efficient means of fulfilling a part oftheir Kyoto commitments, while the host country benefits from foreign investment andtechnology transfer.The Kyoto Protocol is generally seen as an important first step towards a truly globalemission reduction regime that will stabilize GHG emissions, and provides the essentialarchitecture for any future international agreement on climate change.By the end of the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol in 2012, a new internationalframework needs to have been negotiated and ratified that can deliver the stringent emissionreductions the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has clearly indicated areneeded.

The concept of sustainability in operations managementSustainability within operations management is about preserving natural resources for futuregenerations. A fully sustainable operation is one that has a zero impact or a positive impacton the ecological environment. More companies are beginning to consider how theiroperations affect the environment and future generations; they are beginning to acknowledgenew practices of doing business in a way that balances economic and environmentalneeds. The field of operations management has a vital role to play in the long-termsustainability of our economy.Practices for minimal long-term effect on the environment· Reduction in the use of toxic substances.· Reduced reliance on petroleum and other non-renewable energy sources.· Use of naturally renewable materials.· Use of biodegradable materials e.g. naturally reabsorbed into the ecosystem.· Use of organic materials e.g. grown without synthetic fertilizers or pesticides.· Fair trade e.g. certified policies and standards for a ‘fair living wage’ and ‘safe workenvironments’. No third world sweatshops!9The organisations ‘environmental footprint’ or environmental impact is determined by theamount of depleted raw materials and non-renewable resources it consumes to make itsproducts, and the quantity of waste and emissions that is generated in the process. The lifecycle of a product should take into consideration the raw materials it uses in production, allother manufacturing processes, all distribution and transportation costs caused by a productsexistence, right through to its final disposal.To produce 1 ounce of gold creates 30 tonnes of toxic waste because of the compound‘cyanide’ used in the process for extracting gold.

1 ounce of gold will make a wedding ring.Bennett and James ‘areas for environmental responsibility’· Production e.g. minimising waste and toxic emissions.· Environmental auditing e.g. to comply with legislation, but also an issue of integrityto take a more proactive stance.· Ecological approach e.g. minimising waste throughout entire value or supply chain.· Quality e.g. set targets to reduce environment waste and emissions.· Accounting e.g. account for ‘social costs’ to society or third parties, for investmentappraisal decisions.· Economic e.g. internal economic charges for any ‘social cost’ created by divisions toencourage its minimisation.ISO 14001 is an international standard for “Environmental Management Systems” and offersinternationally recognised environmental certification. To gain accreditation a documentedand structured approach must be adopted for setting environmental targets and monitoringsystems implemented to ensure environmental management systems are effective e.g.meeting targets for minimisation of energy consumption, waste and emissions.