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SEPARAE AND UNEQUALHow Higher Education Reinorces the Intergenerational
Reproduction o White Racial Privilege
July
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AcknowledgementsW wd k x d dvd d z v d b.F, w k B & Md G Fd, L Fd, d Jy Fd v w y. I , w DG d E M B & Md G Fd, J M d Hy Zv L Fd, d Wy S Jy Fd. W d b dy d A.
W w k Rd Kb, w b dd b- d -bd v dd.
W wd k k Cdy Dk d J C Gz vd b dd y ; J C d Eq P d d v wk; Ny Lw d S S Sk d d y d, d d wk b ; d vy M, , y M O d Ky.
O k , w w v : Adw H d AG vd d d ; N S dS J. R b b d d d d; Ad P d d d d ; A C w d vdv ; d Adw Db bb . Fy, w w k y , w vdd d .
My v bd d dbk d . T d,
, , d vw by .
Te views expressed in this publication are those o the authors and do not necessarily represent those o the Bill &Melinda Gates Foundation, Lumina Foundation, or the Joyce Foundation, their ocers, or employees.
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able o ContentsList o Illustrations
Introduction
Part 1.Arican Americans and Hispanics Access to Postsecondary Education Is Increasing,but Racial Polarization Is Growing at the Same ime.
Part 2.Racial and Ethnic Polarization In Postsecondary Education Matters BecauseResources Matter.
Part 3.Te Racial Bias In Postsecondary Education Persists Even When Accounting orCollege Readiness.
Part 4.Both Race and Class Matter In Determining Postsecondary Outcomes, but Raceand Class Are Not the Same Ting.
How Do We Choose?
Endnotes
Appendix A. Data and Barrons Selectivity.
Appendix B.Enrollments, Enrollment Flows, and Disproportionality inEnrollments.
Appendix C. Low Hanging Fruit High Achieving Minority Students WhoEither Dont Complete or Dont Attend College.
Bibliography
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List o IllustrationsFigure 1. Whites with a college-educated parent are three times as likely to earn a Bachelors degree as AricanAmericans and Hispanics with a parent who dropped out o college or earned an Associates degree.
Figure 2. Between 1995 and 2009, postsecondary enrollment grew signicantly or Arican Americans and His-
panics compared to whites.
Figure 3. Between 1995 and 2009, enrollments in the top colleges grew at a rate nearly our times that o theopen-access colleges.
Figure 4. Te white share o enrollment in open-access schools plummeted 12 percentage points.
Figure 5. New white student enrollments have owed to the 468 most selective colleges while Arican-Americanand Hispanic student enrollment growth has been conned mostly to open-access schools.
Figure 6. White students captured most o the enrollment growth at the top schools (72%) but had no enrollmentincreases at the open-access schools. Arican Americans and Hispanics captured virtually all the enrollment growth atthe open-access, two- and our-year colleges (92%) but very little o the enrollment growth at the 468 most selective
colleges (17%).
Figure 7. Relative to their declining share o the youth population, whites are overrepresented at the top schools;relative to their growing share o the youth population, Arican Americans and Hispanics are underrepresented.
Figure 8. Te 82 most selective colleges spend almost ve times as much and the most selective 468 colleges spendtwice as much on instruction per student as the open-access schools.
Figure 9. Recipients o Bachelors degrees rom the top schools get graduate degrees at a rate o more than one and ahal times that o similar graduates rom open-access colleges.
Figure 10. Equally qualied students have a higher graduation rate at the more selective schools with better resources.
Figure 11. Arican-American and Hispanic students with above average SA/AC scores graduate at a rate o 73percent rom the top colleges, compared with a graduation rate o 40 percent at the open-access schools.
Figure 12. Tere are 111,000 Arican Americans and Hispanics who graduate rom the top hal o the nations highschools but do not graduate college; 62,000 o them come rom the bottom hal o the amily income distribution.
