SEDIMENTATION RATE IN BERA LAKE AND SOIL...

SEDIMENTATION RATE IN BERA LAKE AND

SOIL REDISTRIBUTION AT ITS CATCHMENT

USING RADIOISOTOPES

MOHAMMADREZA GHARIBREZA

THESIS/DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA

KUALA LUMPUR

2012

UNIVERSITI MALAYA ORIGINAL LITERARY WORK DECLARATION

Name of Candidate: MOHAMMADREZA GHARIBREZA (I.C/Passport No :) L95236616

Registration/Matric No: SHC080044

Name of Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title of Project Paper/Research Report/Dissertation/Thesis (“this Work”):

SEDIMENTATION RATE IN BERA LAKE AND SOIL REDISTRIBUTION AT ITS CATCHMENT USING RADIOISOTOPES

Field of Study: APPLIED SEDIMENTOLOGY

I do solemnly and sincerely declare that:

(1) I am the sole author/writer of this Work; (2) This Work is original; (3) Any use of any work in which copyright exists was done by way of fair dealing and for

permitted purposes and any excerpt or extract from, or reference to or reproduction of any copyright work has been disclosed expressly and sufficiently and the title of the Work and its authorship have been acknowledged in this Work;

(4) I do not have any actual knowledge nor ought I reasonably to know that the making of this work constitutes an infringement of any copyright work;

(5) I hereby assign all and every rights in the copyright to this Work to the University of Malaya (“UM”), who henceforth shall be owner of the copyright in this Work and that any reproduction or use in any form or by any means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of UM having been first had and obtained;

(6) I am fully aware that if in the course of making this Work I have infringed any copyright whether intentionally or otherwise, I may be subject to legal action or any other action as may be determined by UM.

Candidate’s Signature Date

Subscribed and solemnly declared before,

Witness’s Signature Date

Name:

Designation:

iii

ABSTRAK

Tasik Bera adalah bersistem lakustrin dan merupakan tasik semulajadi yang

terbesar di Malaysia. Penilaian literasi jelas menunjukkan jurang evaluasi kesan

persekitaran akibat aktiviti antropogen ke atas tanih dan sumber air dan regim sedimen di

kawasan kajian. Sehubungan itu, penentuan taburan semula tanih dan nutrien di kawasan

lembangan, kadar proses persedimenan, penilaian perubahan nutrien dan kualiti sedimen

di Tasik Bera dengan menggunakan jatuhan radioisotop 210

Pb and 137

Cs dan garis

panduan kualiti sedimen telah ditakrifkan sebagai objektif kajian ini.

Metodologi yang komprehensif telah di rangka untuk melaksanakan kajian

literasi, inovasi alatan persampelan teras sedimen, survei lapangan, pengukuran

eksperimen yang terperinci, pemetaan dan permodelan yang terkini. Kepelbagaian data

set daripada model dan geo rujukan “GIS-tersedia” telah menyokong reka bentuk

metodologi.

Aplikasi jatuhan inventori 137

Cs dan perkadaran model telah menrumuskan kadar

purata hakisan tanih 915±345, 117±36 dan 70±35, t h-1

th-1

masing-masing bagi kawasan

yang telah dibersihkan, kawasan perladangan baru dan lama. Kawasan kajian

menunjukkan korelasi negatif di antara kandungan nutrien dan perluasan pembangunan

tanah.

Pentarikhan statigrafi berdasarkan rekod-rekod jumlah jatuhan 137

Cs and 210

Pb

yang diperolehi daripada kolum sedimen di Tasik Bera walau bagaimanapun secara

relatifnya kekal malar. Keadaan ini membolehkan model CRS diaplikasikan untuk

geokronologi sedimen di Tasik Bera. Kadar maksimum 210

Pb dan sedimentasi yang di

kira dianggarkan masing-masing adalah 159±2 Bq cm-2

y-1

and 2.56 cm y-1

bagi kawasan

iv

separuh tertutup di utara Tasik Bera. Kadar purata sedimentasi pra 1950 ialah sebanyak

0.08±0.02 g cm-2

y-1

(0.1±0.1cm y-1

) dan jelas menunjukkan akumulasi yang seragam

sebelum adanya kesan aktiviti-aktiviti antropogen. Kadar sedimentasi meningkat secara

drastik iaitu sebanyak 10 kali ganda sejak 1972 kesan permulaan fasa- fasa pembasmian

hutan. Sehubungan itu, satu lapisan lumpur berpasir putih terenap secara drastik di antara

1972 dan 1993 di bahagian selatan, tengah dan utara Tasik Bera dengan kadar purata

sebanyak 0.48±0.48, 0.54±1.2 and 0.17±0.12 g cm-2

y-1

.

