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Higher Education in Japan- The past, the present and the future -

Research Institute for Higher Education (RIHE)

Seminar on higher education at the King Faisal Centre for Research and Islamic Studies, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 29 January 2005.

Jun ObaResearch Institute for Higher Education

Hiroshima University, Japanoba@hiroshima-u.ac.jp

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ContentsI Education system in JapanII Higher education in Japan - HistoryIII Higher education reform in Japan – Towards the

future1. The University Council and the deregulation in

higher education2. Diversification of higher education institutions and

their programmes3. Development of human resources in knowledge soci-

ety4. Internationalisation of higher education

3

1. Development of the modern educa-tion system

● Development of Terakoya in the Edo period● Introduction of a modern education system after

the Meiji Restoration (1868) - Education System Order (Gakusei)

● Generalisation of elementary education for boys and girls at the beginning of the 20th century

I Education system in Japan

41875 1880 1885 1890 1895 1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

TotalBoysGirls

Percentage of children in full time elementary education between 1875 and 1925

5

Percentage of students enrolling in upper sec-ondary schools and higher education institu-tions (universities and junior colleges)

1950

1952

1954

1956

1958

1960

1962

1964

1966

1968

1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

Upper secondary schoolHigher education (unive-rsity and junior college)

6

2. Organisation of the school system

● A number of amendments and revisions to the system under the Gakusei (School System Order)

● Characteristics of the pre-war school system:– a relatively short period of compulsory education,

common to all;– a multiple track system after that period

7Organisation of the school system in 1944

8

After World War II

● Entire revision under the occupation● Nine-year compulsory education● Unified into a single track system– universities being open to every graduate of an upper-

secondary school– abolition of distinction among higher education insti-

tutions

9

Organisation of the present school system

normal ageschool year

Hig

her e

duca

tion26 21 Doctor University

25 20 (graduate school)24 1923 18 Master22 1721 1620 15 University19 14 (faculty) Junior college College Advanced18 13 courses Special17 12 of training16 11 Upper secondary school school15 10 Technology

com

puls

ory

educ

atio

n14 913 8 Lower secondary school12 711 610 59 4 Elementary school8 37 26 154 Kindergarten3

Seco

ndar

y ed

ucat

ion

Secondary education

school

Prim

ary

educ

atio

nPr

e-sc

hool

ed

ucat

ion

10

Number of schools, students and teachers as of 1st May 2004

Number of schools(private)

Number of students(private)

Number of teachers*(private)

Kindergarten 14,061 (8,363)

1,753,396(1,390,001)

109,853 (83,789)

Elementary school 23,420 (187)

7,200,929 (69,300)

414,887 (3,480)

Lower secondary school 11,102 (709)

3,663,512 (236,006)

249,801 (12,840)

Upper secondary school 5,429 (1,329)

3,719,048 (569,454)

255,629 (60,107)

Secondary education school 18 (9)

6,051 (3,355)

470 (247)

Special education schools(for handicapped children)

999 (12)

98,796 (815)

62,255 (259)

* full-time only

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Number of schools(private)

Number of students(private)

Number of teachers*(private)

College of technology 63 (3)

58,681 (2,296)

4,474 (158)

Junior college 508 (451)

233,749 (214,264)

12,740 (11,082)

University 709 (542)

2,809,323(2,062,065)

158,756 (86,683)

Special training school 3,443 (3,228)

791,540 (761,735)

40,675 (37,902)

* full-time only

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A very good performance in primary and sec-ondary education● Ranking in the OECD's PISA 2000– first group for mathematics and science– second group for reading

● PISA 2003– still in the same groups as the PISA 2000– Japan slightly lowered its ranking by country.

