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Selected Leadership Theories
Trait Theories
Behavioral Approaches
Contingency Approaches
Neocharismatic Approaches
Trait Theory
The theories that sought personality, social, physical,
or intellectual traits that differentiated leaders from
nonleaders
The traits are the inherent attributes of the leaders to
keep them distinct from others
For example, Margaret Thatcher, as the prime minister
of UK, was recognized for her leadership in terms of
her confidence, iron-willed, determined, and decisive.
A research study was conducted in the 1930s to
study the attributes that differentiate the leaders
from nonleaders.
A review of 20 different studies identified nearly 80
leadership traits, though the study was not aimed to
identify the leadership traits
Among the identified traits, only FOUR of them
were common to all cases, which included
personality, social, physical, and intellectual traits.
Trait Theory
Earliest approach to study leadership
Used to identify great persons from masses
Based on the assumption of -
certain traits = success/effectiveness
The logic of leadership traits is as basic as
height, as complex as intelligence
Trait Theory
How Leaders Differ from Nonleaders?
According to Kirkpatrick & Locke (1991),
leaders can be distinguished from nonleaders
on the basis of SIX attributes or traits:
Drive
Desire to lead
Honesty and integrity
Self-confidence
Intelligence
Job-relevant knowledge
Important Traits of Effective Leaders
Personality
Persuasive
Persistence
Patience
Probity
Praise giving
Positive orientation
People Based
Possible
Practical
Progressive
Prepared
Power-building
13 Ps
Personality Factors for Effective Leadership
Capacity Achievement Responsibility Participation Status
Intelligence Scholarship Honesty Activity Socioeconomic
position
Alertness Knowledge Dependability Sociability Popularity
Verbal facility Athletic
accomplishment
Initiative Cooperation
Originality Personality
adjustment
Persistence Adaptability
Judgment Aggressiveness Humor
Self-confidence
Desire to excel
Criticisms on Trait Theories of Leadership
The belief that personality traits determine the
rate of success of a leader could easily be
challenged because practically it is very hard to
distinguish leaders from non-leaders based on
personality traits
There exists a very thin relationship between
traits and leader’s success
Some traits are achieved by birth
Personality traits without motivation are
worthless for success
It does not look like a theory
“Traits Plus Motivation Equals Leadership”
Behavioral Approaches to Leadership
Pattern of actions used by different individuals
determines leadership potential
Examples
– Autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire
– Michigan Studies: Employee centered versus
task centered
Three Approaches to Behavioral Studies
1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles
2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions
3. Studies Based on Leadership Grid
1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles
Lewin, Lippitt, and White are probably the earliest
contributors of leadership study in a scientific manner.
The authors specialized in leadership styles while
conducting a series of research studies in the 1930s at
the University of Iowa.
The suggested leadership styles include:
Autocratic
Democratic
Laissez-Faire
When Quantity of work is important:
When Quality of work is important:
When Satisfaction with work is important:
Which is the Best Style?
Autocratic Democratic Laissez Faire
Most Least
Democratic Autocratic Laissez Faire
Best Worst
Democratic Laissez Faire Autocratic
Most Least
Tannenbaum and Schmidt
- Continuum of Leadership BehaviorAutocratic Democratic Laissez-faire
Use of Authority by the Manager
Area of Freedom for Subordinates
Boss- Centered
Leadership
Subordinate- Centered
Leadership
Optimal Leadership Style Depends Upon:
1. Forces in the Leader
2. Forces in the Subordinate Group
3. Forces in the Situation
Tannenbaum/Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum
2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions
Key Contributions
a. Ohio State University Studies
b. Michigan State University Studies
Ohio State University Studies
Two Dimensions
Initiating structure: The extent to which a leader
is likely to define and structure his/her role and
roles of subordinates in the search for goal
attainment
Consideration: The extent to which a leader is
likely to have job relationships characterized by
mutual trust, respect for subordinates‘ ideas, and
regard of their feelings
Initiating Structure
– Is task oriented
– Directs subordinate work activities toward goal
attainment
– Typically give instructions, spend time planning,
and emphasize deadlines
– Provide explicit schedules of work activities
Consideration
– Is mindful of subordinates
– Establishes mutual trust
– Provides open communication
– Develops teamwork
Two Dimensions
Employee Oriented: The leadership dimension in
which the leader emphasizes interpersonal relations;
relationship oriented
Production Oriented: The leadership dimension in
which the leader emphasizes on technical or task
aspect of the job; result oriented
Michigan State University Studies
Similar to Ohio Studies
Studies Based on Leadership Grid
Blake and Mouton (1964) represented with the
graphical portrayal of the two dimensional view of
leadership
The authors proposed a managerial grid showing the
key managerial styles of ‗concern for people‘ and
‗concern for production‘
The grid has been developed in a nine-by-nine matrix
outlining 81 different leadership styles
The Managerial Grid
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Concern for People
Con
cern
for
Task
(1,9)
(9,1)
(9,9)
(5,5)
(1,1)
The Managerial Grid
High
High
Low
Low
Concern for Production
Co
ncern
fo
r P
eo
ple
1,9
Country Club Management
Thoughtful attention to the needs of people
for satisfying relationships leads to a com-
fortable, friendly organization atmosphere
and work tempo.
