Sentence Patterns and Sentence Patterns and Parts of SpeechParts of Speech

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What shall we start in grammar What shall we start in grammar study?study?

Sentence

What elements do English sentences What elements do English sentences contain?contain?

What are the basic patterns of What are the basic patterns of English sentences? English sentences?

How can we identify them?How can we identify them?

What is sentence?What is sentence?

a group of words, usually containing a a group of words, usually containing a verb, which expresses a thought in the verb, which expresses a thought in the form of a statement, question, instruction form of a statement, question, instruction or exclamation and starts with a capital or exclamation and starts with a capital letter when written.letter when written.

A sentence is a group of words which, A sentence is a group of words which, when they are written down, begin with a when they are written down, begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop, capital letter and end with a full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark. Most question mark, or exclamation mark. Most sentences contain a subject and a verb. sentences contain a subject and a verb.

Regular and irregular sentencesRegular and irregular sentences

Mary sneezedMary sneezed Hello!Hello!; ; YesYes; ; NoNo; ; So long!So long!; ; Thanks!Thanks!; ;

Cheers!Cheers! Pam hates it when Lee calls her at Pam hates it when Lee calls her at

work.work.

Clause Clause

a group of words, consisting of a a group of words, consisting of a subjectsubject and a and a finite formfinite form of a of a verbverb (= the form t (= the form that shows the hat shows the tensetense and subject of the v and subject of the verb), which might or might not be a senterb), which might or might not be a sentence ence

sentenceclause

Clause elements and structuresClause elements and structures

How can we identify clause How can we identify clause elements?elements?• The evenings have turned very cold just The evenings have turned very cold just

recently.recently.

The evenings have turned very cold just recently.

Subject verb complement adverbial

Classification: chain and choice Classification: chain and choice relationshiprelationship

Distinctions between the elements-and between types within the elements - are based on • (i) forms (noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phr

ase, finite clause, etc), • (ii) position, • (iii) syntactic function other than positional pote

ntialities, and • (iv) semantic role

Basic clause patternsBasic clause patterns Someone was laughing loudly in the next room. My mother usually enjoys parties very much. In 1945 the country became totally independent. I have been in the garden all the time since lunch. Mary gave the visitor a glass of milk. Most people consider these books rather

expensive, actually. You must put all the toys upstairs immediately

Someone [S] was laughing [V] loudly [A] in the next room [A].

My mother [S] usually [A] enjoys [V] parties [0] very much [A].

In 1945 [A] the country [S] became [V] totally independent [C].

I [S] have been [V] in the garden [A] all the time [A] since lunch [A].

Mary [S] gave [V] the visitor [0] a glass of milk [O]. Most people [S] consider [V] these books [0] rather

expensive [C], actually [A]. You [S] must put [V] all the toys [O] upstairs [A]

immediately [A]

Immediate constituency

subject verb object Compliment adverbial

transitive intransitive link

clause  

phrase The evenings

have turned very cold just recently

word Noun The, evenings

Have, turned   Very, cold Just, recentlyVerb

Adjective

Adverb

determiner

preposition

pronoun

conjunction

interjection

morpheme The, evening, -s

Have, turn, -ed   Very, cold Just, recent, -ly

SubjectsSubjects (a) FORM The subject is normally a noun phrase or a

pronoun. But other linguistic categories can also be seen:• GerundGerund Studying hard always makes me sleepy.Studying hard always makes me sleepy.• InfinitiveInfinitive To go without you wouldn’t be any fun.To go without you wouldn’t be any fun.• ClauseClause

What he said wasn’t very polite.What he said wasn’t very polite. (b) POSITION The subject normally occurs before the

verb in declarative clauses, and after the operator in yes-no interrogative clauses

(c) Syntactic function(c) Syntactic function The subject normally comes before the verb in declaratives, but in questions it comes after the opeThe subject normally comes before the verb in declaratives, but in questions it comes after the ope

rator:rator: [1] [1] They They (S) (S) accepted accepted (V) full responsibility.(V) full responsibility. [1a] [1a] Did Did (op) (op) they they (S) (S) accept accept (V) full responsibility?(V) full responsibility?

The subject comes before the verb even in questions if The subject comes before the verb even in questions if who who or or what what or an interrogative phrase or an interrogative phrase such as such as which person which person is the subject:is the subject:

[[1b] Who (S) accepted (V) full responsibility?1b] Who (S) accepted (V) full responsibility? The subject is normally absent in imperatives:The subject is normally absent in imperatives:

Help Help (V) me with the luggage.(V) me with the luggage. Some Some pronouns pronouns (words like (words like II, , youyou, , sheshe, , hehe, , theythey) have a distinctive form when they function a) have a distinctive form when they function a

s subject of the sentence or of clauses in the sentence:s subject of the sentence or of clauses in the sentence: She She (S) knows (S) knows me me well.well.

