Seminer on Hydro Power

8/2/2019 Seminer on Hydro Power

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2011

PRITISH ADHIKARY

ROLL NO-49, DEPT-M.E.,YEAR-4TH.

11/16/2011

SEMINER ON : HYDROPOWE


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Department ofMechanical Engineering

Certificate of Approval

Certified that the seminar report entitled HYDROPOWER being submitted byPritish Adhikary as partial fulfillment of the degree of Bachelor of Technology(Mechanical Engineering) of Kalyani Government Engg. College is a record of thework of the student, which have been carried out under my supervision.

I hereby approve this seminar report.

__________________________

(Seminar Guide)Prof. Arijit DattaAssistant Professor

Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering.Kalyani Govt. Engg. College

__________________________

Dr. Santanu DasProf. & Head of the Department

Dept. Of Mechanical Engineering.Kalyani Govt. Engineering. College


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I hereby convey my sincere thanks and deep gratitude

to my seminar guide Prof. Arijit Datta who provided me with

an opportunity to work under his careful guidance. His

supervision and encouragement has truly helped me to

complete this report.

I also thank my friends who have helped me during the

making of report.

_______________________

Pritish AdhikaryRoll No.-08102007049

Mech. Dept.Kalyani Govt. Engg. College.

Kalyani , Nadia.


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CONTENT

SUBJECT PAGE NO

1.INTRODUCTION 05

2.GLOBAL ENERGY PICTURE 06

3.HISTORICAL

DEVELOPMENT

07

4.CHARECTERISTICS 10

5.THEORITICAL ASPECTS 11

6.DIFFERENT PARTS 17

7.ECONOMICAL POINT OF

VIEW

18

8.TYING HYDROPOWER TO

OTHER ENERGY FORM

24

9.FUTURE POTENTIAL 25

10.HYDROPOWER- THE

ENVIRONMENT& SOCIETY

26

11.POTENTIAL PATH

FORWARD FOR

HYDROPOWER

35

12.FUTURE ASPECTS 36

13.GLOSSARY 38

14.REFERENCES 42


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INTRODUCTION

Hydropower (hydro means water) is energy that comes from the force of

moving water.The movement of water between the earth and the atmosphere is part of acontinuous cycle. The sun draws moisture up from the oceans and rivers, and thismoisture condenses into clouds. The moisture is released from the clouds as rain orsnow. The oceans and rivers are replenished with moisture, and the cycle startsagain.

Gravity causes the water on the earth to move from places of high ground to placesof low ground. The force of moving water can be very powerful.

Hydropower is called a renewable energy source because it is replenished by

snow and rainfall. As long as the sun shines and the rain falls, we wont run outof this energy source.

Its a form of energy a renewable resource. Hydropower provides about 96

percent of the renewable energy in the United States. Other renewable resourcesinclude geothermal, wave power, tidal power, wind power, and solar power.Hydroelectric power plants do not use up resources to create electricity nor dothey pollute the air, land, or water, as other power plants may. Hydroelectricpower has played an important part in the development of this Nation's electricpower industry. Both small and large hydroelectric power developments wereinstrumental in the early expansion of the electric power industry.

Hydroelectric power comes from flowing water. winter and spring runoff frommountain streams and clear lakes. Water, when it is falling by the force of gravity,can be used to turn turbines and generators that produce electricity.

Hydroelectric power is important to our Nation. Growing populations and moderntechnologies require vast amounts of electricity for creating, building, andexpanding. In the 1920's, hydroelectric plants supplied as much as 40 percent of

the electric energy produced. Although the amount of energy produced by thismeans has steadily increased, the amount produced by other types of power plantshas increased at a faster rate and hydroelectric power presently supplies about 10percent of the electrical generating capacity of the United States.Hydropower is an essential contributor in the national power grid because of itsability to respond quickly to rapidly varying loads or system disturbances, which


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base load plants with steam systems powered by combustion or nuclear processescannot accommodate.

The Global Energy Picture

The Energy Information Agency at the United States Department of Energy andthe World Energy Council monitor global energy consumption on a regular basis.EIA's latest report, International Energy Outlook 2000 includes a forecast thattotal energy consumption, world-wide, from all sources, will grow by 60 percentbetween 1997 and 2020. Consumption is expected to increase from 111,000TWh/year to 178,000 TWh/year.When the electricity share of total energy consumption is considered, the increasebecomes even more dramatic. The International Energy Outlook 2000 forecaststhat global consumption of electricity will be 76 percent higher in 2020 than in1997. Consumption will increase from 12,000 TWh (1997) to 22,000 TWh (2020).By the year 2050, the world population is expected to increase by 50 per cent, from6 to 9 billion. Energy consumption per inhabitant per year is generally incorrelation with the standard of living of the population, which is characteristic ofwelfare from an economic, social and cultural point of view. Today the lessdeveloped countries in the world, with 2.2 billion inhabitants, have an annual percapita consumption of primary energy which is 20 times less than those of the

industrialised countries (with 1.3 billion inhabitants), and per capita electricityconsumption which is 35 times less.Whatever the precise numbers, it is clear that world energy consumption, andespecially electricity consumption, will increase considerably during this century,not only because of the demographic pressure, but also because of the developmentin living standards in the less developed countries, which will represent 7 billioninhabitants by 2050 (78 per cent of world population).The challenge is therefore clear: an inevitable increase in energy consumption inthe world, with the risk of a major environmental impact, and climate change, as aresult of the combustion of fossil fuels.The right for development is a basic human right, and there is no possibledevelopment without energy supply. Few organizations would deny this.In view of this situation, all available sources of energy will be necessary, but forenvironmental reasons, the first priority should be the development of all thetechnically, economically and environmentally feasible potential from clean,renewable energy sources, such as hydropower.


