Cervical Spine Research Society Editorial Committee iv Contributors vi Preface xxi Acknowledgments xxii

SECTION I: Anatomy, Biomechanics and Clinical Implications 1

Anatomy of the Cervical Spine John Louis-Ugbo, Frank X. Pedlow Jr., and John G. Heller

Developmental Anatomy of the Normal Cervical Spine Anthony S. Lapinsky, Mark S. Eskander, and Henry H. Sherk

Functional Anatomy of Joints, Ligaments, and Disks Alpesh A. Patel, William Ryan Spiker, and Alexander J. Ghanayem

Cervical Spine Kinematics and Clinical Instability Paul C. Ivancic, Ji?i Dvo'rik, Vijay K. Goel, Todd A. Fairchild, Augustus A. White 111, and Denis J. DiAngelo

Mechanisms of Injury in the Cervical Spine: Basic Concepts, Biomechanical Modeling, Experimental Evidence, and Clinical Applications Mark S. Eskander and Jason C. Eck

Biomechanics of Nonacute Cervical Spine Trauma Parmenion P. Tsitsopoulos and Alexander J. Ghanayem

Cervical Orthoses and Cranioskeletal Traction Mark S. Eskander and Dahari D. Brooks

Pain Mechanisms: Relevant Anatomy, Pathogenesis, and Clinical Implications Beth A. Winkelstein, Nadine Dunk, and James N. Weinstein

The Nonoperative Treatment of Cervical Pain W. Evan Rivers, Christine M. Gagnon, and R Norman Harden

SECTION 11: Neurologic and Functional Evaluation 139

10 Neurologic and Functional Evaluation Seth M. Zeidman, Edward C. Benzel, and Virgilio Matheus

11 Differential Diagnosis of the Cervical Spine: Spinal Masqueraders Ricky James Placide

12 Neurologic Evaluation of the Cervical Spine Margarita Almeida El-Ramey, Maurice R Hanson, and Nestor Galvez-Jimenez

13 Anatomic Localization Gordon K.T. Chu and Michael G. Fehlings

14 Neurologic Examination: Grading Scales Charles H. Tator

15 Cervical Radiculopathy: Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Michael P. Steinmetz, Edward C. Benzel, and Thomas E. Mroz

16 Myelopathy: Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis Samir Lapsiwala and Gregory Trost

17 Diagnosis of Cervical Spine Disorders: The Electrodiagnostic Examination Eric A.K. Mayer and Jinny Tavee

18 Intraoperative Assessment of Neurologic Function Sharad Rajpal and Michael P. Steinmetz

19 Pain Management Nikolai Bogduk

20 Diagnostic Cervical Disk Injection Santhosh A. Thomas and Seth M. Zeidman

21 Neurologic and Functional Evaluation Outcomes Assessment Tools in Cervical Spine Surgery Krzysztof B. Siemionow and Isador H. Lieberman

SECTION 111: Imaging Evaluation

22 Radiation Physics and Safety Glenn R. Rechtine I1 and Brian D. Giordano

Cervical Spine: Plain Radiography Philip A. Meinhardt, R. Alden Milam, and Bruce V. Darden I1

24 Computed Tomography and Myelography of the Cervical Spine Christopher G. Ullrich

Contents mar

25 Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Cervical Spine and Spinal Cord Christopher G. Ullrich

26 Catheter Angiography of the Cervical Spine and Spinal Cord Christopher G. Ullrich, Katsuyuki Nakanishi, and Hironobu Nakamura

27 Clearing the Cervical Spine Ronald W. Lindsey and Zbigniew Gugala

SECTION N: Pediatric Conditions

Embryology of the Craniovertebral Junction and Congenital Malformations in the Region Dachling Pang and Dominic N.P. Thompson

Evaluation of the Cervical Spine in Children B. David Horn and John P. Dormans

Klippel- Feil Syndrome Peter D. Pizzutillo and Martin J. Herman

The Cervical Spine and Skeletal Dysplasia William G. Mackenzie, Suken A. Shah, and Masakazu Takemitsu