I I (S) know (S) know her her well, and well, and they they (S) know (S) know her her well too.well too. The subject determines the form of The subject determines the form of reflexive pronouns reflexive pronouns (those ending in (those ending in -self -self ; such as ; such as herselfherself, ,

ourselvesourselves, , themselvesthemselves) that appear in the same clause:) that appear in the same clause: I I (S) hurt (S) hurt myself myself badly.badly. The child cried when The child cried when he he (S) hurt (S) hurt himself himself badly.badly. You You (S) can look at (S) can look at yourself yourself in the mirror.in the mirror. She She (S) can look at (S) can look at herself herself in the mirror.in the mirror.

When we turn an active sentence into a passive sentence we change the subjects:When we turn an active sentence into a passive sentence we change the subjects:• Active: Active: The police The police (S) called (S) called the bomb-disposal squadthe bomb-disposal squad..• Passive: Passive: The bomb-disposal squad The bomb-disposal squad (S) was called by (S) was called by the policethe police..

We can also omit the subject of the active sentence when we form the passive sentence, and inWe can also omit the subject of the active sentence when we form the passive sentence, and indeed we generally do so:deed we generally do so:

Passive: Passive: The bomb-disposal squad The bomb-disposal squad was called.was called. The subject is repeated in a tag question by a pronoun form (cf 11.8ff):

• I The milk is sour, isn't it?

SEMANTIC PROPERTIES

(i) The subject is typically the theme (or topic) of the clause.

(ii) It typically refers to information that is regarded by the speaker as given.

(iii) In a clause that is not passive, the subject is agentive if the agentive role is expressed in the clause.

Subject verb agreementSubject verb agreement

Grammatical agreement can be defined as the Grammatical agreement can be defined as the relationship between two grammatical units such relationship between two grammatical units such that one of them displays a particular feature that one of them displays a particular feature (e.g. (e.g. plurality) that accords with a displayed (or plurality) that accords with a displayed (or semantically implicit) feature in the other. The semantically implicit) feature in the other. The most important type of agreement in English is most important type of agreement in English is agreement of 3rd person number between agreement of 3rd person number between subject and verb. The normally observed rule is subject and verb. The normally observed rule is very simple:very simple:• A singular subject requires a singular verb:A singular subject requires a singular verb: e.g. My daughter e.g. My daughter watches watches television after supper. television after supper. A plural subject requires a plural verb:A plural subject requires a plural verb: e.g. My daughters watch television after supper. e.g. My daughters watch television after supper.

When the subject is realized by a noun phrase, the phrase When the subject is realized by a noun phrase, the phrase counts as singular if its head is singular:counts as singular if its head is singular:e.g. The CHANGE in male attitudes is most obvious in industry.e.g. The CHANGE in male attitudes is most obvious in industry. The CHANGES in male attitude are most obvious in industry.The CHANGES in male attitude are most obvious in industry.

Finite and nonfinite clauses generally count as singular:Finite and nonfinite clauses generally count as singular:e.g. How you got there doesn't concern me.e.g. How you got there doesn't concern me. To treat them as hostages is criminal.To treat them as hostages is criminal. Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to your health.Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to your health.

Prepositional phrases and adverbs functioning as subject Prepositional phrases and adverbs functioning as subject also count as singular:also count as singular:e.g. In the evenings is best for me. Slowly does it!e.g. In the evenings is best for me. Slowly does it!

An apparent exception for clauses is the nominal relative clause. Nominal relative An apparent exception for clauses is the nominal relative clause. Nominal relative clauses are on the continuum from clause to noun phrase. For the purpose of conclauses are on the continuum from clause to noun phrase. For the purpose of concord, their number depends on the interpretation of the number of the wh-elemecord, their number depends on the interpretation of the number of the wh-element. With the determiners what and whatever, the concord depends on the numbent. With the determiners what and whatever, the concord depends on the number of the determined nounr of the determined noun::

e.g. What were supposed to be new proposals were in fact modifications of earlier ones. e.g. What were supposed to be new proposals were in fact modifications of earlier ones. What was once a palace is now a pile of rubble. What was once a palace is now a pile of rubble. Whatever book a Times reviewer praises sells well. Whatever book a Times reviewer praises sells well. What ideas he has are his wife's. What ideas he has are his wife's.