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A study by the Utility Data Institute, USA, predicts that a world total of 695 GWof new electricity capacity will come on line in the next ten years from all sources,22 per cent of which will be hydro, 26 per cent gas, and 27 per cent coal, with theremainder coming from a variety of sources.The worlds total technical feasible hydro potential is estimated at 14 370TWh/year, of which about 8082 TWh/year is currently considered economicallyfeasible for development. About 700 GW (or about 2600 TWh/year) is already inoperation, with a further 108 GW under construction [Hydropower & Dams, WorldAtlas and Industry Guide, 2000]. Most of the remaining potential is in Africa, Asiaand Latin America:

Technically feasible Economically feasiblepotential: potential:

Africa 1750 TWh/year 1000 TWh/year

Asia 6800 TWh/year 3600 TWh/yearNorth + Central America 1660 TWh/year 1000 TWh/yearSouth America 2665 TWh/year 1600 TWh/year

At present hydropower supplies about 20 per cent of the world's electricity. Hydrosupplies more than 50 percent of national electricity in about 65 countries, morethan 80 per cent in 32 countries and almost all of the electricity in 13 countries.A number of countries, such as China India, Iran and Turkey, are undertakinglarge-scale hydro development programmes, and there are projects underconstruction in about 80 countries. According to the recent world surveys,conducted for the World Atlas & Industry Guide, published annually byHydropower & Dams, a number of countries see hydropower as the key to theirfuture economic development: Examples are Sudan, Rwanda, Mali, Benin, Ghana,Liberia, Guinea, Myanmar, Bhutan, Cambodia, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, Cuba, CostaRica, and Guyana.

Historical Development of Hydropower

Water has been used as a source of energy for centuries. The Greeks used waterwheels to grind wheat into flour more than 2,000 years ago. In the early 1800s,American and European factories used water wheels to power machines.

The water wheel is a simple machine. The wheel picks up water in bucketslocated around the wheel. The weight of the water causes the wheel to turn.


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Water wheels convert the energy of the moving water into useful energy to grindgrain, drive sawmills, or pump water.

In the late 19th century, hydropower was first used to generate electricity. The

first hydroelectric plant was built at Niagara Falls in 1879. In the years thatfollowed, many more hydropower dams were built. By the 1940s, most of thebest sites in the United States for large dams had been developed.

At about the same time, fossil fuel power plants began to be popular. These plants could make electricity more cheaply than hydropower plants. It wasnt

until the price of oil skyrocketed in the 1970s that people became interested inhydropower again.

By using water for power generation, people have worked with nature to achieve abetter lifestyle. The mechanical power of falling water is an age-old tool. As earlyas the 1700's, Americans recognized the advantages of mechanical hydropowerand used it extensively for milling and pumping. By the early 1900's,hydroelectric power accounted for more than 40 percent of the Nation=s supply ofelectricity. In the West and Pacific Northwest, hydropower provided about 75percent of all the electricity consumed in the 1940's. With the increase in

development of other forms of electric power generation, hydropower=spercentage has slowly declined to about 10 percent. However, many activitiestoday still depend on hydropower.

Niagra Falls was the first of the American hydroelectric power sites developed formajor generation and is still a source of electric power today. Power from suchearly plants was used initially for lighting, and when the electric motor came intobeing the demand for new electrical energy started its upward spiral.


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Reclamation is one of the largest operators of Federal power-generating stations.The agency uses some of the power it produces to run its facilities, such aspumping plants. Excess Reclamation hydropower is marketed by either theBonneville Power Administration or the Western Area Power Administration andis sold first to preferred customers, such as rural electric power co-cooperatives,public utility districts, municipalities, and state and Federal agencies. Any

remaining power may be sold to private electric utilities. Reclamation generatesenough hydropower to meet the needs of millions of people and power revenuesexceed $900 million a year. Power revenues are returned to the Federal Treasury torepay the cost of constructing, operating, and maintaining projects.


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Characteristics of Hydropower

Its resources are widely spread around the world. Potential exists in about 150

countries, and about 70 per cent of the economically feasible potential remains tobe developed. This is mostly in developing countries. It is a proven and well advanced technology (more than a century ofexperience), with modern powerplants providing the most efficient energyconversion process (> 90 per cent), which is also an important environmentalbenefit. The production ofpeak load energy from hydropower allows for the best use tobe made of base load power from other less flexible electricity sources, notablywind and solar power. Its fast response time enables it to meet sudden fluctuations

in demand. It has the lowest operating costs and longest plant life , compared with otherlarge scale generating options. Once the initial investment has been made in thenecessary civil works, the plant life can beextended economically by relativelycheap maintenance and the periodic replacement of electromechanical equipment(replacement of turbine runners, rewinding of generators, etc - in some cases theaddition of new generating units). Typically a hydro plant in service for 40-50years can have its operating life doubled. The fuel (water) is renewable, and is not subject to fluctuations in market.Countries with ample reserves of fossil fuels, such as Iran and Venezuela, have

opted for a large scale program of hydro development, recognizing environmentalbenefits. Hydro also represents energy independence for many countries.

THEORITICAL ASPECTS

HOW HYDROPOWER WORKS

Hydroelectric power comes from water at work, water in motion. It can be seenas a form of solar energy, as the sun powers the hydrologic cycle which gives theearth its water. In the hydrologic cycle, atmospheric water reaches the earth=ssurface as precipitation. Some of this water evaporates, but much of it eitherpercolates into the soil or becomes surface runoff. Water from rain and melting


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snow eventually reaches ponds, lakes, reservoirs, or oceans where evaporation isconstantly occurring.

Moisture percolating into the soil may become ground water (subsurface water),some of which also enters water bodies through springs or undergroundstreams. Ground water may move upward through soil during dry periods andmay return to the atmosphere by evaporation. Water vapor passes into the

atmosphere by evaporation then circulates, condenses into clouds, and somereturns to earth as precipitation. Thus, the water cycle is complete. Natureensures that water is a renewable resource.

Generating Power

In nature, energy cannot be created or destroyed, but its form can change. Ingenerating electricity, no new energy is created. Actually one form of energy isconverted to another form.

To generate electricity, water must be in motion. This is kinetic (moving) energy.When flowing water turns blades in a turbine, the form is changed to mechanical(machine) energy. The turbine turns the generator rotor which then converts this


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mechanical energy into another energy form -- electricity. Since water is the initialsource of energy, we call this hydroelectric power or hydropower for short.

At facilities called hydroelectric power plants, hydropower is generated. Some

power plants are located on rivers, streams, and canals, but for a reliable watersupply, dams are needed. Dams store water for later release for such purposes asirrigation, domestic and industrial use, and power generation. The reservoir actsmuch like a battery, storing water to be released as needed to generate power.

The dam creates a head or height from which water flows. A pipe (penstock)

carries the water from the reservoir to the turbine. The fast-moving water pushesthe turbine blades, something like a pinwheel in the wind. The waters force on theturbine blades turns the rotor, the moving part of the electric generator. Whencoils of wire on the rotor sweep past the generator=s stationary coil (stator),electricity is produced.