Kewujudan ladang sawit matang telah meningkatkan produktiviti biojisim

sebanyak 1.5 mil y-1 menyebabkan aliran air permukaan didominasi oleh bahan organik

dengan kadar purata akumulasi sebanyak 0.2±0.1 g cm-2

y-1

(1.3 cm y-1

) di bahagian

teratas jujukan lapisan sedimen di Tasik Bera semenjak 1994. Secara keseluruhannya,

kadar sedimentasi menggunakan pentarikhan 210

Pb dan CRS model, jatuhan 137

Cs dan

model perkadaran dengan nilai kecekapan penjerapan dan luahan sedimen yang

diperolehi masing-masing adalah sebanyak 0.99, 1.025, and 1.11 cm y-1

.

Berdasarkan garis panduan kualiti sedimen menunjukkan pencemaran ketara

bahan enapan di Tasik Bera oleh logam As dan di bahagian utara oleh logam Fe. Selain

itu, profil sedimen Tasik Bera menunjukkan pencemaran sederhana oleh logam Cu, Cr

dan Ni. Eutrofikasi sangat jelas berlaku di Tasik Bera kesan akibat fasa-fasa pembasmian

hutan di kawasan lembangan.

Sebagai rumusan, keberhasilan kajian ini membolehkan keyakinan terhadap

kaedah terpilih yang digunakan untuk mencapai objektif kajian ini. Kajian ini secara

jelas telah menyumbang kepada ilmu pengetathuan berkenaan kaedah yang sesuai untuk

menentukan kadar hakisan tanih di kawasan perladangan kelapa sawit di Malaysia dan

v

kadar sedimentasi dan penjanana semula sejarah tasik semulajadi, penilaian kualiti

sedimen yang terenap dan pelan pengurusan bersepadu untuk penggunaan tanah, air dan

pemuliharaan tanih yang mapan.

vi

ABSTRACT

The Bera Lake is a lacustrine system and the largest natural lake in Malaysia.

Assessment of literature review has highlighted a clear gap in the evaluation of

environmental impacts of anthropogenic activities on the soil and water resources and

sedimentary regime. Accordingly, determination of soil and nutrient redistribution in the

catchment area, and sedimentation rates, nutrients fate and sediment quality assessment at

Bera Lake using fallout 210

Pb and 137

Cs radioisotopes and sediment quality guidelines

have been defined as aims of the present research.

A comprehensive methodology was formulated to perform an effective literature

review, innovation of core sampler, field surveying, detailed experimental measurements,

mapping, and an advanced modeling. A wide range of models and a geo-referenced

“GIS-ready” data set have supported the designed methodology.

Application of fallout 137

Cs inventories and proportional model provide the mean

of soil erosion of 914±345, 117±36, and 70±35, t h-1

y-1

in cleared lands, immature and

mature oil palm plantations. A negative correlation between nutrient contents and the

extent of land development was established in the study area

Stratigraphic dates based on records of fallout 137

Cs and 210

Pb supply rates to Bera

Lake sediment columns have remained relatively constant. As a result, the CRS model is

applied for geochronology of Bera Lake sediments. The estimated maximum 210

Pb flux

and sedimentation rate were 159±2 Bq cm-2

y-1

and 2.56 cm y-1

, respectively in the semi-

closed area at the north of Bera Lake. The mean pre-1950 sedimentation rate was

0.08±0.02 g cm-2

y-1

(0.1±0.1cm y-1

), which indicate a uniform accumulation trend prior

to anthropogenic activities. Sedimentation rates raised were by 10 times since 1972

vii

following deforestation. Accordingly, a white sandy mud layer was deposited between

1972 and 1993 at the south, middle, and the north of Bera Lake at mean rates of

0.48±0.48, 0.54±1.2 and 0.17±0.12 g cm-2

y-1

.

Establishment of mature oil palm plantations are promoting biomass productivity

to 1.5 mil y-1

, dominates organic matters in run-off and accumulation of organic-rich

deposits at mean rate of 0.2±0.1 g cm-2

y-1

(1.3 cm y-1

) at the uppermost layer of Bera

Lake sediment sequence since 1994. Overall sedimentation rates in Bera Lake basin

using 210

Pb date and CRS model, fallout 137

Cs and proportional model, and trap

efficiency and sediment discharge values were 0.99, 1.025, and 1.11 cm y-1

, respectively.