The application of the general rule is restricted in several general respects: The application of the general rule is restricted in several general respects: Except for the verb BE, the verb shows a distinction of number only in the 3rd perExcept for the verb BE, the verb shows a distinction of number only in the 3rd per

son present. Hence, the verb generally does not show concord in the past. The veson present. Hence, the verb generally does not show concord in the past. The verb BE displays concord also in the 3rd person past:rb BE displays concord also in the 3rd person past:• My daughter was watching television in my bedroom.My daughter was watching television in my bedroom.• My daughters were watching television in my bedroom.My daughters were watching television in my bedroom.

Number concord is displayed only in the indicative. Nonfinite verbs, imperatives, Number concord is displayed only in the indicative. Nonfinite verbs, imperatives, and subjunctives make no number distinctionsand subjunctives make no number distinctions

Modal auxiliaries make no number distinctionsModal auxiliaries make no number distinctions::• My daughter(s) may My daughter(s) may watch television after supperwatch television after supper

GRAMMATICAL CONCORDGRAMMATICAL CONCORD NOTIONAL CONCORDNOTIONAL CONCORD

• Notional concord is agreement of verb with Notional concord is agreement of verb with subject according to the notion of number subject according to the notion of number rather than with the actual presence of the rather than with the actual presence of the grammatical marker for that notion:grammatical marker for that notion:

e.g. The government broken all e.g. The government broken all promises. promises.

Fish and chips a popular supper Fish and chips a popular supper here. here.

have their

is

The choice between singular or plural verbs depends in BrE on whether the group The choice between singular or plural verbs depends in BrE on whether the group is being considered as a single undivided body, or as a collection of individuals. Tis being considered as a single undivided body, or as a collection of individuals. Thus,, in BrE plural is more likely than singular, because attention is directed at the hus,, in BrE plural is more likely than singular, because attention is directed at the individual reactions of members of the audience. individual reactions of members of the audience. • The audience The audience werewere enjoying every minute of it. enjoying every minute of it. • The audience The audience werewere enjoying every minute of it. enjoying every minute of it. • The publicThe public areare tired of demonstrations. tired of demonstrations. • England England havehave won the cup. won the cup. • Our Planning Committee Our Planning Committee havehave considered your request.considered your request.

On the other hand, the singular is more likely in these sentences:On the other hand, the singular is more likely in these sentences:• The audience The audience waswas enormous.enormous.• The public The public consistsconsists of you and me.of you and me.• The crowd The crowd hashas been dispersed.been dispersed.

It is generally safer in BrE to use the singular verb where there is doubt, in obedieIt is generally safer in BrE to use the singular verb where there is doubt, in obedience to grammatical concord. AmE generally treats singular collective nouns as sinnce to grammatical concord. AmE generally treats singular collective nouns as singular. Terms for the government and for sports teams are nearly always treated agular. Terms for the government and for sports teams are nearly always treated as singular in AmE, but other terms may (less commonly than in BrE) take plural ves singular in AmE, but other terms may (less commonly than in BrE) take plural verbs: rbs: • The administration The administration has has announced its plans for stimulating the economy.announced its plans for stimulating the economy.• America America has has won the cup.won the cup.• The public The public has has a right to know. [also in AmE: The public a right to know. [also in AmE: The public have have a right to knowa right to know

the principle of PROXIMITYthe principle of PROXIMITY• The principle of proximity, also termed The principle of proximity, also termed

'attraction', denotes agreement of the 'attraction', denotes agreement of the verb with a closely preceding noun verb with a closely preceding noun phrase in preference to agreement with phrase in preference to agreement with the head of the noun phrase that the head of the noun phrase that functions as subject:functions as subject:

e.g. There a man and two women e.g. There a man and two women in the car.in the car.

is

Some constructions where the Some constructions where the principle of proximity appliesprinciple of proximity applies

Not only…but also…Not only…but also… Not only the students but also the teacher enjoying the Not only the students but also the teacher enjoying the

film. film. Not … but …Not … but … Not the child but the parents to blame. Not the child but the parents to blame. Neither … nor…Neither … nor… Neither the students nor the teacher anything about it.Neither the students nor the teacher anything about it. Either… or …Either… or … Either he or I right.Either he or I right. Whether… or…Whether… or… Whether you orWhether you or someone that you love dealing with an someone that you love dealing with an

anxiety disorder, it can often feel as though your life has anxiety disorder, it can often feel as though your life has been brought to a halt been brought to a halt

is

are

knows

am

is

Interaction of three principlesInteraction of three principles Interaction of the different principles occurs in the Interaction of the different principles occurs in the

context where the subject contains (a) a context where the subject contains (a) a collective noun head; (b) coordination; and (c) an collective noun head; (b) coordination; and (c) an indefinite expression.indefinite expression.• Ten dollars Ten dollars is is all I have left. ['That amount is. . all I have left. ['That amount is. . .'l.'l• Fifteen years Fifteen years represents represents aa long period of his lifelong period of his life• More than a thousand inhabitants More than a thousand inhabitants have have signed the signed the

petition. petition. • More than one member More than one member has has protested against the protested against the

proposal. proposal. • Many a member Many a member has has protested against the proposal.protested against the proposal.• One and a half years One and a half years have have passed since we last met.passed since we last met.