Miscellaneous Conditions of the Cervical Spine: Neurofibromatosis, Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis, and Rickets Viral V. Jain and Alvin H . Crawford

Cervical Spine Injuries in Children Stephen R Thompson and Paul D. Sponseller

Pediatric Spinal Cord Injury Arner F. Samdani, Steven W. Hwang, Mary Jane Mulcahey, and Randal R. Betz

Cervical Spine Tumors and Infections in Children Alexandre Arkader and John P. Dormans

Torticollis in Children William C. Warner, Jr. and Derek M. Kelly

Treatment of Cervical Spine Instability in the Pediatric Patient 504 Denis S. Drummond, Stephanie R Cody, Nina Agrawal, and John P. Dormans

The Use of Cervical Orthoses, Halo Devices, and Traction in Children 520 Lawson A.B. Copley and John P. Dormans

Chiari Malformation and Syringomyelia Rodolfo Hakun and Mark G. Luciano

xxvi Contents H

SECTION V: Trauma: Fractures, Dislocations and Spinal Cord Injury

40 Spinal Cord Injury: Assessment and Neurologic Classification Perry Dhaliwal, Lori Anne Archer, and Steven Casha

Pathophysiology of Spinal Cord Injury Sarah Anne Figley, James W. Austin, James W. Rowland, and Michael G. Fehlings

An Update on Clinical Trials in Spinal Cord Injury: How Par Have We Come? Jefferson R Wilson, Gregory W. Hawryluk, and Michael G. Fehlings

43 Imaging of the Injured Cervical Spine and Spinal Cord David W. Cadotte, David Mikulis, and Michael G. Fehlings

44 Nonoperative Management and Treatment of Spinal Injuries Mark L. Prasarn and Glenn R. Rechtine I1

45 Atlanto-Occipital Injuries Paul A. Anderson

46 Injuries to C1 and C2 (Excluding Odontoid Fractures) Marcel F. Dvorak, John T. Street, and Brian J. Lenehan

47 Odontoid Fractures Richard J. Bransford, Joshua Charles Patt, and Jens R. Chapman

48 Subaxial Cervical Injuries: Current Concepts in Classification and Treatment Alpesh A. Patel, Paul A. Anderson, and Alexander R. Vaccaro

49 Traumatic Spinal Column and Spinal Cord Injury: Special Considerations in Ankylosing Spondylitis W. Bradley Jacobs and Michael G. Fehlings

5 0 Posttraumatic Syringomyelia Sean Barry and Sean D. Christie

5 1 Principles of Rehabilitation after Spinal Cord Injury Anthony S. Burns

5 2 Traumatic Vertebral Artery Injury: Management/Workup Robert F. Heary and Reza J. Karimi

53 Emerging Pharmacologic Treatments for Spinal Cord Injury Virgilio Matheus, Christopher A. Iannotti, and Michael P. Steinmetz

Contents xxvii

SECTION VI: Tumors and Spinal Infection 717

54 Intradural Intramedullary and Extramedullary Tumors Ryan M. Kretzer and George I. Jallo

55 Cervical Spine Metastases Chintan S. Sampat, Howard S. An, and Louis G. Jenis

56 Benign Tumors of the Cervical Spine Nan M. Levine and Stefano Boriani

57 Primary Malignant Tumors of the Cervical Spine Stefano Boriani, Stefano Bandiera, Luca Boriani, and James N. Weinstein

58 Cervical Spinal Infections Choll W. Kim, Bradford L. Currier, John G. Heller, and Frank J. Eismont

59 Stereotaxic Radiosurgery for Spine Tumors Mark H. Bilsky and Lilyana Angelov

SECTION VII: Inflammatory Conditions 821

60 Rheumatoid Arthritis in the Cervical Spine Danny F. Searcy, Charles W. Cha, Scott D. Boden, and Charles R. Clark

61 Rheumatoid Arthritis: Upper Cervical Spine Dieter Grob and Takachika Shimizu

62 Subaxial Cervical Involvement in Rheumatoid Arthritis Takenori Oda and Kazuo Yonenobu

6 3 Ankylosing Spondylitis Cheerag D. Upadhyaya, Rick C. Sasso, and Praveen V. Mummaneni