Sediment quality guidelines have shown that lake deposits severely polluted by

As and the north part polluted by Fe. Besides, Bera Lake sediment profiles are

moderately polluted by Cu, Cr, and Ni. A clear eutrophication in Bera Lake has occurred

due to deforestation phases in the catchment area.

To sum up, achievements have confidently approved capability of selected

methods to achieve the research objective. Present study has remarkably contributed in

knowledge due to formulation of the suitable method to estimate soil erosion in oil palm

plantations in Malaysia, and sedimentation rates and reconstruction history of a natural

lake, assessment of sediment quality and an integrated management plan for a sustainable

land use and conservation of water and soil.

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost I offer my sincerest gratitude to my supervisors, Professor, Dr.

John Kuna Raj and Associate Professor Dr Ismail Yusoff, and Co-supervisors, Professor,

Dr. Zainudin Othman and Associate Professor, Dr. Wan Zakaria Wan Muhamad Tahir,

whose encouragement, supervision and support from the initial to the concluding level

enabled me to develop an understanding of the subject. I attribute the level of my Doctor

of Philosophy degree to their encouragement and effort and without them this thesis, too,

would not have been completed or written.

The great acknowledge go to Professor Dr. Dess Walling, Exeter University, UK

for his valuable advises to chose suitable model to estimate soil erosion at my study area.

I offer my sincerest gratitude to Professor Dr. Peter Appleby, Liverpool University, UK

for his great advises and geochronology calculation model to determine sedimentation

rate in Bera Lake. I would like to show my gratitude to Professor Dr. Lee Kheng Heng

and Professor Dr. Lionel Mabit, IAEA staff for their heartily helps to provide soil erosion

conversion models.

I am acknowledging the Soil Conservation and Watershed Management Research

Institute, Iran and Institute of Research Management and Monitoring (IPPP), University

Malaya for their valuable executory and financial supports to accomplish this research.

I would like to show my gratitude to Professor Dr. Azman A.Ghani the Head of

Geology Department for his great official supports and to Dr. Zal U’un Wan Mahmood,

Academic staff of Nuclear Malaysia, for advice and guidance the sediment age

calculation models. I owe my deepest gratitude to the Mr. Yii Mee Wo, Gama-

ix

Spectrometer Lab Manager, Nuclear Malaysia for his great guidance in the more esoteric

methods necessary to run Gama-spectrometer and deeply thank to technicians of Gama-

Spectrometer Lab, Mr. Ishak Kamarozaman, and Mr. Mr. Johari Abd Latif for their

effective helps during analysis of samples for radioisotopes inventory.

I would like to show my gratitude to my friend Mr. Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf, for

his kindly assistant to complete my writing up the thesis. I am also grateful to Mr. Mohd

Yusri Abdul Rahim, Hydrology Lab, Geology Department, for his kindly helps in

running the equipments especially during ICP-OES operation. I would like to thank to

RAMSAR site Director, Mr. Amin and Mr. Ahmad Farid Abu Bakar for their kindly

supports and helping in the field works.

I owe my deepest gratitude to my Parents, and my Brothers who gave me the

financial and moral supports. I am indebted to my many of my colleagues in Soil

Conservation and Watershed Management Research Institute for their contribution in the

official and departmental supports.

I offer the heartily and sincerest acknowledgment to my family members,

especially my wife, Mahboubeh Hadadfard, and my daughters, Zahra, Roghayeh, and

Sara, whose encouragement, assistance and support from the beginning to the concluding

level enabled me to accomplish this project.

Lastly, I offer my regards and blessings to all of those who supported me in any

respect during the fulfillment of the project and getting to the Doctor of Philosophy

degree.

Mohammadreza Gharibreza

x

This thesis is sincerely dedicated to my family.