Coordinated subjectCoordinated subject Coordination comprises cases that correspond to fuller coordinate formCoordination comprises cases that correspond to fuller coordinate form

s. A plural verb is used even if each conjoin is singular:s. A plural verb is used even if each conjoin is singular:• Tom and Alice Tom and Alice are are now readynow ready

A plural verb is similarly required in asyndetic coordination (without a coA plural verb is similarly required in asyndetic coordination (without a coordinator):ordinator):• His camera, his radio, his money His camera, his radio, his money were were confiscated by the customs officials.confiscated by the customs officials.

Conjoins expressing a mutual relationship, even though they can only inConjoins expressing a mutual relationship, even though they can only indirectly be treated as reductions of clauses in this way, also take a plural directly be treated as reductions of clauses in this way, also take a plural verb:verb:• Your problem and mine Your problem and mine are are similar. ['Your problem is similar to mine and minsimilar. ['Your problem is similar to mine and min

e is similar to yours.']e is similar to yours.']• What I say and do What I say and do are are two different things. ['What I say is one thing and what two different things. ['What I say is one thing and what

I do is another thing.']I do is another thing.'] If a singular noun phrase is followed by If a singular noun phrase is followed by etc etc and similar abbreviatory exprand similar abbreviatory expr

essions essions (and so on, and so forth), (and so on, and so forth), a plural verb is normal:a plural verb is normal:• The size etc The size etc are are less important for our purposes.less important for our purposes.

Preposed Preposed each each or or every every has a distributive effect and requires a singular has a distributive effect and requires a singular verb:verb:• Every adult and every child Every adult and every child was was holding a flag.holding a flag.• Each senator and congressman Each senator and congressman was was allocated two seats.allocated two seats.

The principle of notional concord explains:The principle of notional concord explains:• The hammer and sickle The hammer and sickle was was flying from the flagpole.flying from the flagpole.• Danish bacon and eggs Danish bacon and eggs makes makes a good solid English breakfast.a good solid English breakfast.• The Bat and Ball The Bat and Ball sells sells good beer.good beer.

Despite the coordination, the subject names a single flag, a Despite the coordination, the subject names a single flag, a single meal, and a single pub respectively. Contrast:single meal, and a single pub respectively. Contrast:• Danish bacon and eggs Danish bacon and eggs sell very sell very well in London.well in London.

Arithmetical sums may be used with a singular or plural Arithmetical sums may be used with a singular or plural verb:verb:

Two and two four.Two and two four. So also So also Ten times five is Ten times five is (or (or are) fifty; Two fives make are) fifty; Two fives make

(or (or makes) ten. makes) ten. But But Two fives are ten; Ten minus two Two fives are ten; Ten minus two is eight; Ten into fifty is five.is eight; Ten into fifty is five.

isare

Coordination within a singular subjectCoordination within a singular subject

A singular noncount noun head may be premodified by phrases coordinated by A singular noncount noun head may be premodified by phrases coordinated by aand. nd. As subject, the resulting noun phrase may imply two (or more) separate senteAs subject, the resulting noun phrase may imply two (or more) separate sentences, and may then be legitimately followed by a plural verb:nces, and may then be legitimately followed by a plural verb:• American and Dutch beer American and Dutch beer are are (both) much lighter than British beer.(both) much lighter than British beer.• White and brown sugar White and brown sugar are are (equally) acceptable for this recipe.(equally) acceptable for this recipe.

But a singular verb is often used in this context, and is required when the phrases But a singular verb is often used in this context, and is required when the phrases are postmodifying:are postmodifying:• Beer from America and HollandBeer from America and Holland isis much lighter than British beer.much lighter than British beer.

When the subject is a nominal relative clause, coordination reduction allows somWhen the subject is a nominal relative clause, coordination reduction allows some variation in number interpretation:e variation in number interpretation:• What I say and doWhat I say and do are are my own affair. my own affair. • What I say and do What I say and do isis my own affair. my own affair.

A A generic noun phrasgeneric noun phrase with a singular count head requires a plural verb when the with a singular count head requires a plural verb when the head is premodified and the premodification contains coordination by e head is premodified and the premodification contains coordination by and: and: • The short-term and (the) long-term loan The short-term and (the) long-term loan areare handled very differently by the bank.handled very differently by the bank.• A first-language and (a) second-language learner A first-language and (a) second-language learner shareshare some strategies in their acquisitisome strategies in their acquisiti

on of the language.on of the language.