64 DISH and Related Disorders Theodore A. Belanger and Dale E. Rowe

Calcification of the Ligamenturn Flavurn of the Cervical Spine Sueo Nakama and Yuichi Hoshino

The Incidence and Risk Factors Associated with Destructive Spondyloarthropathy (DSA) Norimitsu Wakao, Makoto Yanase, Naoki Ishiguro, Yukihiro Matsuyama, Shiro Imagama, and Zenya Ito

SECTION VIII: Degenerative Disease 885

67 Cervical Degenerative Disk Disease: Overview and Epidemiology Andrew J. Schoenfeld and Christopher M. Bono

Contents . Pain and Neural Dysfunction in Cervical Degenerative Disease Eeric Truurnees

Molecular Biology: Applications to the Cervical Spine Steven Leckie, Gwendolyn A. Sowa, and James D. Kang

Cervical Spondylotic Myelopathy and Radiculopathy: Natural History and Clinical Presentation David T. Anderson, Jeffrey A. Rihn, and Todd J. Albert

Cervical Radiculopathy and Myelopathy Glenn R. Rechtine I1

Differential Diagnosis of Cervical Radiculopathy and Myelopathy Rajiv V. Taliwal and Richard S. Brower

Discogenic Neck Pain Timothy A. Garvey

Anterior Cervical Discectomy and Fusion (ACDF) Kamran Majid and Jeffrey S. Fischgrund

Cervical Larninoforaminotomy Sadashiv Karanth, Ronald I. Apfelbaum, and Daniel R. Fassett

Cervical Myelopathy: Laminectomy Nancy E. Epstein

Treatment of Cervical Myelopathy: Larninoplasty Eiji Wada and Kazuo Yonenobu

Cervical Myelopathy: Ventral Approach Edward R. Anderson 111, Garrick W. Cason, and Harry N. Herkowitz

Ventral versus Dorsal Approach for Surgical Treatment of Cervical Myelopathy Sanford E. Emery

Ossification of the Posterior Longitudinal Ligaments: Prevalence, Presentation, and Natural History Shunji Matsunaga and Takashi Sakou

Surgery for Ossification of the Posterior Longitudinal Ligament: Ventral Approach Atsushi Okawa, Makoto Takahashi, Kenichiro Sakai, and Kenichi Shinomiya

Surgery for Ossification of the Posterior Longitudinal Ligament: Dorsal Approach Morio Matsumoto, Yoshiaki Toyarna, and Kazuhiro Chiba

Spinal Instrumentation in Degenerative Disorders of the Cervical Spine Thomas Walter Lawhorne 111, Lukasz Curylo, and Howard S. An

Contents xxk

84 The Prevention of Adjacent Segment Disease Associated with Cervical Spine Fusion Saad B. Chaudhary and Thomas E. Mroz

8 5 Management of Adjacent Segment Disease Associated with Prior Cervical Fusion Adam L. Shimer, Justin B. Hohl, and Alan S. Hilibrand

SECTION IX: Deformities of the Cervical Spine 1083

86 Cervical Deformity Matthew J. Grosso, Michael P. Steinmetz, and Edward C. Benzel

8 7 Postlaminectomy Kyphosis John M. Rhee

88 Surgery for Posttraumatic Kyphosis Maneesh Bawa and Steven R Garfin

89 Surgical Management of Neuromuscular Kyphosis Michael C. Gerling, Gary Ghiselli, and Henry H . Bohlman

90 Congenital Cervical Deformity Dheera Ananthakrishnan and Reginald S. Fayssoux

91 Surgery for Kyphosis Associated with Ankylosing Spondylitis and Related Disorders Theodore A. Belanger and K. Daniel Riew