Figure 13. Among students with an A average in high school, 30 percent o A rican-American and Hispanicstudents attend community college, compared to 22 percent o white students.
Figure 14. Regardless o SA/AC scores, whites have higher graduation rates or certicates and degrees (Associ-ates, Bachelors, and graduate degrees) than equally qualied Arican Americans and Hispanics.
Figure 15. High-scoring whites, Arican Americans, and Hispanics attend college at the same rate.
Figure 16. High-scoring white students complete college at a much higher rate than similarly qualied AricanAmericans or Hispanics.
Figure 17. High-scoring white students who earn a postsecondary award earn a Bachelors degree or better moreoten than Arican Americans or Hispanics.
Figure 18. Te Bachelors degree is the threshold where racial and ethnic diferences in educational attainment beginto decline.
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Separate and Unequal:How Higher
Education Reinorcesthe Intergenerational
Reproduction o WhiteRacial Privilege
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Introduction
W y bbd y bb y vd
vy-vd . T d d yd K-12 d y y dd A d v.1 R w- d -y d vy y 4,400 yzd dy ( dx A).2
Ev k w z v d v- . W d yd dy, v , 468 w-dd, v -y d v w A-A dH d d d 3,250 w-dd, -, w- d-y .3
Te American postsecondary system is a dual system oracially separate and unequal institutions despite the
growing access o minorities to the postsecondary system.Pz by d y dy y b K-12 qy d x d . T dy y d d qy d K-12y d j qy bk.
Te education system is colorblind in theory. In act,it operates, at least in part, as a systematic barrierto college or many minorities who nish high schoolunprepared or college. It also limits college andcareer opportunities or many Arican Americans and
Hispanics who are well prepared or higher educationbut tracked into crowded and underunded collegeswhere they are less likely to develop ully or to graduate.I d z bb x Ad y K-12 d d
w dy y.4
Te polarization o the postsecondary system mattersbecause resources matter. T 468 v
d yw w v d. H d v d d , d d ,d b b k,w w w, A-A,d H d w qy qd bd v . G dy d w dd 468 v b b k dv, d $2 d d , d d jb, w b d w.5
Auent white students as well as prestige seeking our-year colleges are owing to the top tiers o selectivitywhile lower income minority students are ooding lowtuition, open-access, two- and our-year institutions. Idd, w b d v w, b -, -y d v vy . T dy d d d v d vwd d dd d - (dx A d dx B, b 1 d 4).
Te postsecondary system is more and more complicitas a passive agent in the systematic reproduction owhite racial privilege across generations. M w b d v by vd y dd d dv d. H by xv bb w b d d . T yybw w v dd d by v k
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d d dd d .6 A , y d d by dvd.7
Preparation or higher education matters in allocatingaccess and success at the 468 most selective colleges,but its not the whole story. D ,, d v qyqd w, A A, d H.T v k K-12 A A d H d xy w d dy d bq .
T dy y d y
qd w d A-A Hd qy d by b dvdy d w vb . My AA d H d ,b w w qy d dy . Mv, A-A d H d w d dy kd wddd ddd w-y d --y . T dy y v
b b qd d wy d w d d .
Arican American and Hispanics access to postsecondaryeducation over the past 15 years is a good news/bad news story. T d w AA d H d b dy d. T bd w b d v v v w .
T b b A A d
H dy vd kdy d 468 d y 1990. B bw 1995 d 2009, 10 w w d v 468 v d v 10 w A-A d H dv 3,250 -, w- d -y .9
Sy, w b
v d w -. E v d bd w y (78%), d dd -qy dyd; v jy w w w d. A -, -y w b y w (21%), b y w d , d wd d w d.
M 30 A Ad H w d v (GPA) 3.5 y d w 22 w w GPA ( . 13).
A A-A d H d w 1200 b 1600 SA/AC, 57 vy , A d, B d b; w d 77 ( . 14).8
A A-A d H d w bw 1000 d1200 SA/AC, 47 A A d 48 H , A
d, B d bd w 68 w.