Coordinative appositionCoordinative apposition In coordinative apposition, each of the coordinated uIn coordinative apposition, each of the coordinated u

nits has the same reference. Hence, a singular verb is rnits has the same reference. Hence, a singular verb is required if each noun phrase is singular. .equired if each noun phrase is singular. .• This temple of ugliness and memorial to victorian bad taste This temple of ugliness and memorial to victorian bad taste ww

asas erected in the main street of the city erected in the main street of the city However, the following examples could either a singulHowever, the following examples could either a singul

ar or plural verb, depending on the meaning:ar or plural verb, depending on the meaning:• His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his collected pHis aged servant and the subsequent editor of his collected p

apers apers was/werewas/were with him at his deathbed. with him at his deathbed.• Law and order Law and order has/havehas/have been established.been established.

Quasi-coordinationQuasi-coordination Subject noun phrases may be linked by quasi-coordinators, Subject noun phrases may be linked by quasi-coordinators, i.e. i.e.

prepositions (such as prepositions (such as along with, rather than, along with, rather than, and and as well as) as well as) that arethat are semantically similar to coordinators. Grammatical semantically similar to coordinators. Grammatical concord requires aconcord requires a singular verb if the first noun phrase is singular verb if the first noun phrase is singular:singular:• The captain, as well as the other players, The captain, as well as the other players, waswas tired.tired.• One speaker after anotherOne speaker after another was was complaining about the lack of adequate complaining about the lack of adequate

sanitation.sanitation. If an adverbial is attached to a second noun phrase linked to the If an adverbial is attached to a second noun phrase linked to the

first noun phrase by first noun phrase by and, and, the construction is considered the construction is considered parenthetic, and grammatical concord similarly requires the verb parenthetic, and grammatical concord similarly requires the verb to agree in number with the first noun phrase :to agree in number with the first noun phrase :• A A writer, and sometimes an artist, writer, and sometimes an artist, isis invited to address the society.invited to address the society.• The ambassador - and perhaps his wife too - The ambassador - and perhaps his wife too - is is likely to be present.likely to be present.

The same grammatical rule applies when the second phrase is The same grammatical rule applies when the second phrase is negative, whether or not linked by negative, whether or not linked by and, and, though here the principle though here the principle of notional concord reinforces the use of the singular:of notional concord reinforces the use of the singular:• The Prime Minister, (and) not the monarch, The Prime Minister, (and) not the monarch, decides decides government government

policy.policy.

Coordination with or and norCoordination with or and nor The principle of proximity prevails in either…or construction:The principle of proximity prevails in either…or construction:

• Either the Mayor or her deputy is bound to come.Either the Mayor or her deputy is bound to come.• Either the strikers or the bosses have misunderstood the claim.Either the strikers or the bosses have misunderstood the claim.• Either your brakes or your eyesight is at fault.Either your brakes or your eyesight is at fault.• Either your eyesight or your brakes are at fault.Either your eyesight or your brakes are at fault.

When When or or is used for coordinative appositionis used for coordinative apposition, , grammatical grammatical agreement requires the number of the verb to agree with the first agreement requires the number of the verb to agree with the first appositive if the two appositives differ in number:appositive if the two appositives differ in number:• The hero, or main protagonist, The hero, or main protagonist, is is Major Coleman.Major Coleman.

The rules for the negative correlatives The rules for the negative correlatives neither. neither. . . . . nor nor are the are the same as for same as for either. either. . . . . or or in formal usage.in formal usage.• Neither he nor his wife has arrived.Neither he nor his wife has arrived.

The coordinating correlatives The coordinating correlatives nor. nor. . . . . but but and and nor nor only/just/merely. only/just/merely. . . . . but (also/even) but (also/even) behave like behave like or or with respect to with respect to number concord:number concord:• Not only he but his wife Not only he but his wife has arrihas arrived.ved.• Not (only) one but all of us Not (only) one but all of us were were invited.invited.

Indefinite expressions as Indefinite expressions as subjectsubject

No peopleNo people of that name of that name livelive here.here. Some/any/half/allSome/any/half/all has/havehas/have been taken away. been taken away. NoneNone (of the books) have/has been placed on the (of the books) have/has been placed on the

shelf.shelf. The two guests have arrived, The two guests have arrived, andand either/but either/but

neitherneither isis welcome. welcome. NobodyNobody, not even the teachers, , not even the teachers, is is listening. listening. These sort of partiesThese sort of parties areare dangerous (informal) dangerous (informal) A (large) number ofA (large) number of people people havehave applied for the applied for the

job.job. The majorityThe majority areare Moslems.Moslems.