This concept was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831 when he found thatelectricity could be generated by rotating magnets within copper coils.When the water has completed its task, it flows on unchanged to serve other needs.


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Transmitting Power

Once the electricity is produced, it must be delivered to where it is needed -- our

homes, schools, offices, factories, etc. Dams are often in remote locations andpower must be transmitted over some distance to its users.Vast networks of transmission lines and facilities are used to bring electricity to usin a form we can use. All the electricity made at a power plant comes first throughtransformers which raise the voltage so it can travel long distances through powerlines. (Voltage is the pressure that forces an electric current through a wire.) Atlocal substations, transformers reduce the voltage so electricity can be divided upand directed throughout an area.

Transformers on poles (or buried underground, in some neighborhoods) furtherreduce the electric power to the right voltage for appliances and use in the home.When electricity gets to our homes, we buy it by the kilowatt-hour, and a metermeasures how much we use.While hydroelectric power plants are one source of electricity, other sourcesinclude power plants that burn fossil fuels or split atoms to create steam which inturn is used to generate power. Gas-turbine, solar, geothermal, and wind-poweredsystems are other sources. All these power plants may use the same system oftransmission lines and stations in an area to bring power to you. By use of thispower grid, electricity can be interchanged among several utility systems to meetvarying demands. So the electricity lighting your reading lamp now may be from ahydroelectric power plant, a wind generator, a nuclear facility, or a coal, gas, oroil-fired power plant or a combination of these.


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The area where you live and its energy resources are prime factors in determiningwhat kind of power you use. For example, in Washington State hydroelectricpower plants provided approximately 80 percent of the electrical power during2002. In contrast, in Ohio during the same year, almost 87 percent of the electricalpower came from coal-fired power plants due to the area=s ample supply of coal.

Electrical utilities range from large systems serving broad regional areas to smallpower companies serving individual communities. Most electric utilities areinvestor-owned (private) power companies. Others are owned by towns, cities,and rural electric associations. Surplus power produced at facilities owned by theFederal Government is marketed to preference power customers (A customergiven preference by law in the purchase of federally generated electrical energywhich is generally an entity which is nonprofit and publicly financed.) by theDepartment of Energy through its power marketing administrations.


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How Power is Computed

Before a hydroelectric power site is developed, engineers compute how muchpower can be produced when the facility is complete. The actual output of energyat a dam is determined by the volume of water released (discharge) and thevertical distance the water falls (head). So, a given amount of water falling a givendistance will produce a certain amount of energy. The head and the discharge atthe power site and the desired rotational speed of the generator determine the typeof turbine to be used.

The head produces a pressure (water pressure), and the greater the head, the greater

the pressure to drive turbines. This pressure is measured in pounds of force(pounds per square inch). More head or faster flowing water means more power.

To find the theoretical horsepower (the measure of mechanical energy) from aspecific site, this formula is used:

THP = (Q x H)/8.8

where: THP = theoretical horsepower .Q = flow rate in cubic feet per second (cfs).H = head in feet.

8.8 = a constant.

A more complicated formula is used to refine the calculations of this availablepower. The formula takes into account losses in the amount of head due to frictionin the penstock and other variations due to the efficiency levels of mechanicaldevices used to harness the power.

To find how much electrical power we can expect, we must convert the mechanicalmeasure (horsepower) into electrical terms (watts). One horsepower is equal to 746watts (U.S. measure).


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DIFFERENT PARTS

Turbines

While there are only two basic types of turbines (impulse and reaction), there aremany variations. The specific type of turbine to be used in a power plant is notselected until all operational studies and cost estimates are complete. The turbineselected depends largely on the site conditions.

A reaction turbine is a horizontal or vertical wheel that operates with the wheelcompletely sub-merged, a feature which reduces turbulence. In theory, the reactionturbine works like a rotating lawn sprinkler where water at a central point is underpressure and escapes from the ends of the blades, causing rotation. Reaction

turbines are the type most widely used.


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An impulse turbine is a horizontal or vertical wheel that uses the kinetic energyof water striking its buckets or blades to cause rotation. The wheel is covered bya housing and the buckets or blades are shaped so they turn the flow of waterabout 170 degrees inside the housing. After turning the blades or buckets, the

water falls to the bottom of the wheel housing and flows out.

ECONOMICAL POINT OF VIEWHydropower does not discharge pollutants into the environment; however, it is notfree from adverse environmental effects. Considerable efforts have been made toreduce environmental problems associated with hydropower operations, such asproviding safe fish passage and improved water quality in the past decade at bothFederal facilities and non-Federal facilities licensed by the Federal EnergyRegulatory Commission.


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Efforts to ensure the safety of dams and the use of newly available computertechnologies to optimize operations have provided additional opportunities toimprove the environment. Yet, many unanswered questions remain about how bestto maintain the economic viability of hydropower in the face of increased demands

to protect fish and other environmental resources.

Reclamation actively pursues research and development (R&D) programs toimprove the operating efficiency and the environmental performance ofhydropower facilities.

Hydropower research and development today is primarily being conducted in the

following areas: Fish Passage, Behavior, and Response.Water Resources Management.Monitoring Tool Development.

Operations & Maintenance.Turbine-Related Projects.

Water Quality.Dam Safety.Hydrology.

Reclamation continues to work to improve the reliability and efficiency ofgenerating hydropower. Today, engineers want to make the most of new andexisting facilities to increase production and efficiency. Existing hydropowerconcepts and approaches include:

-- Uprating existing power plants.-- Developing small plants (low-head hydropower).

-- Peaking with hydropower.-- Pumped storage.-- Tying hydropower to other forms of energy.


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UpratingThe uprating of existing hydroelectric generator and turbine units at power plants

is one of the most immediate, cost-effective, and environmentally acceptablemeans of developing additional electric power. Since 1978, Reclamation haspursued an aggressive uprating program which has added more than 1,600,000 kWto Reclamation's capacity at an average cost of $69 per kilowatt. This compares toan average cost for providing new peaking capacity through oil-fired generators ofmore than $400 per kilowatt. Reclamation's uprating program has essentiallyprovided the equivalent of another major hydroelectric facility of the approximatemagnitude of Hoover Dam and Power plant at a fraction of the cost and impact on

the environment when compared to any other means of providing new generationcapacity.