A A-A d H d w bv 1200 SA/AC, 57 AA d 56 Hd w , Ad, B d bd w 77 w ( . 14).
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S 1995, 82 w w v 468 v ,w 72 w H d 68 w A-A
v w-y d -y - .
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A v w, w 468 d, d w - dd v w - ( 18-24). Cvy, v w A A d
H 468 v dd w A-A d H 3,250 - d v -.
T z dy d w,A-A, d H v - . Wv d 468
v - ( dx B dd y).
T w 3,250 -, w- d -y ddv w -
.
T A A dH 468 dd v - .
T A-A d H 3,250 -, w- d -y d v - .
I 1995, w - w 68 , d w 468 w 77, 9 dv v .
By 2009, w - w 62 d w 468 w75 , 13 dv v d 4 w - ( . 7 d dxB).
I 1995, A-A d H - w27 , d 468 w 12 , 15 d d w .
By 2009, A-A d H - w 33, d
468 w 15 , 18 d v d d 3 w - .
I 1995, A-A d H - w 27, d 3,250 -, w- d -y w 24 , 3 d v .
By 2009, w - w 62 d w 3,250 -,w- d -y w 57 , 5 d
v d d 6 w -.
I 1995, w - w 68 d w 3,250 -,w- d -y w 69 , b bw d .
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College readiness is important in explaining lowcompletion rates, but the polarization o resources inthe higher education system is one o the root causes oincreasing college dropout rates and increasing timerequired to complete degrees. F vy 300 d, dy d w d200 d.10 T 468 v -y 82 ,
d w 49 -, w-d -y ( . 10). Vy d d wdw d - ; b b y wdd dddd.11
A A d H ky -, w- d -y d ky v B d b b . Uy d w d
d dd y v d d.
Tis dynamic leads to signicant loss o talent amongminorities and lower-income students. T dy d 240,000 dvy y, w d d b db, d w- -yd w y d . T d w y (62,000)
-, w- d AA H ( dx C).
M 111,000 A A d Hw d y d v w- -y dw y. I d d dd 468 d dd , 73 d v dd ( . 11 d . 12).
Whites, Arican Americans, and Hispanics who score inthe top hal o the SA/AC test score distribution go tocollege at the same rate (90%). Yet whites have higher
graduation rates and graduate school attendance becausethey attend more selective colleges.
A d w
- db dd :
Access to the 468 most selective our-year colleges andtheir greater completion rates are especially important to
Arican Americans and Hispanics.
A w d :
By 2009, A-A d H - w 33, d 3,250 -, w- d -y w 37 , 4 v
v .
Ty w d dw 48 A-A d d 51 Hd d d ; d
Fy-v w d B d b d wy 37 A-A d36 H d.
M 81 w B d b d w
72 AA d H; d
L 19 w w A d dw y 27 A Ad H.
A A d H 21 dv w yd v dw 15 w w d .12
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Moreover, this studys data support the axiom that theBachelors degree is the crucial postsecondary threshold
or racial and ethnic equality. W, A-A, d H d w dw B d 468 v d .
A A d H w d wB d - d y (23%) w (20%).
Stratication by income is strong. E d d by qk ( Cv d S, 2010). H-d w 45 vdd v w w d w y 15
vd. A-A d Hd w dd v, v by 9 ; w- d w ddby 20 . W , d k wy d .
Race- and class-based inequalities in education overlapconsiderably, but race has a unique negative eect oncollege and career opportunities. A Ad H y vb -bd ddv b y d w- d b y
d b y d y y.
A A d H y d bd, v dvd y . A , v dd w v w- d v , b , d d v.15 H, dy d by
qy d d b w v d w.
T d by, d, y d AA d H ( . 1). I w d w dd byd , A-A d H d d (34% v. 27%), b A d (21% v.
18%), d d B d (8%v. 14%).
A d d b v w. A A dH b w d . A d w v d B d,A-A d H d d d w y dw d (15% v. 7%), d
(37% v. 25%), d d w B d b (35% v. 58%)( . 1).