1,1 Impoverished Management
Exertion of minimum effort to get required
work done is appropriate to sustain
organization membership.
9,9
Team Management
Work accomplishment is from
committed people;
interdependence
through a “common stake” in
organization purpose leads to
relationships of trust and respect.
5,5
Middle-of-the-Road Management
Adequate organization performance is possible
through balancing the necessity to get out work
with maintaining morale of people at a
satisfactory level.
Authority-Compliance 9, 1
Efficiency in operations results from
arranging conditions of work in such a
way that human elements interfere to a
minimum degree.
Leadership Styles
Likert‘s System Four
System I—Exploitive Autocratic
System II—Benevolent Autocratic
System III—Consultative
System IV—Participative Group
Contingency Theories of Leadership
Leader traits and/or leader behaviors are
important aspects but must be taken in
context.
That is, the situation matters.
Selected Studies on Contingency Approaches
Fiedler‘s Contingency Theory
Hersey and Blanchard‘s Situational (Life Cycle)
Theory
House‘s Path-Goal Theory
LPC: LEAST PREFERRED COWORKER
Low LPC Score: task-oriented leader
High LPC Score: relationship-oriented leader
According to Fiedler, a person is one or the
other - it is a fixed personality trait
FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY
THEORY OF LEADERSHIP
A person‘s LPC score correlates with:
Task structure
Leader/Member relations
Leader position power
in terms of group effectiveness
Three Elements of Leadership Situations
Leader-member relations: refers to group
atmosphere and members‘ attitude toward and
acceptance of the leader
Task structure: refers to the extent to which tasks
performed by the group are defined, involve
specific procedures, and have clear, explicit goals
Position power: is the extent to which the leader
has formal authority over subordinates
Task-Oriented (low LPC)
Leader is best when situation either favorable or
unfavorable
Employee-Oriented (high LPC)
Leader is best when situation is moderately
favorable
POSSIBLE USES OF FIEDLER’S THEORY
1. Train leaders in needed style
(Fiedler says no)
2. Match the leader with the job
(Fiedler says this is a good start)
3. Engineer the job to fit the manger
(Fiedler says this is the best approach)
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
A contingency approach to leadership that links
the leader‘s behavioral style with the task
readiness (maturity) of subordinates.
Also known as ‗life cycle‘ theory.
Situational Leadership
No single best way to lead
Focus on maturity or readiness of followers
– Ability and willingness
Adjust emphasis on task and relationship behaviors according to the readiness of followers to perform their tasks
Hersey’s Situational Leadership Model
Based on
– Style of leadership
Giving direction (task behaviour)
Giving motivational support (relationship
behaviour)
– ―Readiness‖ of followers to perform a task
Ability
Willingness
Situational Leadership
Telling: low readiness, untrained and
inexperienced employees
Selling: low/moderate readiness, trained but
inexperienced employees
Participating: moderate/high readiness, able but
unwilling, employees skeptical
Delegating: high readiness, employees ready and
willing to take responsibility
Hersey and
Blanchard’s
Situational
Leadership
Model Defines
Relationship
Between
Maturity and
Four
Leadership
Styles
High
relationship
Low task
High task
High
relationship
Low
relationship
Low task
High task
Low
relationship
M1
M2M3
M4
High
Low HighTask Behavior
Rel
atio
nsh
ip B
ehav
ior
Style of
Leader
ImmatureMaturity
Ability
Willingness
M1M2M3M4
High Moderate Low
This person is able
(has the necessary
knowledge and skill)
This person is willing
(has the necessary
confidence and
commitment)
Maturity of Followers
Psychological maturity
Job maturity
A great deal
4
Quite a bit
3
Some
2
Little
1
Usually
4
Often
3
On occasion
2
Seldom
1
HOUSE’S
PATH-GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIP
Based on Expectancy Theory of Motivation
A leader should emphasize either path clarification or adjust rewards depending on the factors affecting a person‘s motivation
Theory assumes people can change their leadership styles to fit the situation
Situational ContingenciesThree Important Situational Contingencies
in Path-Goal Theory
The personal characteristics of group
members
The work environment
The situation
Path-goal Theory
Rooted in Expectancy Theory
Leader behaviors
– Directive
– Supportive
– Achievement-oriented
– Participative
Path-Goal Model of Leadership
Follower Characteristics
1. Locus of control
2. Authoritarianism
3. Ability
Outcomes
1. Job satisfaction
2. Performance
3. Acceptance of the leader
Followers
1. Perceptions
2. Motivation
Environmental Factors
1. Tasks
2. Formal authority system
3. Work group
Leader Behavior Styles
1. Directive
2. Supportive
3. Participative
4. Achievement-oriented
Supportive Leadership
Supportive
Leadership
• Reduce boredom
• Make job more
tolerable
• Increase self-
confidence
• Lower Anxiety
• Increase the
intrinsic valence
of work
• Increase effort-
performance
expectancy
Increase
effort
Directive Leadership
Directive
Leadership
Reduce role
ambiguity
Strengthen reward
contingencies
Increase effort-
performance
expectancy
Increase
performance-
reward expectancies
Increase
subordinate
effort
Increase size
of incentives
Increase outcome
valences for task
success
Path-goal Theory
Causal Variables
Leader Behavior
Intervening Variables
Subordinate expectations
Outcome Variables
Subordinate effort
and satisfaction
Situational Moderator Variables
Characteristics of task and environment
Characteristics of subordinates