Low-head HydropowerA low-head dam is one with a water drop of less than 65 feet and a generating

capacity less than 15,000 kW. Large, high-head dams can produce more power atlower costs than low-head dams, but construction of large dams may be limited bylack of suitable sites, by environmental considerations, or by economic conditions.In contrast, there are many existing small dams and drops in elevation along canalswhere small generating plants could be installed. New low-head dams could bebuilt to increase output as well. The key to the usefulness of such units is theirability to generate power near where it is needed, reducing the power inevitablylost during transmission.

Peaking with HydropowerDemands for power vary greatly during the day and night. These demands vary

considerably from season to season, as well. For example, the highest peaks areusually found during summer daylight hours when air conditioners are running.


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Nuclear and fossil fuel plants are not efficient for producing power for the shortperiods of increased demand during peak periods. Their operational requirementsand their long startup times make them more efficient for meeting baseload needs.

Since hydroelectric generators can be started or stopped almost instantly,hydropower is more responsive than most other energy sources for meeting peakdemands. Water can be stored overnight in a reservoir until needed during the day,and then released through turbines to generate power to help supply the peak loaddemand. This mixing of power sources offers a utility company the flexibility tooperate steam plants most efficiently as base plants while meeting peak needs withthe help of hydropower. This technique can help ensure reliable supplies and mayhelp eliminate brownouts and blackouts caused by partial or total power failures.


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Today, many of Reclamations 58 power plants are used to meet peak electrical

energy demands, rather than operating around the clock to meet the total dailydemand. Increasing use of other energy-producing power plants in the future willnot make hydroelectric power plants obsolete or unnecessary. On the contrary,

hydropower can be even more important. While nuclear or fossil-fuel power plantscan provide base loads, hydroelectric power plants can deal more economicallywith varying peak load demands. This is a job they are well suited for.

Pumped Storage

Like peaking, pumped storage is a method of keeping water in reserve for peakperiod power demands. Pumped storage is water pumped to a storage pool abovethe powerplant at a time when customer demand for energy is low, such as duringthe middle of the night. The water is then allowed to flow back through theturbine-generators at times when demand is high and a heavy load is place on thesystem.

The reservoir acts much like a battery, storing power in the form of water whendemands are low and producing maximum power during daily and seasonal peakperiods. An advantage of pumped storage is that hydroelectric generating units areable to start up quickly and make rapid adjustments in output. They operateefficiently when used for one hour or several hours.

Because pumped storage reservoirs are relatively small, construction costs aregenerally low compared with conventional hydropower facilities.


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Tying Hydropower to Other Energy

Forms

When we hear the term solar energy, we usually think of heat from the sunsrays which can be put to work. But there are other forms of solar energy. Just ashydropower is a form of solar energy, so too is wind power. In effect, the suncauses the wind to blow by heating air masses that rise, cool, and sink to earthagain. Solar energy in some form is always at work -- in rays of sunlight, in aircurrents, and in the water cycle.Solar energy, in its various forms, has the potential of adding significant amountsof power for our use. The solar energy that reaches our planet in a single week isgreater than that contained in all of the earths remaining coal, oil, and gasresources. However, the best sites for collecting solar energy in various forms areoften far removed from people, their homes, and work places. Building thousandsof miles of new transmission lines would make development of the power toocostly.Because of the seasonal, daily, and even hourly changes in the weather, energyflow from the wind and sun is neither constant nor reliable. Peak production timesdo not always coincide with high power demand times. To depend on the variable

wind and sun as main power sources would not be acceptable to most Americanlifestyles. Imagine having to wait for the wind to blow to cook a meal or for thesun to come out from behind a cloud to watch television!As intermittent energy sources, solar power and wind power must be tied to majorhydroelectric power systems to be both economical and feasible. Hydropower canserve as an instant backup and to meet peak demands.Linking wind power and hydropower can add to the Nations supply of electricalenergy. Large wind machines can be tied to existing hydroelectric power plants.

Wind power can be used, when the wind is blowing, to reduce demands onhydropower. That would allow dams to save their water for later release togenerate power in peak periods.The benefits of solar power and wind power are many. The most valuable featureof all is the replenishing supply of these types of energy. As long as the sun shinesand the wind blows, these resources are truly renewable.


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Future Potential

What is the full potential of hydropower to help meet the Nations energy needs?The hydropower resource assessment by the Department of Energys HydropowerProgram has identified 5,677 sites in the United States with acceptableundeveloped hydropower potential. These sites have a modeled undevelopedcapacity of about 30,000 MW. This represents about 40 percent of the existingconventional hydropower capacity.A variety of restraints exist on this development, some natural and some imposedby our society. The natural restraints include such things as occasional

unfavorable terrain for dams. Other restraints include disagreements about whoshould develop a resource or the resulting changes in environmental conditions.Often, other developments already exist where a hydroelectric power facilitywould require a dam and reservoir to be built.Finding solutions to the problems imposed by natural restraints demands extensiveengineering efforts. Sometimes a solution is impossible, or so expensive that theentire project becomes impractical. Solution to the societal issues is frequentlymuch more difficult and the costs are far greater than those imposed by nature.Developing the full potential of hydropower will require consideration andcoordination of many varied needs.


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Hydropower, the Environment, and

Society

It is important to remember that people, and all their actions, are part of thenatural world. The materials used for building, energy, clothing, food, and all thefamiliar parts of our day-to-day world come from natural resources.Our surroundings are composed largely of the built environment -- structuresand facilities built by humans for comfort, security, and well-being. As our builtenvironment grows, we grow more reliant on its offerings.To meet our needs and support our built environment, we need electricity whichcan be generated by using the resources of natural fuels. Most resources are notrenewable; there is a limited supply. In obtaining resources, it is often necessary todrill oil wells, tap natural gas supplies, or mine coal and uranium. To put water towork on a large scale, storage dams are needed.We know that any innovation introduced by people has an impact on the naturalenvironment. That impact may be desirable to some, and at the same time,unacceptable to others. Using any source of energy has some environmental cost.It is the degree of impact on the environment that is crucial.


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Some human activities have more profound and lasting impacts than others.Techniques to mine resources from below the earth may leave long-lasting scarson the landscape. Oil wells may detract from the beauty of open, grassy fields.Reservoirs behind dams may cover picturesque valleys. Once available, use of

energy sources can further impact the air, land, and water in varying degrees.People want clean air and water and a pleasing environment. We also want energyto heat and light our homes and run our machines. What is the solution?