Exb b w- d A-Ad H d y d w. Cd w w
A A A d Hw SA/AC- db, w d 468 d 73 d w 40 qy qd w d - ( . 11).
O-d - A Ad H w B d 468 d dd w 23 wd - ( . 18).13
A A d H b v v w
v dd bw v .14
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d w b db, A A (55%) dH (59%) d w (45%) w A A
w vy (24% v.17%). Lw- w ky dw B d (23%) w-A A (12%) d H (13%).16
Figure 1.W w -dd ky Bd A A d H w w dd d A d.
SOURCE: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk d N EdLd Sdy(NELS) 1988/2000
High schoolor less
College dropout/Associates degree
Bachelorsdegree +
Parents Education
Arican American and Hispanic
White
41%
18%
19%15%
7%37%
27%
35%
46%
37%25%
34%
18%
16% 16%
12%
10%
21%
14%
31%20%
35%58%
8%
Bachelors degree
or better
Certifcate/Associatesdegree
College dropout
Do not attend college
Percentages show the attainment level othe next generation
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I d y k w d d d dv b,b vd b vy d d y d w b. T d ddv , , d
y d.T wy -bd -bd ddv x ,k d w, y , d, d , x d.
Cvy, b v ddv. A x wd b k v xy bw v -bd v : T
dd v , bd Grutter v. Bollingerd d Fisher v. Universityo exas, dvy d b b d dd d. B , d dvy w d . S w- w v x v y, w d y d
10 .T x 10- d b w b dvy x dy y b dd d d d .
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Part 1.
Arican Americansand Hispanics Access to
Postsecondary Education
Is Increasing, but RacialPolarization Is Growingat the Same ime
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A A d H dy d w. S
1995,A-A d H
v d by 73 d 107, vy, d w 15 w .
73%
107%
15%
Hispanic
Arican American
White
Netnew
reshman
enrollmentgrowthatall
postsecondaryinstitutions,1995-2009
S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk Id PdyEd D Sy (IPEDS) d; v y
Figure 2. Bw 1995 d 2009, dy w y AA d H d w.
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Netnew
reshmanenrollmen
tgrowth,1995-2009
T d dy d 10 d w d 4 A A d H by 2009. A , w w 63
; A A, 16 ; d H,13 ( dx B).
A y d, dy z b vy . E w 468 w 78 w wd vy w, w 92 w - w w w j 21 , w A-
A (48%) d H (44%) d (dx B).
32%
78%
21%
468 most selective our-year colleges
All Title IV postsecondary institutions
Open-access, two- and our-year colleges
S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk IPEDS d (v y) dN C Ed S (NCES) B
Ad Cv Idx D F
Figure 3. Bw 1995 d 2009, w y - .
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Whites captured the growth in the top 468 colleges,while shiting out o the open-access institutions.
Arican Americans and Hispanics moved into theseats vacated by whites in the open-access institutions.T dy w d dd 12
- w A-A dH d by 6 d7 , vy.
-12
6
7Arican American
White
Hispanic
Netnew
reshman
enrollme
ntgrowth
S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk IPEDS d (v y) dN C Ed S (NCES) B
Ad Cv Idx D F.
Figure 4.T w - d 12 .
T w d, d 69 57 .
T A A w 14 20 ; H, 10 17 .
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W v d d 468 -y . A w v dd 73 63 , w d w -. T A A
d H dv. By 2009, w:
Te racial polarization has intensied rapidly as whitestudents have captured the new enrollment ows to
the 468 most selective colleges, cementing their historicoverrepresentation in the nations best schools (see g.5). Arican-American and Hispanic students havebeen let behind in open-access, two- and our-year
schools since 1995.
W 75 ;
A A 7 ; d
H 8 .
Ey-w w w b 468 v -y .
By , y 9
A-A d d13 H d v d .
Cvy, v d, 68 d 72 , vy, w A A dH v b -, w- d-y .