Change Leadership
Transactional Leader: Provides direction for subordinates to achieve set objectives (typical ―good manager‖ using position power & some personal power)
Transformational Leader: Special ability to create innovation & change
(charismatic leader within an organization –high on position & personal power)
Effects of Change Leadership
Transactional
Leadership
Current
state of
expected
subordinate
effort
Normal
expected
subordinate
performance
Transformational
Leadership
Heightened
motivation
to attain
designed
outcome
(extra effort)
Subordinate
performance
beyond
normal
expectations
Transformational Leadership
Transformational
Leadership
• Idealized Influence
• Inspiration
• Intellectual stimulation
• Individualized
consideration
Transactional
Leadership
• Contingent reward
• Management by
exception (active or
passive)
• Laissez faire
Performance
beyond
expectations
Agreed upon
performance
Broadening and
elevating follower
goals
Leader/follower
exchange
Characteristics of
Transactional Leadership
Establishes goals and objectives
Designs work flow and delegates task assignments
Negotiates exchange of rewards for effort
Rewards performance and recognizes accomplishments
Searches for deviations from standards and takes corrective actions
Characteristics of
Transformational Leadership
Charismatic: Provides vision and a sense of mission, gains respect and trust, instills pride
Individualized consideration: Gives personal attention, and treats each person individually, coaches
Intellectually stimulating: Promotes learning, encourages rationality, uses careful problem solving
Inspirational: Communicates high performance expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, distills essential purposes
Integrative Framework of
Change Leadership
1. Leader Traits: 13 Ps
2. Success Criteria: Leader power and
leader behavior
3. Situational Variables: Environmental
forces (PEST)
4. Interveining Variables: Subordinate
commitment, dedication, enthusiasm, etc.
Participative Management Democratic approach of management
Employees have autonomy in making and
implementing decisions
Leader invites wider participation of the subordinates
in making and selling decisions
Exists high degree of delegation of authority
Managers listen and value the subordinate
suggestions
High degree of customer focus exists
A move into TQM process climate
Management by Objectives (MBO) A management system in which specific performance
goals are jointly determined by employees and their
managers, progress toward accomplishing those goals
is periodically reviewed, rewards are allocated on the
basis of the progress in accomplishing the goals
Goal achievement is the key of MBO
Management approach is driven by the nature of
performance objectives and goals
MBO consists of four elements; goal specificity,
participative
Management by Objectives (MBO)FOUR Characteristics of MBO
Goal specificity,
Participative decision making,
An explicit time period, and
Performance feedback.
MBO increases organizationalperformance and productivity
Management by Walking Around (MBWA)
A term used to describe when a manager is out in the
work area, interacting directly with employees, and
exchanging information about what‘s going on.
MBWA is a management control process which
follows THREE steps:
Measuring actual performance,
Comparing actual performance with the standard
performance, and
Taking managerial actions for further improvement
Management by Exception An alternative approach of management when the
other conventional laws management do not work
Difficult to distinguish from charismatic,
transformational, and transactional leadership
approaches
Examples:
Use negative reinforcement if positive reinforcement does
not work
Reward for faulty deeds if punishment does not work
Do it yourself to let others know how to follow it
Induce unexpected surprising ways to doing things
Learning Organization An organization with exceptional work culture
The most open type of organization
An organizational system in which fear of ignorance
and inability is eliminated through relevant training
and development
People learn through open interactions
Managers value subordinate problems and their
suggestions
Creativity creeps from eternal insights of all members
A move towards TQM process climate
Key Findings from Leadership Theories
Transformational leaders inspire higher performance than do transactional leaders
Effective leaders must be concerned about accomplishing the task and relationships
Effective leaders know when to tell, sell, participate, or delegate
Effective leaders understand mission and strategy, know how to implement change, motivate employees to high performance, and teach effectively
Effective leaders lead by example and are honest and fair. They inspire confidence.
Reasons for Derailment of Top ManagementRank the following in order of importance. Choose 1 for the reason you feel is most
important, 2 for next most important, etc.
a) Betrayal of Trust—failure to meet commitments
b) Cold, aloof, arrogant
c) Overdependence on one‘s boss or mentor
d) Insensitive to others: abrasive, intimidating
e) Overmanaging: unable to delegate or build a team
f) Unable to think broadly or strategically - too much attention to
detail and minor technical problems
g) Unable to adapt to a boss with a different style
h) Unable to select and develop an effective staff
i) Overly ambitious—plays politics, pushes too hard to get ahead
j) Failure to handle specific performance problems - failure to handle
problems then not admit the problem, try to cover up or shift blame
Source: ―What Makes a Top Executive‖ by McCall and Lombardo, Psychology Today, February 1983