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PISA 2000: Top 10

Reading Mathematics Science1 Finland Japan South Korea2 Canada South Korea Japan3 New Zealand New Zealand Finland4 Australia Finland UK5 Ireland Australia Canada6 South Korea Canada New Zealand7 UK Switzerland Australia8 Japan UK Austria9 Sweden Belgium Ireland

10 Austria France Sweden

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PISA 2003 : Top 10 and JapanReading Mathematics Problem-solving

1 Finland Finland South Korea2 South Korea Japan Hong Kong3 Canada Hong Kong Finland4 Australia South Korea Japan5 Lichtenstein Lichtenstein New Zealand6 New Zealand Australia Macao7 Ireland Macao Australia8 Sweden Holland Lichtenstein9 Holland Czech Republic Canada

10 Hong Kong New Zealand Belgium--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

14 Japan

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1. Foundation of modern higher edu-cation institutions

● Establishment of the University of Tokyo (later Imperial University, then Tokyo Imperial Univer-sity) by the government in 1887

● Other imperial universities in major cities

II Higher education in Japan - History

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● Characteristics of these institutions– Governmental institutions– Organised on the continental European model (esp-

ecially Germanic)– Bureaucratic system with quasi-autonomous academic

units (faculties)

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● Other institutions– Governmental institutions other than imperial univer-

sities– Local public institutions– Private institutions

● Specialised School Order in 1903● University Order in 1918– acknowledgement of the university status to non-gov-

ernmental institutions

25

Number of higher education institu-tions as of 1943

Universities[imperial univer-

sities]

SpecialisedSchools Total

Governmental(national) 19 [7] 58 77

Local public 2 24 26

Private 28 134 162

Total 49 [7] 216 275

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Characteristics of pre-war higher edu-cation● Well-organised bureaucratic administration sys-

tem in governmental institutions● Coexistence of the three sectors of higher educa-

tion institutions – governmental (national), local public and private

● Absolute priority to the national institutions, es-pecially the imperial universities

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After the war (as of 1949)

● 70 national universities without difference in le-gal status among them

● 17 local public universities● 81 private universities● Junior colleges (regarded as provisional)

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2. The expansion of higher education and its decline

● Rapid growth of higher education in the 1960s and early 1970s

● Number of institutions– 1960 : 245 universities and 280 junior colleges– 1975 : 420 universities and 513 junior colleges

● Multiplication of students from 1960 to 1975– Universities : 2.77 times– Junior colleges : 4.28 times

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● Enrolment ratio (of the age cohort)– 10.3% in 1960– 38.4% in 1975

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Number of universities by sector

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

600

650

700

750

PrivatePublicNational

31

Number of junior colleges by sector

1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 20040

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

600

PrivatePublicNational

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Students enrolment in universities

1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 20040

250,000

500,000

750,000

1,000,000

1,250,000

1,500,000

1,750,000

2,000,000

2,250,000

2,500,000

2,750,000

3,000,000

PrivatePublicNational

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Second expansion in the 1980s and early 1990s● Number of universities– 1980 : 446 universities (93 national, 34 public and

319 private)– 1995 : 565 universities (98 national, 52 public and

415 private)– 2004 : 709 universities (87 national, 80 public and

542 private)

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Trends in 18-year-old population and access to higher education

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

0

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

225

250

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

50%

18-year-olds Entrants (universities & junior colleges)

Ratio of the age group advancing to universities and junior colleges

tens

of t

hous

ands

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1. The University Council and the de-regulation in higher education

● Discussion at the National Council on Educa-tional Reform (Rinjikyoikushingikai)

● Establishment of the University Council in 1987

III Higher education reform in Japan – Towards the future

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● Progress in scientific research and changes in human resources;

● Rise in the percentage of students continuing to higher education and diversification of students;

● Growing need for lifelong learning and rising so-cial expectations of universities.