SECTION X: New Technologies

92 Artificial Disk Surgery of the Cervical Spine: Theory and Concepts Joseph D. Smucker and John G. Heller

93 -cia1 Disk Surgery of the Cervical Spine: Material and Design Characteristics Wellington K. Hsu and Paul A. Anderson

94 -cia1 Disk Surgery of the Cervical Spine: Biomechanics of Cervical Disk Prostheses Juan M. Raposo and Bruce V. Darden I1

95 ArtXcial Disk Surgery of the Cervical Spine: Multilevel Disk Replacement and Arthroplasty Adjacent to Interbody Fusion Gerald M.Y. Quan and Vincent Pointillart

96 -cia1 Disk Surgery of the Cervical Spine: Complications of Cervical Disk Replacement Surgery Jan Goffin

xxx Contents H

97 Artificial Disk Surgery of the Cervical Spine: Contraindications for Cervical Disk Arthroplasty Nancy E. Epstein

98 Cervical Facet Prosthesis Dieter Grob

99 Biologic Therapy for Disk Degeneration Daniel K. Park, Michael B. Ellman, and Howard S. An

SECTION XI: Complications

100 What Is a Complication? Toward Objective Defmition and Reporting of Adverse Outcomes Robert A. Hart, Paul A. Anderson, and Sohail Mirza

10 1 Postlaminectomy Cervical Kyphosis Matthew J. Goldstein, Michael P. Ast, Jeff S. Silber, D. Greg Anderson, and Todd J. Albert

102 Complications of Anterior Cervical Plating Brandon D. Lawrence and Darrel S. Brodke

103 Complications Associated with Dorsal Cervical Instrumentation David M. Jackson, Louis F. Arnorosa, John G. Heller, and Steven C. Ludwig

104 Trauma-Related Complications-Atlantooccipital Dislocation Jason S. Weinstein and Andrew N. Nemecek

105 Complications Related to the Management of Odontoid Fractures Paul Kraemer and Rick C. Sasso

106 Complications in the Treatment of Subaxial Cervical Fractures and Dislocations Rolando Figueroa Roberto and Eric 0. Klineberg

1 0 7 Halo-Related Complications Robert C. Decker and Steven R. Garfin

1 0 8 Ventral Cervical Pseudarthrosis Sanford E. Emery

109 Graft Dislodgement Scott C. McGovern, Winston Fong, and Jeffi-ey C. Wang

1 10 Cervical Cerebrospinal Fluid Leakage, Durotomy, and Pseudomeningocele Seth M. Zeidman

11 1 Esophageal Perforation Alexander C. Ching, Todd J. Albert, and Robert A. Hart

Contents XXX~

1 12 Vertebral Artery Injury Alan H. Daniels, K. Daniel Riew, and Robert A. Hart

113 Postsurgical C5 Nerve Root Palsy Kurtus A. Dafford and Robert A. Hart

114 Iatrogenic Spinal Cord Injuries Nelson S. Saldua and James S. Harrop

11 5 Dysphagia and Dysphonia Jung U. Yoo and Jayme R Hiratzka

1 16 Adjacent Segment Disease Krzysztof B. Siemionow and Frank M. Phillips

117 BMPS in Cervical Spine Surgery Vikas V. Patel, Sergiu Botolin, and Hyun Bae

118 Complications of Total Disk Replacement Matthew N. Scott-Young

119 Ophthalmologic Complications Related to Cervical Spine Surgery Geoffrey Kaung, Usha R Pinninti, and Robert A. Hart

120 Postoperative Infection Andrew J. Schoenfeld, Steven R. Garfin, and Christopher M. Bono

SECTION XI1 : Controversies

12 1 Esophageal Perforation: Immediate versus Delayed Repair Rahul Basho, Alex Gitelman, and Jeffrey C. Wang

122 Postoperative C5 Root Palsy: Immediate Decompression versus Waiting Thomas E. Mroz and Michael P. Steinmetz

123 Persistent Dysphagia: Remove Plate versus Wait Kern Singh, Justin Munns, and Daniel K. Park

124 Intraoperative Vertebral Artery Injury-Pack Off, Tie, Repair, or Embolize Alex Gitelman, Rahul Basho, and Jeffrey C. Wang