The situation seems straightforward: The demand for electrical power must becurbed or more power must be produced in environmentally acceptable ways. Thesolution, however, is not so simple.Conservation can save electricity, but at the same time our population is growingsteadily. Growth is inevitable, and with it the increased demand for electric power.

Since natural resources will continue to be used, the wisest solution is a careful,planned approach to their future use. All alternatives must be examined, and themost efficient, acceptable methods must be pursued.

Hydroelectric facilities have many characteristics that favor developing newprojects and upgrading existing power plants:

-- Hydroelectric power plants do not use up limited nonrenewable resources tomake electricity.-- They do not cause pollution of air, land, or water.-- They have low failure rates, low operating costs, and are reliable.--They can provide startup power in the event of a system wide power failure.

As an added benefit, reservoirs have scenic and recreation value for campers,fishermen, and water sports enthusiasts. The water is a home for fish and wildlife

as well. Dams add to domestic water supplies, control water quality, provideirrigation for agriculture, and avert flooding. Dams can actually improvedownstream conditions by allowing mud and other debris to settle out.

Existing power plants can be uprated or new power plants added at current damsites without a significant effect on the environment. New facilities can beconstructed with consideration of the environment. For instance, dams can be built


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at remote locations, power plants can be placed underground, and selectivewithdrawal systems can be used to control the water temperature released from thedam. Facilities can incorporate features that aid fish and wildlife, such as salmonruns or resting places for migratory birds.

In reconciling our natural and our built environments there will be tradeoffs andcompromises. As we learn to live in harmony as part of the environment, we mustseek the best alternatives among all ecologic, economic, technological, and socialperspectives.The value of water must be considered by all energy planners. Some water is nowdammed and can be put to work to make hydroelectric power. Other water ispresently going to waste. The fuel burned to replace this wasted energy is goneforever and, so, is a loss to our Nation.

The longer we delay the balanced development of our potential for hydropower,the more we unnecessarily use up other vital resources.

SOCIAL ASPECTS:

As with other forms of economic activity, hydro projects can have both positiveand negative social aspects. Social costs are mainly associated with transformationof land use in the project area, and displacement of people living in the reservoirarea. Relocating people from the reservoir area is, undoubtedly, the mostchallenging social aspect of hydropower, leading to significant concerns regarding

local culture, religious beliefs, and effects associated with inundating burial sites.While there can never be a 100 percent satisfactory solution to involuntaryresettlement, enormous progress has been made in the way the problem is handled.The countries in Asia and Latin America where resettlement is a major issue havedeveloped comprehensive strategies for compensation and support for people whoare impacted. The keys to success are clearly: timely and continuouscommunications between developers and those affected; adequate compensation,support and long term contact; and efforts to ensure that the disruption ofrelocation is balanced by some direct benefits from the project.

An increasing number of examples (China, India, Brazil, and Ghana) aredemonstrating that current strategies are proving successful, and in some cases arebeing promoted as models from which lessons can be learned for future projects.Although displacement by hydropower can be significant and must be wellhandled, it should be kept in mind that other generating options can also causesignificant resettlement: coal mining and processing and coal ash disposal, also


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displace communities. GHG-induced climate change may eventually causemassive population migrations, if sea levels rise.

Social effects of hydro schemes are variable and project specific. However, ifanticipated and tackled early in the planning stage of a project with the requiredresources, the negative impacts can be addressed in a positive manner for localpeople, or in some cases avoided altogether. Whenever these impacts cannot beavoided or mitigated, compensation measures can be implemented.

During the construction phase of a hydro scheme (often several years) there maybe a large workforce, and access roads can lead to a sudden influx of outsidelabour and the development of new economic activities, with resulting tensions ifpopulations in the area in question are unprepared. Issues of resettlement,sustainable livelihoods, cultural impacts and flood control must be addressed.

Effective mitigation measures can be implemented if local authorities and projectpromoters acknowledge and address these issues. On the positive side, theadditional economic activities create new employment opportunities.

During the operational stage, the hydro project may represent a significant sourceof revenues for local communities. The access roads, local availability ofelectricity and other activities associated with the reservoir are all possible sourcesof sustainable economic and social development. It is clear there must be good co-operation between proponents, authorities, political leaders and communities, andlong-term benefits must be directed to affected communities.

Socially acceptable hydropower means that any proposal for a project must bediscussed with stakeholders and adapted to their needs, and that successfulnegotiations must be concluded with affected local communities for a project tomove ahead.

From a social point of view, the relative success or failure of a hydro project isdetermined by integrating social considerations early into the project design.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS:As mentioned earlier, hydropower has a long history, and lessons have beenprogressively learned. It is clear that many hydro plants in the world haveenvironmental problems, but today the profession is well aware of the problems tobe addressed, the expertise exists to mitigate the known impacts to achieve an


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acceptable balance, and research is continuing. Reservoirs can in fact focusattention on existing problems in a watershed.

It would be virtually impossible today for a hydro plant of significant size to moveahead without detailed studies on its potential impacts being conducted, and acomprehensive report of environmental impacts being prepared. (However, theframework, criteria and degree of public involvement will vary from country tocountry).

The IHA Working Group on Environmental Impact Assessment calls for impactassessment to be an integral part of the multidisciplinary planning approach, and toinclude a strong element of public consultation. EIAs should cover both positiveand negative impacts both upstream and downstream of a proposed project.

SedimentationSedimentation occurs when weathered rock, organic and chemical materialstransported in a river system are trapped in a reservoir. Over time these sedimentsbuild up and begin to occupy a significant volume of the original storage capacity.In addition, since they are trapped, the soils cannot continue to refresh the riversystem downstream of the dam. The lack of these freshening soils often haveadverse impacts to sustainable riparian vegetation, and to the continued use oflands for agriculture. It should be noted that there are potential positive aspect ofsediment retention as pollutants are often retained in sediments, rather than beingallowed to migrate downstream.

While large dams and reservoirs are often designed for an operating life of 100years, there are cases where reservoirs have faced sedimentation problems within amuch shorter time. Although a relatively small proportion of the total number ofexisting dams have a serious problem, many future large dams are likely to be inareas where sedimentation will be a problem, if not anticipated at the planningstage, with appropriate measures being taken.

It is considered imperative to assess as accurately as possible at the conceptual

stage of a project the average annual sediment load entering a reservoir, or passingthrough a run-of-river project, so that appropriate measures can be taken. Effortsalso have to be made to reduce erosion in the catchment area. Work is ongoing inimproving modelling techniques and monitoring systems.