Their support, encouragement, and constant assistance

have sustained me throughout my life

xi

CONTENTS

ABSTRAK ......................................................................................................................... iii

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................. viii

TABLE OF FIGURES .................................................................................................... xvii

LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... xxii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION .......................................................................................... xxiv

1. CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................1

1.1. An Introduction of Study Area ......................................................................1

1.2. Issues in Which the Research is Concerned ..................................................3

1.3. Problem Statement ........................................................................................3

1.4. Aims and Objectives .....................................................................................5

1.5. Outline of Research .......................................................................................6

2. Chapter II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE...................................................8

2.1. Literature review ...........................................................................................8

2.2. Nature of Radioisotopes ................................................................................9

2.3. Analytical Methods .....................................................................................11

2.3.1. Radioisotopes Applications ................................................................12

2.3.1.1. Sedimentation Rate ...................................................................12

2.3.1.2. Soil Erosion ...............................................................................14

2.3.2. Sediment Quality Assessment ............................................................15

2.3.3. Historical Sediment Quality Assessment............................................16

2.3.4. Historical Variation in Nutrient Content ............................................16

2.3.5. Watershed Management .....................................................................17

2.4. Previous Studies of Bera Lake ....................................................................18

xii

2.5. Conclusions .................................................................................................20

3. CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................22

3.1. Introduction .................................................................................................22

3.2. Field Studies ................................................................................................22

3.2.1. Pre-field Works ...................................................................................23

3.2.2. Core Sampling ....................................................................................26

3.2.2.1. Sampling Strategy .....................................................................28

3.2.3. Hydrographic Operation .....................................................................32

3.2.4. Water and Sediment Discharge ..........................................................33

3.2.5. Soil Sampling......................................................................................35

3.2.6. In-situ water Quality Recording .........................................................38

3.3. Experimental Studies ..................................................................................38

3.3.1. Soil and Sediment Cores Preparation .................................................39

3.3.2. Radioisotopes Analysis .......................................................................41

3.3.3. Chemical and Pollution Analysis ........................................................42

3.3.3.1. Quality control ...................................................................................43

3.3.4. Nutrient Content Analysis ..................................................................45

3.3.5. Soil and Sediment Physical Properties Analysis ................................46

3.4. GIS Studies .................................................................................................47

3.4.1. Map Development ..............................................................................48

3.4.1.1. Physiographic Maps ..................................................................48

3.4.1.2. Geology Maps ...........................................................................48

3.4.1.3. Land use Maps ..........................................................................49

3.4.1.4. Bathymetric Map.......................................................................49

3.4.1.5. Water quality Maps ...................................................................49

xiii

3.4.1.6. Sedimentation Map ...................................................................49

3.4.1.7. Soil Map ....................................................................................50

3.4.1.8. Soil Erosion Map ......................................................................50

3.4.1.9. Nutrient content Map ................................................................51

3.5. Modeling .....................................................................................................51

3.5.1. Geo-chronological Models .................................................................51

3.5.1.1. The Constant Rate of Supply CRS Model ................................52

3.5.1.2. The Constant Initial Concentration CIC Model ........................54

3.5.1.3. The Limitation of Models .........................................................55

3.5.2. Soil Redistribution Models .................................................................57

3.5.3. Ecological Risk Assessment Models ..................................................60

3.5.4. Comparison of Heavy Metal Concentration with Standard Levels ....63

3.5.5. Grain Size and Statistics Programme .................................................64

4. CHAPTER IV: STUDY AREA ...................................................................................66

4.1. Physiographic Particulars ............................................................................66

4.2. Geology .......................................................................................................72

4.2.1. Stratigraphy .........................................................................................74

4.2.1.1. Bera Formation .........................................................................74

4.2.1.2. Semantan Formation .................................................................76

4.2.1.3. Post-Semantan Formation Redbeds ..........................................78

4.2.1.4. Granitic rocks ............................................................................79

4.2.1.5. Quaternary Deposits ..................................................................80

4.2.2. Structural Geology ..............................................................................81

4.3. Climatology .................................................................................................85

4.4. Land Use .....................................................................................................88

xiv

4.5. Soil Type .....................................................................................................91

4.6. Hydrology ...................................................................................................93

4.7. Bathymetry ................................................................................................100

4.8. Water quality .............................................................................................102

4.9. Physical Properties of Bera Lake Sediment ..............................................115

4.9.1. Sediment Layers Stratigraphy ...........................................................123

4.9.1.1. Gray Mud to Sandy Mud (Layer 1) ........................................123

4.9.1.2. Gray to Dark Sandy Mud (Layer2) .........................................124

4.9.1.3. White Sandy Mud (Layer 3) ...................................................124

4.9.1.4. Organic-Rich Deposits (Layer 4) ............................................125

5. CHAPTER V: SEDIMENTATION RATE IN BERA LAKE ...................................127

5.1. Introduction ...............................................................................................127

5.2. 210

Pb and 137

Cs Inventories and 210

Pb Flux ...............................................127

5.3. Sedimentation Rate at the South of Bera Lake .........................................129

5.4. Sedimentation Rate at the Middle of Bera Lake .......................................134

5.5. Sedimentation Rate at the North of Bera Lake .........................................139

5.6. Discussion .................................................................................................144

6. CHAPTER VI: SOIL AND NUTRIENT REDISTRIBUTION AT THE BERA LAKE

CATCHMENT ...........................................................................................................152

6.1. Introduction ...............................................................................................152

6.2. 137Cs Inventory in Soil Samples ................................................................152