125 Management of Postoperative Infections: Inflow and Outflow Drains, Antibiotic Beads, and Vacuum-assisted Closure Steven C. Ludwig and Joseph K. Lee

126 Postoperative Airway Obstruction: When to Keep Intubated and the Use of Steroids Nicholas Renaldo, Jeff S. Silber, Jared F. Brandoff, and Todd J. Albert

xmcii Contents

127 Dynamic versus Static Plates Debate: Dynamic Plates Are Better Pierce D. Nunley

128 Ventral Cervical Plating: Dynamic versus Static Debate 1395 Raqeeb Haque, Maxwell Boakye, Brian Y. Hwang, Michael G. Kaiser, and Regis W. Haid Jr.

129 Management of Cervical Myelopathy Secondary to Retroodontoid Masses Transoral Resection versus Dorsal Decompression and Fusion Paul Kraemer and Rick C. Sasso

130 Controversies, Myths, and Realities Regarding the Surgical Treatment of Cervical Spondylotic Myelopathy with a Special Focus on Laminoplasty Brett A. Freedman and John G. Heller

13 1 Cervical Spine Osteotomy in Ankylosing Spondylitis Edward Donald Simmons

132 Spinal Cord Injury: The Role of Steroids Ian A. Madom and Darrel S. Brodke

133 Role of BMP in Cervical Spine Surgery Jeffrey S. Earhart and Wellington K. Hsu

134 Artificial Disk Replacement for Radiculopathy and Myelopathy Leonard K. Ebuule, Jeffrey S. Fischgrund, and Jean- Jacques Abitbol

135 Resorbables: Do They Have a Role in the Cervical Spine Hyun Bae and Nomaan Ashraf

136 Anterior Multilevel Decompression: Discectomies versus Corpectomy Ben B. Pradhan

137 Occipital Fixation Techniques: Keel Plate versus Screws through Connectors versus Wire versus Bolt Mukund I. Gundanna

13 8 Atlantoaxial Stabilization: C1 -C2 Instrumentation Techniques Christopher A. Iannotti and Langston T. Holly

139 The Unstable 0 s Odontoideurn in Asymptomatic Patients: Dorsal Treatment versus Observation Alpesh A. Patel

140 Cervical Stenosis-Asymptomatic with Intrinsic Cord Change-Decompress or Watch? Andelle L. Teng

141 Central Cord Syndrome: Acute Decompression Versus Watch and Wait Kasra Rowshan and Nitin N. Bhatia

Contents xxxiii

142 Tandem Stenosis: Fix the Cervical Spine or Lumbar Spine First? Shay Bess

143 Unilateral Facet Dislocation: Surgery versus Nonoperative Treatment Steven S. Lee

144 Cervical Spine Imaging in Trauma Ishaq Y. Syed, Mir Haroon Ali, Ahmad N. Nassr, and Joon Y. Lee

145 When to Do Ventral versus Dorsal Decompression and Fusion in the Cervical Spine for Trauma Conor Regan and Moe R Lim

146 Controversies in Cervical Bone Grafting Patrick W. Suen

147 Pathologies that Mimic Cervical Problems Chintan S. Sampat and Louis G . Jenis

148 Horner's Syndrome: Incidence, Etiology, Treatment Options, and Outcomes Cliff Tribus

149 Mediastinitis Thomas Day and Hyun Bae

1 5 0 Parsonage-Turner Syndrome: Etiology, Treatment Options, and Outcomes Robert A. McGuire Jr

151 DVT/PE in Cervical Surgery: Etiology, Treatment Options, and Outcomes Winston Fong, Scott C. McGovern, and Jeffrey C. Wang

152 The Role of Postoperative Bracing Following Cervical Spine Surgery Scott D. Daffner

153 Preventing Complications of Cervical Spine Surgery Glenn R. Rechtine I1 and Christian P. DiPaola

Index