Sem 2int_quantitative and Qualitative Research_2012

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RESEARCH RESEARCH METHODS + THEORY

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE



RESEARCHPART1

RESEARCH PARADIGMS: The Basics



The ResearchProcess

Introduction

There are many ways to conduct a research. You often have to adjust your

objectives to the field you’re working in and to the environments and

people you are working with. The

field you’re working in could be “website

usability” and the specific environments and persons (informants) you are

working with could be an office environment and its staff.

During this lesson you will work theoretically and

practically with

two maintypes of research processes:

The quantitative research process + the qualitative research process

Literature: This lesson is based on Klaus Bruhn Jensen’s (et al) (2005): A Handboook of Media and Communication Research. Routledge.“The Quantitative Research Process” by Barrie Gunter (chapter 13, p. 209–234). “The Qualitative Research Process” by Klaus Bruhn Jensen (chapter 14, p. 235–253).

RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY



Desk ResearchSecondary data

Desk research relies on existing data

and

information published on

the

net,

in printed magazines or any other valid source (!)

TIP: Reading economy articles, trend news, articles based on web surveys and

reports from cultural and national organisations gives you a good picture

of your target group based on desk research ...

Secondary

Research




Basic research is also referred to as field research.Primary

Research

Field ResearchPrimary data

Field research refers to the

collection of

new

data

through primary research.

That means direct contact with people through interviews, focus groups and

surveys.

Bigger and complex surveys are often done by bying this expertise from

companies specialized in conducting effective, reliable surveys.




Researchparadigms

Introductionto the Basic

Concepts

Often there is a mix between the two paradigms:

P R I M A R Y D A T A

Qualitative

Data

S E C O N D A R Y D A T A

• Observations

• Interviews (open questions)

• Movie recording (actively)

• Think aloud test

• Documents

• Notes (from secondary source)

• Letters

• Sound and

movie recordings

(other’s material)

• Artifacts (to be interpreted)

• Articles and pictures, etc.(to be interpreted)

Quantitative

Data

• Closed questions

• Surveys

• Clearly defined objectives

in observations.

• Page traffic

•Statistics

• Registrations

Artifacts like for example letters and movies etc. can be used to support

primary data for some purposes. Statistics can also support qualitative

arguments i user research.




ResearchParadigms


Concepts

S C O P E Q U A L I T A T I V E M E T H O DQ U A N T I T A T I V E M E T H O D

Examples of investigations Surveys by mail, online or handout Casestudy with interview

General approach Precision: an exact mapping

of the quantitative variation

Empathy: the best understanding

of the qualitative variation

General perspective Width: seek information about as many

quantifiable units as possible

Depth: seek as much information as possible on a few qualitative units

The purpose of the research Average: seek common, representative features

Specific: find out what can be said

to be unique and special.

Criteria of methodology Representative: Chosen informants must represent the target group.

Relevanse: Informants are relevant in relation to problems and meaning

Design of method Systematic: Survey with closed questions Fleksibilitet: Interview with no clear answers, dialogue, interaction.

Level of structuration High: The possibilities of answers are laid

out for response. Low flexibility.

Low: Open answers and a variety of interpretations. High flexibility.

Key concepts of methodology Explanation: How. How many. Who does what. Causal explanations.

Understanding: Why. Who thinks what

about ... Meanings and attitudes

Example of web research

and possible methods/tools

How many are using the site?

What are the user patterns?: Google analytics combined with a survey

designed for representative users.

What motivates the target group to visit the website and buy products? What are

their preferences for colour, menus etc?: Think aloud tests and focus groups.




ResearchParadigms


Concepts

The Basic Concepts in Quantitative Research

The Quantitative approach to research is based on the

scientific tradition

of studying aspects of human reality with empirical proof .

Research in anthropology, economics, geography, linguistics, history, polital

science etc. can often be done by initially measuring hard facts.

Quantitative research often aims at closed questions—questions your

respondents can answer yes or no to; questions that are very narrow defined.

RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH



QuantitativeResearch


Concepts

Examples

Numbers: You can measure how many women there are in a room

and you can measure how many men there are.

Specific actions: You can measure people’s actions (but not why they do it!)

Opinions: You can measure people’s opinions by asking closed questions:

“Do you think our prime minister will win the next election?”

This question would be followed up by additional (anonymous) information

from the informant: gender, age, city etc.

You can use these data as valuable information in your research objective.


Assignment

See usibilia.com … What is this?

See surveymonkey.com

…

What is

this?

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH



ResearchParadigms


Concepts


The Basic Concepts in Qualitative Research

The qualitative approach to conducting research

has

for

many years been

the ‘soft’ area of science.

The qualitative aspects deals also with observable facts, but not always the

same ‘hard’, measurable emperical facts that is the focus for quantitative

research.

Qualitative reseach investigates the concept of meaning, its embedding

in and orientation of social actions. It is the connection between meaning and

action—for example as performed inside media contexts—that tells us how we

are, how we think and

act in

a realistic context.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH



QualitativeResearch


Concepts

Examples: Designing Qualitative Research: Interviews

To design

an

emperical study is

to

identify and

delimit a

portion

of

reality

(Jensen 2005: 237). Ask into why instead of what.