6.3. Soil loss estimation ...................................................................................156

6.4. Nutrient Content in Bera Lake Catchment Soil Profile ............................163

6.5. Soil Accumulation Rate in Wetlands and Open Waters ...........................167

6.6. Soil Redistribution Mapping .....................................................................168

6.7. Discussion .................................................................................................170

xv

7. CHAPTER VII: CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF

BERA LAKE SEDIMENT ........................................................................................176

7.1. Introduction ...............................................................................................176

7.2. Background Concentration of Heavy Metals in Bera Lake Sediments.....176

7.3. Heavy metal Concentration in Bera Lake Sediments ...............................177

7.3.1. Pearson Correlation Coefficient .......................................................179

7.3.2. Cluster Analysis ................................................................................182

7.4. Bera Lake Sediment Quality .....................................................................186

7.5. Historical Ecological risk Assessment of Bera Lake Sediment ................191

7.5.1. Historical Ecological Risk Assessment at South of Bera Lake ........192

7.5.2. Historical Ecological Risk Assessment at the Middle of Bera Lake 195

7.5.3. Historical Ecological Risk Assessment at the North of Bera Lake ..198

7.6. Historical Variation of Nutrient Contents in Bera Lake Sediments ..........200

7.7. Discussion .................................................................................................208

8. CHAPTER VIII: CONCLUSION..............................................................................218

8.1. Introduction ...............................................................................................218

8.2. Sedimentation Rates ..................................................................................218

8.3. Soil Redistribution ....................................................................................221

8.4. Sediment Quality Assessment ...................................................................223

8.5. Nutrient Contents in Bera Lake Sediment ................................................225

9. CHAPTER IX: SUGESSTIONS and RECOMMENDATIONS ...............................228

9.1. Introduction ...............................................................................................228

9.2. Soil and Sediment Management Plan .......................................................230

9.2.1. Mechanical methods..................................................................................232

9.2.1.1. Soil Conservation ............................................................................232

9.2.1.2. Construction of Retention Pond ......................................................233

xvi

9.2.1.3. Check Dams ....................................................................................235

9.2.1.4. Stream Reintegrate ..........................................................................235

9.2.1.5. Terracing and Silt Pits .....................................................................237

9.2.2. Agronomic Methods .................................................................................238

9.2.2.1. Contour Line Cultivation .................................................................238

9.2.2.2. Crop Management ...........................................................................239

9.2.2.3. Mulching .........................................................................................241

9.2.2.4. Organic Waste and Organic Fertilizer .............................................242

9.2.3. Research and Monitoring ..........................................................................243

9.2.4. Socio-Economic Controlling .....................................................................245

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................247

PPENDIX 1: Documented land use history at BLC since 1972 ......................................274

xvii

TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Research outline and procedures ...................................................................... 7

Figure 2.1: Types of radiation from unstable isotopes (IAEA, 2001) .............................. 10

Figure 3.1a: The design and accessories of Core Sampler Type A .................................. 25

Figure 3-1b: The design and accessories of Core Sampler Type B .................................. 26

Figure 3.3: Some of core samples which were taken from Bera Lake ............................. 30

Figure 3.2: The bathymetric condition (m) and core sampling positions ......................... 31

Figure 3.4: Echosounder Garmin 400C and GPS used for hydrographic operation ......... 33

Figure 3.5: Discharge measurement at the south inlet of Bera Lake ................................ 34

Figure 3.6: Soil sampling integrated with land use at the BLC ........................................ 36

Figure 3.7: Sampling of soil using bulk core samplers ..................................................... 37

Figure 3.8: Utilizing scrapper plate to take reference soil samples .................................. 37

Figure 3.9: Water quality survey at Bera Lake using Hydrolab DS5 ............................... 39

Figure 3.10: Sliced samples before and after drying and charcoal content ...................... 40

Figure 3.11: Packing of soil and sediment samples before radioisotope counting ........... 40