A number of measures can be taken such as periodic flushing or dredging fromreservoirs (successful flushing has been reported in many countries, and especially


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in China). In the case of run-of-river projects, flow diversion structures can beprovided with sediment excluding devices [S. Alam, 1999].

Fish protectionHydropower projects have impacted fish and fisheries in a number of ways. Theseinclude changes in habitat quality and availability, changes in flow regime(maintenance flows and ramping), and fish passage.

During initial construction and filling river habitat is undated and lost fromproduction while reservoir habitat is created. The loss in river habitat may beimportant to the maintenance of associated fish resources.

Compensation programs may be essential to maintaining fish populations. Manyhydroelectric facilities rely on storage of water during high flow periods for use in

generation of energy later in the year. This alteration of the natural river cycle canimpact habitat availability and stability during periods of spawning and incubation.Determining appropriate flows for maintenance of habitat during all life phases isan important step in defining bounds on operations. However, these limitations canbe readily identified and implemented.

The long term operation of storage facilities can also influence the recruitment ofnutrients, sediment and gravel into rivers downstream of reservoirs. The loss ofthis habitat affects river productivity; but can be offset by restoration programs.As projects are usually designed and dimensioned to make optimum use ofavailable water, a large proportion of the natural flow passes through the turbinesand it is inevitable that quantities of fish will enter the generating flow, particularlyat the time of natural migration. In areas supporting an anadromous fishery theproblem is further complicated as the dams form a barrier to returning populations,diminishing the reproduction cycle.

Much research has been done on the specific risks to different sizes and species offish. Measures commonly used include fish screens at turbine inlets, and manycountries require this by law. Finer meshed screens can be placed at times of year

when fish are actively migrating. Various types of self-cleaning screen have beendeveloped to cope with the build-up of debris. Behavioural methods have also beendeveloped to defer fish from the intake, and guide them to the safety of a bypasschannel. These include: louvre screens (which generate turbulence), bubblecurtains acoustic barriers, electrical fields, and underwater lights [Turnpenny,1999]. In certain extreme cases fish are often mechanically transported arounddams, allowing them access to their natural reproduction areas. Well-designed


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behavioural systems (eg, louvre screens or the latest acoustic screeningtechniques), can achieve better than 90 per cent exclusion for certain species.However, certain dams have proven to have significant impacts to native fish.

Knowledge from experimental studies about the mechanisms of fish damage inturbines has in recent years led the development of 'fish-friendly' turbines.(Pressure and velocity characteristics within a rotating turbine can be modelled andthe probability of different risk conditions estimated).

Other concerns regarding fish result from a change in water quality in a reservoirand in the river downstream. Water emerging from a dam tends to be colder, andoften has altered levels of dissolved gases, minerals and chemical content, differentfrom those present prior to the dam. The result, in some cases, is the native fishcannot tolerate the new conditions and are forced to relocate, or suffer mortality

losses.

However, many reservoirs provide an excellent environment for fish whichdevelop in the new, expanded aquatic ecosystems. In several situations gamemanagement agencies have stocked fish in and below the reservoir, with highrecreational value.

Water QualityChanges in water quality are potential outcomes from locating a dam in a river.Effects are often experienced both upstream and downstream of a dam. Some ofthe effects can be increased or decreased dissolved oxygen, increases in totaldissolved gases, modified nutrient levels, thermal modification and heavy metallevels. Relatively few reservoirs have acute problems, and mitigation measures canbe adopted if necessary. Examples are multi-level drawoff works so that betterquality water near the surface can be used, and to induce mixing of the water bodyat lower levels, and oxygenation of the water by auto-venting turbines.

Longer term water quality problems generally reflect changing land use in thewatershed. A recent study sponsored by the Environmental Protection Agency in

the USA identified agricultural practices to be the source of the majority ofincidents, with industrial and municipal waste treatment and discharges also beingmajor contributors. In the developing world the lack of waste treatment in thewatershed will contribute significantly to the future availability of potable drinkingwater.


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The small versus large debateMeasures favouring emerging renewable technology and green energy oftenexclude large hydro, since small projects are perceived as having lower impacts.Research has been done on this subject by a number of organisations, and a paperwas recently presented by a member of the IHA Working Group on Social Aspects[gr, 1999].This paper points out that valid comparisons must compare impactsper unit of output. The impacts of a single large hydro project must be comparedwith the cumulative impacts of several small projects yielding the same power andlevel of service. For example, small projects generally require a greater totalreservoir area than a single large project, to provide the same stored water volume.Nevertheless, small hydropower is a necessary and useful complement to theelectricity generation mix, particularly in rural areas.

The most fundamental determinant of the nature and magnitude of impacts of

hydropower projects are the specific site conditions and not the scale of the project.It is also important to optimize development with respect to the complete riversystem.


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POTENTIAL PATH FORWARD FOR

HYDROPOWER

In assessing future energy production, clearly policies gaining favour are thosewhich emphasize sustainability and the maximum use of renewable energy to meetfuture needs. Consequently, we cannot afford to dismiss any form of renewableenergy from the supply mix.While we acknowledge that hydropower has significant positive and negativeconsequences for society and the environment, we also recognize that all forms ofinfrastructural development, and in particular energy development, have differentdegrees of impacts.But the scientific community has recently recognized that the main threat to

biodiversity and food production is global climate change. In this context, the issueis to what degree will society accept some local impacts of hydropower, in order tomitigate the global impacts of climate change and other environmental threats fromthermal pollution.The IEA/Hydropower Agreement has recently completed a comprehensive five-year study on Hydropower and the Environment. The study analysed virtually allenvironmental aspects of hydropower and offers a compelling list ofrecommendations which address the issues of hydropower development and offerreasonable solutions for future development. Included in the analysis wereconsiderations of social, cultural and economic impacts, as well as impacts to thenatural environment. In considering the potential ramifications of development, theauthors propose that a disciplined approach to pla nning needs to be implementedin the consideration of both existing and future projects. Their approach mustconsider:The need for an Energy Policy FrameworkThe requirement for a Decision Making ProcessA Comparison of Hydropower Project AlternativesImproving Environmental Management of Hydropower PlantsThe Sharing of Benefits with Local Communities

These recommendations, taken cumulatively, could form the basis of guidelines forthe development and management of hydropower projects.The Need for an Energy Policy Framework - Nations should develop energypolicies which clearly set out rational objectives regarding the development of allpower generation options, including hydropower, other renewable sources, andconservation.