Respondent interviews: The informant is percieved as a representative of

a social and cultural category. This can be a key to the decoding of the user‐

pattern in relation to user behaviour (think aloud test for example).

Group interviews: In order to explore what goes on in a more or less

naturalistic social setting, a group can form the basis for discussions, that

explore aspects of a product credibity,

of

lifestyles,

advertisements etc.

Focus groups: Gathering a specific type of users, this kind of interviewing is

often based on the strategy of getting to know attitudes toward a product or

political and ethical issues. Again, it’s why instead of what.

RESEARCH METHODS AND THEORY QUALITATIVE RESEARCH



QualitativeResearch


Concepts

Designing for Research


Assignment

See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_focus_group … What is this?

What are the pros and cons in online and offline qualitative surveys?

Is a think aloud test a qualitative or a quantitative survey method?

Or can it be both? Why?



RESEARCHPART2

RESEARCH PARADIGMS: Variables and Concepts



ResearchVariables

and Concepts

Variables

The basic part

of

the

research

process is

the

notion of the variable.

Variables are in this context the emperical representation of a concept.

Man, woman, number of …, high/low, happy, not happy etc.

Variables provide operational measures that can be

quantified and manipulated by researchers.

The concepts of gender, age, economics, and personal behaviour are

variables that you can measure.

These variables

must

be described in

further detail as concepts and/or constructs (see the next slides)




ResearchVariables

and Concepts

Variables and Concepts

A concept represents an

abstract

idea that embodies the

nature

of

observable phenomenon, or an interpretation of why such phenomea occur.

For example, individuals may be differentiated in terms of their use of

media: What you define as a “active user” could be distinguished from what

you define as a “passive user” (in questions based on how often a specific

media or an application is used).


Media usage can be linked to explain different behavioual patterns:

Media usage becomes an explanatory concept (Jensen 2005: 210).



ResearchVariables

and Concepts

Single‐Concept Example (Media Usage as Behavioural Patterns)

The observable phenomenon:

More and more people over the age of 65 use FaceBook (FB).source/desk research: http://www.insidefacebook.com/2009/12/11/facebook‐a‐top‐destination‐for‐users‐over‐65/

The concept I want to use:

What is it to be “user”—it’s a bit too vague a concept! Just because you have a

FB account you’re not always active. I find it interesting to investigate the

single concept of the “active user” in the age group 65+.

First, I define the concept of a “user” by describing precisely what this implies

in relation

to

skills in

the

use of

FB.

Second,

I suggest the

number of

visits

on

FB per day in order for one to be a “active user” of FB.

Objective: How many “active users” in the age group 65+ are there on FB in

Denmark alone. I base this on my concept, my problem statement and on a

sampling of

informants

(say,

1000

FB

‐users in

the

age

group 65+)




ResearchVariables

and Concepts(Constructs)

Constructs (Combined Concept Example)

A construct comprises a

combination of

concepts.

This term can be used as a way of defining characteristics or actions

of individuals that are associated with their personality type.

For example, one personality type is defined as a range of sensation‐

seeking individuals: High‐sensation seekers generally need higher levels of

environmental stimulation than low‐sensation seekers.

High‐sensation

seekers may be described by

a series

of

other concepts as:

sociability, tolerance for strong stimulation, risk‐taking etc.

Constructs have a dimensional quality , so that individuals may be

classified (in this example) as high or low on the personality dimension of

sensation

‐seeking (Jensen

2005:

210).




ResearchVariables

and Concepts(Constructs)

Variables, Concepts and Constructs: Example

In other words:

The

variables

get more

substantial when they are applied

to a) a concept and b) a construct.

Example: Gender is interesting because of the construct of the differences

between certain actions of men and women, say, buying actions. It’s not just a

single concept you can establish without any goals for your research.




ResearchVariables

and Concepts

Independent and dependent variables

Variables can be further defined in

terms

of

their relationship with each other.

Before the research: The independent variable (concept/construct) can be

manipulated by the researcher—it is meant to produce some measurable

response or outcome.

You design your variables (concept/construct/attributes) to fit your objective, for

example light user, active user etc.

After the research: The dependent variable is the measure of the response or

outcome. It

is

the

obtained data

which is

treated as

information.




ResearchVariables

and Concepts

Reliability and validity

Another important aim of a research

is

to

determine its reliability.

To meet the demands for reliability and validity, you can …

repeate evidence/tests to show similar results over time

or in another context.

differentiate between the respondent (age, gender, education, etc.)

explain accurately how and why you conduct your research.

use good internal validity: the design of the research process must be free

from theoretical and methodological errors. Use validated theory.

The reliability concerns the dependability and consistency of the relationship

in one or between more variables. The validity indicates whether a measure

properly captures the meaning of the concept or construct it represents.

(Jensen 2005:

212).