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● Abolition of subject areas– structure curricula reflecting their own educational

ideals and objectives– no definition of subject areas, such as general educa-

tion and specialised education– no requirement on obtaining a certain number of cred-

its in each subject area (acquisition of a minimum to-tal number of credits only)

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1998 Report "A Vision for the University of the 21st Century and Future Reform Measures : Distinctive Universities in a Competitive Environment"● Improve the quality of education and research with

the purpose of nurturing the ability to investigate issues;

● Secure university autonomy by making the educa-tional and research system structure more flexible;

● Establish university administration and manage-ment with responsible decision-making and im-plementation; and

● Individualise universities and continuously im-prove their education and research by establishing multiple evaluation systems.

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2002 revision of the School Education Law● More flexibility for a reorganisation of faculties

and departments● Introduction of a continual third-party evaluation

system

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2. Diversification of higher education institutions and their programmes

● Universal phase– Enrolment ratio : 49.1% in 1999– Over 50% in 1987, if non-university sector included

Elite Mass UniversalEnrolment ra-tio

Under 15% Between 15 and 50% Over 50%

Attitude to-wards access

Privilege Right Obligation

cf. Three phases of higher education system defined by M. Trow

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● Definite abandonment of the planned higher edu-cation policy

● Acceleration of diversification of higher educa-tion institutions

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Incorporation of national universities in 2004● Change in the status of the governmental institu-

tions● Legal personality and more autonomy● Non-public servant status for staff● Participation of external people in university ad-

ministration

43

Number of universities that imple-mented curriculum reform

2002

2001

2000

1996

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600

91

95

95

87

36

39

39

52

348

374

375

412

PrivatePublicNational

44

Implementation of curriculum reform in universities (2001)

Review of the number of cred-its required for graduation

Introduction of course system

Review of credits calculation

Review of compulsory and elective subjects system

Wedge-formed curriculum

Review of subject classifica-tion

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

475

329

365

321

204

353

45

Number of universities that open classes taught in foreign language

2002

2001

2000

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325

63

67

79

21

28

29

150

161

210

PrivatePublicNational

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3. Development of human resources in knowledge society

● Knowledge : key to the development● Lifelong learning● Adult students

47

Japan's foreign production ratio by industry

48

Number of employees by occupa-tional classification

49

Factors regarded as most important by employers for recruitment

Specialised knowledge

Aspiration/inquiring mind

Ability of presentation

Business manner

Power of action/ability to act

Qualifications

Positiveness/extroversion

Sense of responsibility

Basic scholastic ability

Communication ability

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90%

86%

67%

62%

61%

60%

57%

51%

46%

44%

35%

Source : Ministry of Health and Labour (2004)

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Factors contributing to employment as percentage

Communication ability

Qualifications

Basic scholastic ability

Sense of responsibility

Power of action/ability to act

Positiveness/extroversion

Specialised knowledge

Business manner

Ability of presentation 6.3%Aspiration/inquiring mind 4.7%Problem-finding ability 3.7%Professionalism/attitude toward work 3.6%Flexibility/adaptability to environment 3.5%Other factors 7.9%

Remaining factors (from left to right)

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Number of cases of co-operative research imple-mented between national universities and the indus-try / Number of the TLO recognised by the Gov-ernment

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 20030

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

8,000

9,000

10,000

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Number of casesTLO (plotted on the right axis)

52

4. Internationalisation of higher edu-cation

● Nakasone Plan in 1987– More than 100,000 international students in Japan be-

fore 21st century

53

Number of international students in Japanese higher education institutions

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

80000

90000

100000

110000

120000TotalStudents financed by the Japanese government

54

Breakdown of the international stu-dents by their region of origin (2004)

0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00% 80.00% 90.00% 100.00%

ChinaSouth Korea

Taiwan

Other Asian countries

America (North & South)

Europe

Africa & the Middle and Near East

Oceania

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● Revision of the legislation concerning the foreign universities in Japan– Temple University Japan (USA)

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● Three major factors for HE reform– diversification in students– changes in the demand for human resources– increased reliance of industry on academic research

activities● Deregulation of higher education– diversification of institution– increased autonomy– more responsiveness to society

Closing remarks

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● Differentiation of HE institutions● Continual university reform by academics