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A Decision Making Process - Stakeholders should establish an equitable,credible and effective environmental assessment process which considers theinterests of people and the environment within a predictable and reasonableschedule. The process should focus on achieving the highest quality of decisions in

a reasonable period of time.Comparison of Hydropower Alternatives - Project designers should applyenvironmental and social criteria when comparing project alternatives, to eliminateunacceptable alternatives early in the planning process.Improving Environmental Management of Hydropower Plants - Project designand operation should be optimized by ensuring the proper management ofenvironmental and social issues throughout the project operation cycle.Sharing local Benefits with Local Communities - Local communities shouldbenefit from a project, both in the short term and in the long term.Together, these five categories of recommendations constitute a sustainable

approach to renewable hydropower resource development.

FUTURE ASPECTS

The deregulation of wholesale electricity sales and the imposition ofrequirements for open transmission access are resulting in dramatic changes inthe business of electric power production. This restructuring increases theimportance of clean, reliable energy sources such as hydropower.Hydropower is important from an operational standpoint as it needs no "ramp-up"time, as many combustion technologies do. Hydropower can increase or decreasethe amount of power it is supplying to the system almost instantly to meetshifting demand. With this important load-following capability, peaking capacityand voltage stability attributes, hydropower plays a significant part in ensuringreliable electricity service and in meeting customer needs in a market drivenindustry. In addition, hydroelectric pumped storage facilities are the onlysignificant way currently available to store electricity.Hydropowers ability to provide peaking power, load following, and frequencycontrol helps protect against system failures that could lead to the damage ofequipment and even brown or blackouts. Hydropower, besides being emissions-free and renewable has the above operating benefits that provide enhanced valueto the electric system in the form of efficiency, security, and most important,reliability. The electric benefits provided by hydroelectric resources are of vital


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importance to the success of our National experiment to deregulate the electricindustry.Water is one of our most valuable resources, and hydropower makes use of thisrenewable treasure. As a National leader in managing hydropower, Reclamation

is helping the Nation meet its present and future energy needs in a manner thatprotects the environment by improving hydropower projects and operating themmore effectively.As robust global economic expansion continues, the question of where a growingworld population will continue to get the electricity to drive the economic engineremains. While most of the new generation supply will come from thermalresources, conventional thinking on the development of new resources andsupplies should provide greater emphasis on using sustainable, renewable

resources.Hydroelectric power has an important role to play in the future, and providesconsiderable benefits to an integrated electric system. This paper hasdemonstrated an awareness within the industry of the social and environmentalimpacts of hydropower which need to be addressed for any project; the expertisewhich exists to avoid or mitigate negative impacts; and the ongoing research.

The world's remaining hydroelectric potential needs to be considered in the newenergy mix, with planned projects taking into consideration social andenvironmental impacts, so that necessary mitigation and compensation measurescan be taken. Clearly, the population affected by a project should enjoy a betterquality of life as a result of the project.

Hydro development should go hand in hand with further research anddevelopment in the field of other renewable options such as solar and windpower. Energy conservation measures should also be optimized and encouraged.

Any development involves change and some degree of compromise, and it is aquestion of assessing benefits and impacts at an early enough stage, and inadequate detail, with the full involvement of those people affected, so that theright balance can be achieved.


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Two billion people in developing countries have no reliable electricity supply,and especially in these countries for the foreseeable future, hydropower offers arenewable energy source on a realistic scale.

Impacts of hydro projects are well understood today. Appropriate mitigation andcompensation measures must be identified and taken to ensure that any projectrepresents a net gain for affected populations.

Systems exist to provide improved planning processes and better qualitydecisions, and in turn these ensure that social and environmental concerns areintegrated with issues of economic and technical feasibility. The hydropowerindustry must collaborate with interested stakeholders including regulatory

bodies, global financial leaders, and competent interest groups, to develop futurestandards to ensure balanced and reasonable planning, construction and operationof hydroelectric powerplants.

GLOSSARY

Alternating Current An electric current changing regularly from

one direction to the opposite.Ampere The common unit of measurement of electrical

current.Base load The minimum constant amount of load connected

to the power system over a given time period,usually on a monthly, seasonal, or yearly basis.

Base load Plant A plant, usually housing high-efficiency steam-electric units, which is normally operated to takeall or part of the minimum load of a system, andwhich consequently produces electricity at an

essentially constant rate and runs continuously.These units are operated to maximize systemmechanical and thermal efficiency and minimizesystem operating costs.

Bus (bus work) A conductor, or group of conductors, that serve asa common connection for two or more electricalcircuits. In power plants, bus work comprises the


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three rigid single-phase connectors thatinterconnect the generator and the step-uptransformer(s).

Capability The maximum load that a generating unit,generating station, or other electrical apparatus

can carry under specified conditions for a givenperiod of time without exceeding approved limitsof temperature and stress.

Capacity The amount of electric power delivered orrequired for which a generator, turbine,transformer, transmission circuit, station, orsystem is rated by the manufacturer.

Circuit A conductor or a system of conductors throughwhich electric current flows.

Current (Electric) A flow of electrons in an electrical conductor.The strength or rate of movement of theelectricity is measured in amperes.

Dam A massive wall or structure built across a valleyor river for storing water.

Demand The rate at which electric energy is delivered to orby a system, part of a system, or a piece ofequipment. It is expressed in kilowatts, kilovoltamperes, or other suitable units at a given instantor averaged over any designated period of time.The primary source of "demand" is the power-consuming equipment of the customers.

Direct Current Electric current going in one direction only.Distribution System The portion of an electric system that is dedicated

to delivering electric energy to an end user. Thedistribution system "steps down" power fromhigh-voltage transmission lines to a level that canbe used in homes and businesses.

Energy The capacity for doing work as measured by thecapability of doing work (potential energy) or the

conversion of this capability to motion (kineticenergy). Energy has several forms, some of whichare easily convertible and can be changed toanother form useful for work. Most of the world'sconvertible energy comes from fossil fuels thatare burned to produce heat that is then used as atransfer medium to mechanical or other means in


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order to accomplish tasks. Electrical energy isusually measured in kilowatt hours and representspower (kilowatts) operating for some time period(hours), while heat energy is usually measured inBritish thermal units.

Generation (Electricity) The process of producing electric energy bytransforming other forms of energy; also, theamount of electric energy produced, expressed inwatt hours (Wh).