RESEARCHPART3

RESEARCH PARADIGMS: More on Methods



ResearchSurvey

Methods

The Survey: Field Research

A descriptive survey simply attempts to

document current conditions.

Public opinion polls, for example, can rovide information about people’s

present attitudes on a specified topic. The concept of “fear of terrorism” can

be constructed through a variety of constructs from “no fear” to “very afraid,”

and the survey can gain answers from different age groups. The outcome is

descriptive and can of course be used as an initial research narrowing down a

target group.

Analytical surveys also collect descriptive data, but attempt to go on to

examine relationships among variables

in

order to

test

research

hypotheses.

A survey may assess the impact of an advertising campaign on public

awareness of a brand and changes in the market’s share of a product. Such

explantory surveys can also research social effects in‐ and because of media.




ResearchSurvey

Methods


The Survey: Field Research, Observing and Coding

Thick description: The thick description means that when you observe a

situation, you use means of gathering data that accounts for everyhing.

You could use movie‐recording devices and then later describe artefacts as

well as actions. This can lead to a very detailed description of an

environment and the interpretation of the actions.

Coding: The coding means fixating and capturing certain qualities of the

units, i.e. person/persons, texts, events (or other unit), you are observing.

For

example can the

thematic coding (concept variable)

function as

an

important objective to make way for interpretations and for applying

abstract theory of culture and perception.



ResearchSurvey

Methods

The Survey: Field Research

Telephone interviews:

You can accomplish the data very quickly and directly.

It is cheap to conduct

The respondents can be reached globally.

Face‐to‐ face interviews:

Short interviews as well as longer interviews can be conducted,

i.e. in a shopping mall or in a home.

Video‐ and audio techniques can be used.

Better personal credibility can be achieved by

personal interview.

Web‐/mail ‐/online‐ or paper questionnaire:

Simple forms can be filled out by respondents. By using web or mail the

statistical answers will be easy to monitor quickly afterwards.




QuantitativeResearch

The Survey

Describing Data

Links: See

more

on percentage calculation here …

http://www.math.com/everyone/calculators/calc_source/percent.htm

http://www.easycalculation.com/statistics/statistics.php

http://www.euromonitor.com/

Don’t panic! If you use an online survey tool all the calculations are done for you.




ResearchAn Overview

1. The hypothesis Propose that if an independent variable is assumed to have a certain strength, it may beexpected to exert a measurable impact on a designated dependent variable. Then it can betested, if this hypothesis can be proved or disproved. (Jensen 2005: 212).

2. The Variable … is gender, age, nationality etc.

… is the empirical representation of a phenomenon (like trends) …

Concept and a… Construct (combination of concepts)

A

concept representsan abstract idea thatembodies the nature of observable phenomena, or an interpretation of

why such phenomeaoccur. (Jensen, 2005)

Example:

Individualsare defined in terms of their use of a media.

You define the notionsof a “light user” and a

“heavy user” based on

media types, levels of defined usage etc.

(Jensen, 2005)

A

combination of

concepts used to

define the

characteristics of the individual users as grouped in concepts (in the example).Heavy users may be described by suchconcepts as sociability, tolerance for strongstimulation, risk‐taking etc. (Jensen, 2005).

3. Independent Variables

…

can be manipulated by

the

researcher. … means the way the research

process is constructed to measure

a response. (Jensen, 2005)

4. Dependent Variables

… is the measure of the

outcome of the

research

based on its construct and itsdependent variables, i.e. it is

the information created by the

variables and the hypothesis.(Jensen, 2005)

B e f o r e t h e

r e s e a r c h

A f t e r t h e r e s

e a r c h


Qualitative and/or quantitative research design



ResearchThe Survey

Example

Let’s visithttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MFbmHDs7TmI …

… and have a talk about this type of survey and its components.

Variables? Concepts? Independent variables/dependent variables?

Qualitative, quantitative, mix, goal, interpretation?




Assignment USABILITY TESTS—design a survey of a user experience

T E S T I N G1. Make a test of a website or a mobile application: Heuristics.

2. What is your hypothesis as a media designer, based on your initial test, on usability in relation to the concepts: navigation, readability and design?

3. Work with these valid concepts in relation to:

the attitudes toward the visual design (qualitative method) the ability to read the text (quantitative method).

Interview two, three or more people (Who? / why?)

4. Record, write down, observe etc. (how? / why?)

Present according to the template on the next slide →




Assignment USABILITY TESTS—design a survey of a user experience

R E P O R T I N G (validating your results)1. Summary of the main results with conclusion.

2. Introduction:

hypothesis, problems and research questions, concepts in use.

3. Describtion of method/methods:

A mix of quantative and qualitative approaches? How? Focus?Independent and dependent variables? Your unique research design?

4. Observations and results, focus points. Pie chart templates may be used.

5. Conclusion (short, recap on 1)

6. Recommendations for improvements of media.

S o u r c e :

M u n k & M ø r k ( 2 0 0 2 ) : B r u

g e r v e n l i g h e d

p å

i n t e r n e t t e t . .

S a m f u n d s l i t t e r a t u r .


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