Figure 5. Nw w d v wd 468 v w A-A d H d w b d y - .
S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk IPEDS d (v y) dNCES B Ad Cv Idx D F.
Open-access, two- and our-year colleges
468 most selective our-year colleges
White
Arican AmericanHispanic
82%
9%
68%
13%
72%
0%
Share of net new freshman enrollment
growth, 1995-2009
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233,000 d, 34 , w;
186,000 d, 28 , A A; d
192,000 d, 29 , H.
Figure 6. S 1995, w d d w (72%) b d - . A A d H d vy w -, w- d -y (92%) b vy w 468 v (17%).
S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk IPEDS d (v y) dNCES B Ad Cv Idx D F.
Open-access two- and our-year colleges
468 most selective colleges
White
Arican American
Hispanic
A A d H d d ddd, wdd, -,w- d -y . A vy A A d , 72 d -dd .T dy d y d
v y A A dH by k ddy ; 74 H -, w- d -y ( dx B).
A wy vw wz j k. O 254,000 w 468 1995, 182,000, 72, w w . A
A d 17,000 d H 25,000 17 w . Tis occurred at the same time overallenrollment gains or whites, Arican Americans, and
Hispanics were relatively similar (see g. 6):
72%
44%
48%
7%
10%
92%
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Comparing enrollments to youth population shares, thispolarization is even more evident. I 2009, w 468 w 75, 13 bv 62 w (d 18-24y). Cvy, w -
w 57 , 5 w . F A Ad H, w vy d 15 d 18
y , d. A A w ddby 8 dvd by 5 - . H w 10 dd d 1
dd - .(S dx B dd d dy d dy.)
Open-access, two- and our-year colleges
468 most selective our-year colleges
13%
-5% -8%
-10%
-1%
5%
White
Arican American
Hispanic
Figure 7.A 2009, v y , w w vd ; v w y , A A d H wdd.
S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk IPEDS d (v y) dNCES B Ad Cv Idx D F.
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T dy y d q b 468 , ddby w d, v d v . T d v b d d d b . I vwdd, ddd,
- y, w A A dH v d , d w; d v w A d; w d; d v - vd b.
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Part 2.Racial and EthnicPolarization in
Postsecondary Education
Matters BecauseResources Matter.
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R, d, d v b v vy 1995. W v bv k, xv,
vd, - , bd, , 468 ( d 12). T 250,000 w d d v
w y d d k-w w.Ov d 140 v vd v , B , 326 1995 468 2009. A db , v d w .
A 300,000 d v vd w-dd, - b -, -y , b d
v dd. Cwd w-d,- d v d w v q yw d v ( dxA, d dx B, b 1 d 4).
T d qy qd w, A A, dH dv A-A d H d wdd, ddd, -, w- d
-y . Sd d dy d d
v dv dd dd d d v yA A d H d .
A q w ,d, d , w d q
y v vvd dy y.W d v d vy b . Cd 3,250 -, w- d -y , 468 v vd dby d, d d , w dd d, d , d y vd w d d
( . 8).T dy d y xd y vy d d d v d d. T dvd ( w , , d dvy) bw v d -, w- d -y .Sv vd dby d, d - - y , ,
d d , v qy qd d.
$6,000
$27,900
$13,400
468 most selective colleges
82 most selective colleges
Open-access, two- and our-year colleges
I
nstructionalcosts
S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk D C Pj d (v
y) d NCES B AdCv Idx D F.
Figure 8.T 82 v d v y dd v 468 d w d - .
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T d v dy :
T 82 v -y d
$27,900 d y ; T 468 v d
$13,400 y dv $6,000 qv (FE)d xd - ;
T 468 v-y 82 , d w49 -, w- d -y;
Gd v d d qy qdd;
A - , d w dw SA v 1200 dd d 48 ,d w 26 y qd d w dd -, -y ; d
Ty-v d - b d d w10 y b B d,d w 21 d
- ( . 9 d . 10).