Figure 3.12: Gamma-spectrometer model GCW2523 used in this study ......................... 41

Figure 3.13: Digestion using Perkin Elmer, Multiwave 3000 Oven ................................ 44

Figure 3.14: Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) Model Agilent

Technologies 7500 Series ......................................................................................... 44

Figure 3.15: PerkinElmer 2400 Series II CHNS/O Elemental Analyzer .......................... 45

Figure 3.16: Mechanical shaker and Master Seizer model MALVERN .......................... 47

Figure 3.17: Mean sedimentation rate by plotting In 210Pb against depth by CRS .......... 53

Figure 3.18: Mean sedimentation rate by plotting In 210Pb against mass depth by CIC .. 55

xviii

Figure 4.1: Geographical position of BLC in Peninsular Malaysia .................................. 67

Figure 4.2: The topographic map of BLC and surrounding area ...................................... 68

Figure 4.3: Digital elevation model of BLC ..................................................................... 69

Figure 4.4: Slope categories at BLC ................................................................................. 70

Figure 4.5: Stream pattern and sub-catchment of Bera Lake watershed .......................... 71

Figure 4.6: Geological map of Peninsular Malaysia after (Hutchison & Tan, 2009) ....... 73

Figure 4.7: Mesozoic stratigraphic column of Central Belt. (In Ismail et al., 2007) ........ 73

Figure 4.8: Geological map of BLC ................................................................................. 75

Figure 4.9: Bera Formation bedding and lithology in the east of the study area .............. 75

Figure 4.10: Thick outcrop of mudstone, Bera Formation at the twelfth sub-catchment . 76

Figure 4.11: Structural setting of Semantan Formation (Hutchison & Tan, 2009) .......... 77

Figure 4.12: Lithological sequence of Semantan Formation in BLC ............................... 78

Figure 4.13: Historical sedimentation profiles in Bera Lake, after Wüst & Bustin (2004)

................................................................................................................................... 81

Figure 4.14: Structural zones of Peninsular Malaysia (Hutchinson & Tan, 2009) ........... 83

Figure 4-15: Major fault trends in catchment with 5% frequency .................................... 84

Figure 4.16: Joint system appeared in the Semantan Formation ...................................... 84

Figure 4.17: Rose diagram showing direction of joints and fractures in study area ......... 85

Figure 4.18: Annual precipitation of Triang station 1966-1996 ....................................... 87

Figure 4.19: Long-term mean monthly rainfall between 1966 to1996 in Triang station . 88

Figure 4.20: Land use map of BLC .................................................................................. 90

Figure 4.21: Soil texture classification at BLC ................................................................. 93

Figure 4.22: Water and sediment discharge into and from Bera Lake, October, 2009 .... 96

xix

Figure 4.23: Water and sediment discharge into and from Bera Lake, February, 2010 ... 97

Figure 4.24: Water and sediment discharge into and from Bera Lake, April, 2010 ......... 98

Figure 4.25: Bera Lake water level fluctuations since 2007 ............................................. 99

Figure 4.26: Bera Lake cross section and bed morphology ............................................ 101

Figure 4.27: Bathymetric map of Bera Lake (accuracy1:500) ....................................... 102

Figure 4.28: Distribution of DO (mg l-1

) in Bera Lake, February, 2011 ........................ 105

Figure 4-29: Distribution of EC (mS cm-1

) in Bera Lake, February, 2011 ..................... 106

Figure 4.30: Distribution of TDS (mg l-1

) in Bera Lake, February, 2011....................... 107

Figure 4.31: Distribution of acidity (pH) in Bera Lake, February, 2011 ........................ 108

Figure 4.32: Distribution of NO32-

(mg l-1

) in Bera Lake, February, 2011 ..................... 109

Figure 4.33: Distribution of ammonium (mg l-1

) in Bera Lake, February, 2011 ............ 110

Figure 4.34: Distribution of chloride (mg l-1

) in Bera Lake, February, 2011 ................. 111

Figure 4.35: Stratigraphic layers of Bera Lake sediment profile .................................... 117

Figure 4.36: Grain size distributions along the master core 7 ........................................ 118

Figure 4.37: Northward bulk density variations in Bera Lake sediment profile ............ 121

Figure 4.38: Northward porosity variations in Bera Lake sediment profile ................... 122