Generator A machine that converts mechanical energy intoelectrical energy.

Head The difference in elevation between theheadwater surface above and the tail watersurface below a hydroelectric power plant underspecified conditions.

Horsepower A unit of rate of doing work equal to 33,000 footpounds per minute or 745.8 watts (Brit.), 746watts (USA), or 736 watts (Europe).

Hydroelectric Power Electric current produced from water power.Hydroelectric Power plant A building in which turbines are operated, to

drive generators, by the energy of natural orartificial waterfalls.

Kilowatt (kW) Unit of electric power equal to 1,000 watts orabout 1.34 horsepower. For example, it's theamount of electric energy required to light ten100-watt light bulbs.

Kilowatt-Hour (kWh) The unit of electrical energy commonly used inmarketing electric power; the energy produced by1 kilowatt acting for one hour. Ten 100-watt lightbulbs burning for one hour would consume onekilowatt hour of electricity.

Kinetic Energy Energy which a moving body has because of itsmotion, dependent on its mass and the rate atwhich it is moving.

Load (Electric) The amount of electric power delivered orrequired at any specific point or points on asystem. The requirement originates at the energy-consuming equipment of the consumers.

Megawatt A unit of power equal to one million watts. Forexample, it's the amount of electric energyrequired to light 10,000 100-watt bulbs.


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Ohm The unit of measurement of electrical resistance.The resistance of a circuit in which a potentialdifference of one volt produces a current of oneampere.

Peakload The greatest amount of power given out or taken

in by a machine or power distribution system in agiven time.

Power Mechanical or electrical force or energy. The rateat which work is done by an electric current ormechanical force, generally measured in watts orhorsepower.

Pumped-Storage Hydroelectric Plant A plant that usually generates electric energyduring peak-load periods by using waterpreviously pumped into an elevated storagereservoir during off-peak periods when excess

generating capacity is available to do so. Whenadditional generating capacity is needed, thewater can be released from the reservoir through aconduit to turbine generators located in a powerplant at a lower level.

Rated Capacity That capacity which a hydro generator can deliverwithout exceeding mechanical safety factors or anominal temperature rise. In general this is alsothe nameplate rating except where turbine powerunder maximum head is insufficient to deliver thenameplate rating of the generator.

Reservoir An artificial lake into which water flows and isstored for future use.

Turbine A machine for generating rotary mechanicalpower from the energy of a stream of fluid (suchas water, steam, or hot gas). Turbines convert thekinetic energy of fluids to mechanical energythrough the principles of impulse and reaction, ora mixture of the two.

Volt (V) The unit of electromotive force or potentialdifference that will cause a current of one ampere

to flow through a conductor with a resistance ofone ohm.

Watt (W) The unit used to measure production/usage rate ofall types of energy; the unit for power. The rate ofenergy transfer equivalent to one ampere flowingunder a pressure of one volt at unity power factor.


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Watt hour (Wh) The unit of energy equal to the work done by onewatt in one hour.

REFERENCES

1. ^The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition2. ^Source: Tijdschrift voor Nederlandse Taal- en Letterkunde (Magazine for Dutch

Language and Literature), 1947. The first known appearance of the word dam stemsfrom 1165. However, there is one village, Obdam, that is already mentioned in 1120. Theword seems to be related to the Greek word taphos, meaning grave or grave hill. So theword should be understood as dike from dug out earth. The names of more than 40 places(with minor changes) from the Middle Dutch era (11501500 CE) such asAmsterdam(founded as 'Amstelredam' in the late 12th century) andRotterdam, also bear testimony tothe use of the word in Middle Dutch at that time.

3. ^Gnther Garbrecht: "Wasserspeicher (Talsperren) in der Antike",Antike Welt, 2ndspecial edition:Antiker Wasserbau (1986), pp.51-64 (52)

4. ^S.W. Helms: "Jawa Excavations 1975. Third Preliminary Report", Levant 19775. âbGnther Garbrecht: "Wasserspeicher (Talsperren) in der Antike",Antike Welt, 2nd

special edition:Antiker Wasserbau (1986), pp.51-64 (52f.)6. âbMohamed Bazza (28-30)."overview of the hystory of water resources and irrigation

management in the near east region"(PDF).http://www.fao.org/world/Regional/RNE/morelinks/Publications/English/HYSTORY-OF-WATER-RESOURCES.pdf. Retrieved 2007-08-01.

7. ^"The reservoirs of Dholavira". The Southasia Trust. December 2008.http://himalmag.com/component/content/article/44/1062-The-reservoirs-of-Dholavira.html. Retrieved 27 February 2011.

8. âbSmith 1971, p. 499. ^Smith 1971, p. 49;Hodge 1992, pp. 79f.10.^Smith 1971, p. 4211.^Hodge 1992, p. 8712.^Hodge 2000, pp. 331f.13.^Hodge 2000, p. 332;James & Chanson 200214.^Smith 1971, pp. 3335;Schnitter 1978, pp. 31f.;Schnitter 1987a, p. 12;Schnitter

1987c, p. 80;Hodge 2000, p. 332, fn. 215.^Schnitter 1987b, pp. 596216.^Schnitter 1978, p. 29;Schnitter 1987b, pp. 60, table 1, 62;James & Chanson 2002;

Arenillas & Castillo 200317.^Vogel 1987, p. 5018.^Singh, Vijay P.; Ram Narayan Yadava (2003),Water Resources System Operation:

Proceedings of the International Conference on Water and Environment, Allied
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Publishers, p. 508,ISBN817764548X,http://books.google.com/?id=Bge-0XX6ip8C&pg=PA508&dq=kallanai#PPA508,M1

19.^"This is the oldest stone water-diversion or water-regulator structure in the world".Archived fromthe originalon 2007-02-06.http://web.archive.org/web/20070206130842/http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/tradition

water.pdf. Retrieved 2007-05-27.20. http://www.usbr.gov/power/edu/history.htm, July 9, 2003 Updated 2006-Aug 1: NewURL is http://www.usbr.gov/power/who/history.html21. Personal communications with Brit Story, Senior Historian, Bureau of Reclamation.22. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/txt/ptb1801a.html and

http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/txt/ptb0103.html, July 9, 2003 Updated link:http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/txt/ptb1701.html, August 19, 2006.

23. Energy: Its Use and the Environment, 2nd Edition by Roger A. Hinrichs, SaundersCollege Publishing, Orlando, 1996.

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