Verbs: transitive vs. intransitive vs. linkVerbs: transitive vs. intransitive vs. link

If a main verb requires a If a main verb requires a direct object direct object to complete the sentence, it is a to complete the sentence, it is a ttransitive ransitive verb. The term ‘transitive’ comes from the notion that a perverb. The term ‘transitive’ comes from the notion that a person (represented byson (represented by the subject of the sentence) performs an action that the subject of the sentence) performs an action that affects some person or thing:affects some person or thing: there is a ‘transition’ of the action from there is a ‘transition’ of the action from the one to the other. Indeed, thethe one to the other. Indeed, the object typically refers to a person or thiobject typically refers to a person or thing directly affected by the actionng directly affected by the action described in the sentence:described in the sentence:• Helen received Helen received my emailmy email..• They ate They ate all the strawberriesall the strawberries..• I dusted I dusted the bookshelves in my bedroomthe bookshelves in my bedroom..• Anthony stroked Anthony stroked his beardhis beard..

One way of identifying the direct object in a declarative sentence is by asOne way of identifying the direct object in a declarative sentence is by asking a question introduced by king a question introduced by who who or or what what followed by the operator anfollowed by the operator and the subject. The object is the constituent that d the subject. The object is the constituent that who who or or what what questions:questions:• Sandra recorded the adverse effects of the changes.Sandra recorded the adverse effects of the changes.• What What (dO) (dO) did did (op) (op) Sandra Sandra (S) record?(S) record?• The adverse effects of the changesThe adverse effects of the changes

If a main verb does not require another element to If a main verb does not require another element to complete it, the verb is complete it, the verb is intransitiveintransitive::• Everyone is Everyone is waitingwaiting, but he didn’t , but he didn’t carecare. . • She She sighedsighed and and yawned.yawned.• We We walkwalk to the park and then we to the park and then we runrun round it. round it.

Verbs with or without objectsVerbs with or without objects• She was so sad she could not She was so sad she could not speakspeak..• Do youDo you speak speak English? English?

Some verbs are usually used without objects but can take Some verbs are usually used without objects but can take cognate objects.cognate objects.• Chris will sing a song for us. • She lived a good life.• They fought a clean fight. • He breathed his last breath.• He died a miserable death.

SVASVA

The structure SV is basic because we can always The structure SV is basic because we can always add optional elements to them. These optional add optional elements to them. These optional elements are elements are adverbialsadverbials. Adverbials (A) convey . Adverbials (A) convey a range of information about the situation a range of information about the situation depicted in the basic structure. In below, the depicted in the basic structure. In below, the adverbial adverbial noisily noisily depicts the manner of the action, depicts the manner of the action, and the adverbial and the adverbial outside theoutside the White House White House indicates the place of the action:indicates the place of the action:• The protestors were demonstrating The protestors were demonstrating noisily noisily (A) (A) outside outside

the White House the White House (A).(A). As the above example indicates, a sentence may As the above example indicates, a sentence may

have more than one adverbial. Moreover, the have more than one adverbial. Moreover, the position for adverbials is in many cases flexible. position for adverbials is in many cases flexible.

ObjectsObjects

FORM• Like the subject, the object is normally noun

phrase or a nominal clause. POSITION

• The object normally follows the subject and verb. If both objects are present, the indirect object normally comes before the direct object:

I gave him [Oi] my address [Od].

SYNTACTIC FUNCTION (i) The object function requires the objective form for pronouns that have distinctive case for

ms:• They amuse me. • I amuse them.

(ii) If an object is coreferential with the subject, it usually requires a reflexive pronoun which agrees with the subject in person and, where relevant, in number and gender. Similar agreement is required for an emphatic genitive (my own, etc) within the object:

• You can please yourself.• I[S] have given myself a treat.• They type their own letters.

(iii) The object of an active clause may generally become the subject of the corresponding passive clause:

• We have finished the work. - The work has been finished. If both objects are present, it is often possible to make either the subject in a corresponding

passive clause:• We sent Jack a copy of the letter. • Jack was sent a copy of the letter. [1]• A copy of the letter was sent Jack [Oil. [2]

But [l] is far more common than [2]. Instead of the retained indirect object in [2], the prepositional paraphrase is more usual:

• A copy of the letter was sent to Jack.

(iv) The indirect object generally corresponds to a prepositional phrase, which is generally placed after the direct object:• I'll send Charles another copy. - I'll send

another copy to Charles.• Pour me a drink. - Pour a drink for me.