Figure 5.1: Annual flux and distribution of 210

Pb in Bera Lake ..................................... 129

Figure 5.2: Geochronology of sediment Core 2, using 210

Pb dates and CRS model ...... 132





Figure 5.5: Mean sedimentation rates at Cores 2 and 3 using slope regression model .. 134





xx

Figure 5.8: Mean sedimentation rate at Core 8, using slope of the regression model .... 138




Pb dates and CRS model .... 142

Figure 5.11: Sediment distribution and sedimentation rate map of Bera Lake .............. 143

Figure 5.12: Correlation between deforestation phases and sedimentation rate ............. 146

Figure 5.13: Correlation between rainfall and sedimentation rate .................................. 146

Figure 6.1: Variation of 137

Cs inventory with depth at the reference site ....................... 154

Figure 6.2: 137

Cs inventories, soil loss and soil erosion rate for various land use types. 156

Figure 6.3: Intense surface erosion and its feature in exposed areas .............................. 157

Figure 6.4: Intense surface erosion observed at recent cleared and exposed lands ........ 161

Figure 6.5: Burning features was observed at the north of the study area ...................... 162

Figure 6.7: TN values at different land use districts ....................................................... 166

Figure 6.8: Soil erosion rate map of BLC ....................................................................... 170

Figure 7.1: Variation in Fe concentration prior and post land use changes (Core, 5) .... 177

Figure 7.2: Clusters and relationships between metalloid elements in Core 2 ............... 184





Figure 7.7a, b: Contamination levels in compare with the Sediment Quality Guidelines

................................................................................................................................. 188

Figure 7.7c, d, e: Contamination levels in compare with the Sediment Quality Guidelines

................................................................................................................................. 189

xxi

Figure 7.7f, g, h: Contamination levels in compare with the Sediment Quality Guidelines

................................................................................................................................. 190

Figure 7.8: Historical changes of EF value at the south of Bera Lake ........................... 195

Figure 7.9: Historical changes of EF value at the middle of Bera Lake ......................... 197

Figure 7.10: Historical changes of EF value at the north of Bera Lake.......................... 200

Figure 7.11: Historical variations of nutrient contents at the middle of Bera Lake ........ 202

Figure 7.12: Historical variations of nutrient contents at the north of Bera Lake .......... 202

Figure 7.13: Charcoals found from different layers in the core samples ........................ 203

Figure 7.14: Similarities in chemical media of elements and TOC and TN at Core 6 ... 205

Figure 7.15: Similarities in chemical media of elements and TOC and TN at Core 5 ... 205

Figure 7.16: Clear increment of organic carbon at the north of Bera Lake since 1980 .. 216

Figure 7.17: Nitrogen content in Bera Lake and deforestation phases ........................... 217

Figure 9.1: A comprehensive management plan, suggested for Bera Lake catchment .. 231

Figure 9.1: Soil erosion risk depicts priority management risk practices in study area . 233

Figure 9.3: Suggested retention ponds at Bera Lake sub-catchments ............................ 234

Figure 9.4: Reduction in water way capacity due to sedimentation ............................... 236

Figure 9.5: Retrogressive bank erosion at BLC .............................................................. 237

Figure 9.6: Diagram of planting terrace construction (after Turner& Gillbanks, 2003) 238

Figure 9.7: Feasibility of mature oil palm integrate into cattle feeding .......................... 241

Figure 9.8: Application of empty fruit bunches for soil redistribution controlling ........ 243

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Physical properties of radionuclides (IAEA, 2001) ..........................................11

Table 3.1: Quality control results of ICP-MS using SRMs (4354) freshwater lake

sediment standard samples ...........................................................................................43

Table 3.2: CRS model running for calculation of sediment date, and flux .......................54

Table 3.2: List of parameter requirements for individual models .....................................58

Table 3.4 Sediment quality indices which were applied in this study (mg kg-1

) ...............63

Table 4.1: Physiographic and drainage characteristics of Bera Lake watershed ...............70

Table 4.2: Land use and natural land cover of BLC ..........................................................89

Table 4.3: Soil particle size distribution at different land use areas ..................................92

Table 4.4: Contribution of water and sediment entry points in Bera Lake ........................95

Table 4.5: Water quality characters of Pos Iskandar open water, IBP, 1972 ..................103

Table 4.6: Bera Lake in-situ water quality sampling results ...........................................104

Table 4.6: Bera Lake water quality based on NWQS and WQI guidelines .....................112

Table 4.7a: Sediment size distribution in master core 7 and statistical parameters .........118

Table 4.7c: Sediment size distribution in master core 7 and statistical parameters .........118

Table 4.7d: Sediment size distribution in master core 7 and statistical parameters ........119

Table 4.7e: Sediment size distribution in master core 7 and statistical parameters .........119

Table 4.7f: Sediment size distribution in master core 7 and statistical parameters .........119

Table 4.7g: Sediment size distribution in master core 7 and statistical parameters ........120

Table 4.8: Mean bulk density (g cm-3

) of Bera Lake sediment layers .............................120

Table 5.1: 210

Pb inventory and flux in sediments cores ...................................................128

Table 6.1: 137

Cs inventory, grain size distribution, and classification of studied samples155

Table 6.2: Soil loss, erosion magnitude, and erosion rate at BLC ...................................160

Table 6.3 Nutrient contents, 137

Cs inventory, and physical properties of soil samples ...164

xxiii

Table 6.4: 137

Cs inventory and accumulation rate in wetlands and open waters samples167

Table 7.1: Major and minor metals background levels in Bera Lake ..............................177

Table 7.3: Strong positive correlation (r-value>0.7) between metalloid elements..........183

Table 7.4: Contamination factor and degree of contamination for cores 2, 5, and 6 .......193

Table 7.5: Ecological risk index for individual metals and for basin in Cores 2, 5, and 6194

Table 7.6: POC (dry weight) content in analyzed samples of master Cores 2, 5, and 6 ..204

Table 9.1: Agro forestry system, The Third National Agriculture Policy (Ahmad, 2001)239

xxiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

AWB : Asian Wetland Bureau

BLC : Bera Lake Catchment

BP : Before Present

Bq m-2

: Becquerel per square Meter

Bq m-2

y-1

: Becquerel per square Meter per Year

CBSQG : Consensus-Based Sediment Quality Guidelines of Wisconsin

cm y-1

: Centimeter per Year

CF:CS : Constant Flux: Constant Supply

Cf : Contamination Factor

CIC : Constant initial concentration model

Cl- : Chloride

CRS : Constant rate of supply model

CV : Coefficient of Variation

137Cs : Fallout Caesium-137 Radionuclide

DEM : Digital Elevation Model

DWNP : Department of Wildlife and National Parks

Df : Degree of Contamination

DO : Dissolved Oxygen

EC : Electric conductivity

EF : Enrichment Factor

EFB : Empty Fruit Bunches

EIA : Environmental Impact Assessment

xxv

Er : Potential Ecological Risk Factor for Individual Metal

FELDA : Federal Land Development Authority

FWHM : Full Width at Half Maximum

GC : Gas Chromatographic

GIS : Geographical Information System

g cm-3

: Gram per cubic Centimeter

H3BO4 : Boric Acid

HCA : Hieratical cluster analysis

HCl : Chloride Acid

HF : Fluoride Acid

HNO31-

: Nitrate Acid

LDO : Lowest Dissolved Oxygen

LEL : Lowest Effect Level

LGM : Last Glacial Maximum

ICP-MS : Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry

ICP-OES : Inductively Coupled Plasma Optic Emission Spectrometry

IAEA : International Atomic Energy Agency

Igeo : Index of Geoaccumulation

IRBM : Integrated River Basin Management

ISQG : Interim Fresh Water Sediment Quality

IWRM : Integrated Water Resource Management

MACRES : Malaysian Centre for Remote Sensing

MPOB : Malaysian Oil Palm Board

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mg l-1

: Milligram per Liter

mg kg-1

: Milligram per Kilogram

MnCO3 : Manganese Carbonate

NH4+1

: Ammonia

NE-SW : North East- South West

NO32-

: Nitrate

NO2-1

: Nitrate

NW-NE : North West-North East

NWQS : National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia

210Pb : Fallout Lead-210 Radionuclide

PEL : Probable Effect Level

PFE : Permanent Forest Estate

pH : Acidity

POC : Particular Organic Carbon

PO4 : Phosphate

PPM : Per Part Million

RI : Potential Ecological Risk Factor for Basin

QAQC : Quality Assurance and Quality Control

SQG : Sediment Quality Guidelines

SEL : Severe Effect Level

SRM : Standard Reference Material

SW : South West

t h-1

y-1

: ton per hectare per year

xxvii

TCD : Thermal Conductivity Detection

TDS : Total Dissolved Solid

TOC : Total Organic Carbon

TN : Total Nitrogen

USLE : Universal Soil Loss Equation

WGS : World Geographic Coordinate System

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