(v) The indirect object can generally be omitted without affecting the semantic relations between the other elements:• David saved me a seat. - David saved a seat.

David saved me.

SEMANTIC PROPERTIES

(i) The direct object typically refers to an entity that is affected by the action denoted in the clause:• Norman smashed a window in his

father's car. (ii) The indirect object typically refers

to an animate being that is the recipient of the action.

Ditransitive constructionDitransitive construction Indirect object following the verbIndirect object following the verb

• I will send you a postcard.I will send you a postcard. Indirect object following a preposition.Indirect object following a preposition.

• I will send a postcard to you.I will send a postcard to you. To+Oi is used for such ditransitive verbs as send, give, hand, bring, lend, offer, pass, post, reaTo+Oi is used for such ditransitive verbs as send, give, hand, bring, lend, offer, pass, post, rea

d, sell, show, teach, tell, throw, write while for +Oi fo buy, do, make, build, cook, cut, draw, fed, sell, show, teach, tell, throw, write while for +Oi fo buy, do, make, build, cook, cut, draw, fetch, find, get, keep, leave, order, pick, save.tch, find, get, keep, leave, order, pick, save.

With verbs such as describe or explain, we put the indirect object after a preposition, not afteWith verbs such as describe or explain, we put the indirect object after a preposition, not after the verb.r the verb.

• He described the man to them. He described the man to them. • He explained the plan to us.He explained the plan to us.

Others include admit, announce, mention, murmur, report, shout, suggest, whisperOthers include admit, announce, mention, murmur, report, shout, suggest, whisper With such verbs as cost, deny, forgive, grudge, refuse, fine, bet, etc. we must put the indirect With such verbs as cost, deny, forgive, grudge, refuse, fine, bet, etc. we must put the indirect

object after verb.object after verb.• The mistake cost us a lot of money. The mistake cost us a lot of money.

Ask can also take two objects:Ask can also take two objects:• Can I ask you a favor?Can I ask you a favor?• She’s never asked a favor of anybody.She’s never asked a favor of anybody.

Clauses as OdClauses as Od• I will I will remindremind him that you are here. him that you are here. (other verbs including assure, convince, inform, notify, persuade)(other verbs including assure, convince, inform, notify, persuade)• He He admittedadmitted to the police that he had stolen the money. to the police that he had stolen the money. (other verbs including boast, confess, declare, hint, propose reveal)(other verbs including boast, confess, declare, hint, propose reveal)

SVOO vs. SVOCSVOO vs. SVOC• She called him a fool. She called him a fool. • She called him a taxi.She called him a taxi.• She called a fool to him.She called a fool to him.• She called a taxi for him. (*)She called a taxi for him. (*)

Linking verbs and subject Linking verbs and subject complementcomplement

If a verb requires a subject complement (sC) to complete the sentence, the If a verb requires a subject complement (sC) to complete the sentence, the verb is a linking verb (also know as copulas or copular verbs). The subject verb is a linking verb (also know as copulas or copular verbs). The subject complement (underlined in the examples that follow) typically identifies or complement (underlined in the examples that follow) typically identifies or characterizes the person or thing denoted by the subject:characterizes the person or thing denoted by the subject:• [1] The show was splendid.[1] The show was splendid.• [2] He seemed in a good mood.[2] He seemed in a good mood.• [3] Despite the scandal, he remained president.[3] Despite the scandal, he remained president.• [4] The news sounds horrifying.[4] The news sounds horrifying.

The most common linking verb is The most common linking verb is bebe. Other common linking verbs (with e. Other common linking verbs (with examples of subject complements in parentheses) include xamples of subject complements in parentheses) include • appear, seemappear, seem, (to be/adj/noun), (to be/adj/noun)• feel, sound, taste, look, smell (adj/prep.+noun)feel, sound, taste, look, smell (adj/prep.+noun)• Become, get, go, turn, come, growBecome, get, go, turn, come, grow• Keep, remain, stay (not used with to be)Keep, remain, stay (not used with to be)

Grammatical Hierarchy: Grammatical Hierarchy: EmbeddingEmbedding

Grammatical Hierarchy:Grammatical Hierarchy:subordinationsubordination

Grammatical Hierarchy: Grammatical Hierarchy: CoordinationCoordination

Simple, compound and Simple, compound and complex sentencescomplex sentences

SimpleSimple• The inquiry left in its wake a number of The inquiry left in its wake a number of

casualties. casualties. • I was one of them.I was one of them.

CompoundCompound• The inquiry left in its wake a number of The inquiry left in its wake a number of

casualties, casualties, and and I was one of them.I was one of them. ComplexComplex

• I didn’t realize that Brian wasn’t feeling well.I didn’t realize that Brian wasn’t feeling well.

Exercise 3.1 Subject, predicate, verb Exercise 3.1 Subject, predicate, verb (cf. 3.2)(cf. 3.2) In each sentence below, underline the subject and circle the verb In each sentence below, underline the subject and circle the verb

constituent.constituent.• 1. Since September, the airline industry has suffered its greatest ever slump in 1. Since September, the airline industry has suffered its greatest ever slump in

business.business.• 2. Analysts predict several years of diminished business.2. Analysts predict several years of diminished business.• 3. Several thousand airline workers lost their jobs.3. Several thousand airline workers lost their jobs.• 4. Norma’s parents met her English and Biology teachers at the Open Day.4. Norma’s parents met her English and Biology teachers at the Open Day.• 5. Caroline submitted a poem about her dog to the school magazine.5. Caroline submitted a poem about her dog to the school magazine.• 6. Outside, the company sign seems modest.6. Outside, the company sign seems modest.• 7. Inside, the atmosphere is one of rush and ferment.7. Inside, the atmosphere is one of rush and ferment.• 8. Opossums frequently appear to be dead.8. Opossums frequently appear to be dead.• 9. Sometimes they merely pretend to be dead.9. Sometimes they merely pretend to be dead.

Use each verb below to make up a sentence containing both a direct object Use each verb below to make up a sentence containing both a direct object and anand an

indirect object.indirect object.• 1. pay 6. make1. pay 6. make• 2. bring 7. cook2. bring 7. cook• 3. leave 8. spare3. leave 8. spare• 4. read 9. ask4. read 9. ask• 5. find 10. charge5. find 10. charge

Use each verb below to make up a sentence containing both a direct object Use each verb below to make up a sentence containing both a direct object and an object complement.and an object complement.• 1. like 1. like • 2. consider2. consider• 3. find 3. find • 4. call 4. call • 5. appoint 5. appoint • 6. declare6. declare

The sentences below are ambiguous. For each meaning, state thThe sentences below are ambiguous. For each meaning, state the structure (the set of sentence elements) and give a paraphrase e structure (the set of sentence elements) and give a paraphrase of the corresponding meaning. For example:of the corresponding meaning. For example:• They are baking potatoesThey are baking potatoes..• S + V + SC – ‘They are potatoes for baking’.S + V + SC – ‘They are potatoes for baking’.• S + V + dO – ‘They have put potatoes in the oven to bake’.S + V + dO – ‘They have put potatoes in the oven to bake’.• 1. You will make a good model.1. You will make a good model.• 2. I’ll call you my secretary.2. I’ll call you my secretary.• 3. Your men are revolting.3. Your men are revolting.• 4. They left him a wreck.4. They left him a wreck.• 5. You should find me an honest worker.5. You should find me an honest worker.• 6. She has appointed her assistant personnel manager.6. She has appointed her assistant personnel manager.• 7. She teaches the best.7. She teaches the best.• 8. He was subdued to some extent.8. He was subdued to some extent.• 9. My solicitor gives the poorest free advice.9. My solicitor gives the poorest free advice.• 10. His hobby is making friends.10. His hobby is making friends.

The sentences below are ambiguous. For each meaning, state the structure (the set of sentenThe sentences below are ambiguous. For each meaning, state the structure (the set of sentence elements) and give a paraphrase of the corresponding meaning. For example:ce elements) and give a paraphrase of the corresponding meaning. For example:

• They are baking potatoesThey are baking potatoes..• S + V + SC – ‘They are potatoes for baking’.S + V + SC – ‘They are potatoes for baking’.• S + V + dO – ‘They have put potatoes in the oven to bake’.S + V + dO – ‘They have put potatoes in the oven to bake’.• 1. You will make a good model.1. You will make a good model.

S+V+SCS+V+SC S+V+OS+V+O

• 2. I’ll call you my secretary.2. I’ll call you my secretary. S+V+O+OCS+V+O+OC S+V+iO+dOS+V+iO+dO

• 3. Your men are revolting.3. Your men are revolting. S+VS+V S+V+CS+V+C

• 4. They left him a wreck.4. They left him a wreck. S+V+iO+dOS+V+iO+dO S+V+O+OCS+V+O+OC

• 5. You should find me an honest worker.5. You should find me an honest worker.• 6. She has appointed her assistant personnel manager.6. She has appointed her assistant personnel manager.• 7. She teaches the best.7. She teaches the best.• 8. He was subdued to some extent.8. He was subdued to some extent.• 9. My solicitor gives the poorest free advice.9. My solicitor gives the poorest free advice.• 10. His hobby is making friends.10. His hobby is making friends.