Figure 9. R B d d d d - .
S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk
IPEDS d (v y) d NCES BAd Cv Idx D F.
Open-access, two- and our-year colleges
468 most selective our-year colleges
35%
21%
Graduatedegreeattainment
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Ad y v d,d , b d d d - . T d d dbq b d d
dv. T d
v , w b w d w.Arican Americans and
Hispanics clearly benet by going to selective institutionseven when their test scores are substantially below the
institutional averages at those schools (see g. 11).
Figure 10. Eqy qd d v d v w b .
S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk NELS (1988/2000) d d NCES B
Ad Cv Idx D F.
All students
49%
82%
84%
87%
52%
58%
1000+
1200+
1200+
Open-access, two- and our-year colleges
468mos
tselectivecolleges
Completionrate
SAT/ACT
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I d, q dv w d, wd , d . T d w x d . Cd
dd by d b Bd b y 26 ,w d dd by w d d PD B d b 73 ( d 7).
Figure 11.A-A d H d w bv v SA/AC d 73 , d w d 40 - .
S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk NELS (1988/2000) d d NCES B
Ad Cv Idx D F.
Open-access, two- and our-year colleges
468 most selective our-year colleges
73%
40%
Completionrate
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Part 3.Te Racial Biasin Postsecondary
Education PersistsEven When Accountingor College Readiness.
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Cd w qy qd w d,A-A d H d y v dy
d , b dd 468 , B d, d d d.
C d y xd A-A d Hd v d. B dyd y w , v d - A A dH y- w b d d ky d w B d.
T dy d . Tdy y d y 111,000A-A d H d d d b d w y d ( . 12). T
, 56 , - AA d H, w w 37 - w d. Ab 62,000 - A A d H b y db (dx C).
Figure 12.T 111,000 A A d H w d b d d ; 62,000 b y db.
S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk NELS (1988/2000) d.
Hispanic and Arican-American high-scoring students
who do not graduate rom college
Bottom hal o the amily income
distribution
Top hal o the amily incomedistribution
62,000
49,000
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Race and ethnicity also matter in the type o institutionattended, even among equally qualied students. Ab53 w d w d - w-d- y 2009 v 72 A-A d d 74 H d ( dx B).
F 13 w v d w GPA 3.5 (A d), A-A d H
d d w-y . Ty
A A d H d 22
w d w-y . J by v,
wy x wy
, y A A, d wd
w d A d,
w d dd w y qd d w
B d b ( . 14).
Figure 13.A d w A v , 30 A-A d Hd d y , d 22 w d.
S: A Pw S U.S. D Ed, NCES,2007-08 N Pdy Sd AdSd (NPSAS:08)
White students
Arican-American and Hispanic students
30%
22%Share
oAstudentswhoattend
communitycolleges
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Sd - db d dy , d dy, b v w dw qy qd :
Figure 14. Rd SA/AC , w v d d d(A, B, d d d) qy qd A A H.
S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk NELS (1988/2000) d
White
Hispanic
Arican American
68%
77%
57%
56%
47% 48%
1000-1200
12
00+
Completionra
te(certifcate,
AA,andBA
orbetter)
W, A-A, d Hd (90%)
( . 15);
A w , 70 w d , Ad, B d b; 52 A-A d 49 H d d ( .16);
A - d w d , 9 A-A d d d j v 6 H d d 5 w d. ( dx C); d
A - dw , A d, B d, 81 w b B d b, w 72 A A d 73 H b B d b( . 17).
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Figure 15.
H- w, A A, dH d .
Figure 16.
H- w y qdA A H
S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk NELS (1988/2000) d
White
Hispanic
Arican American
89%
91%
90%
70%
52%
49%
Postsecondar
yenrollm
entrat
eGraduation
rate
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Te Bachelors degree is the tipping point in theeducational hierarchy where racial dierences begin
to decline appreciably. For example, racial and ethnicinequality diminishes signicantly in the transitionto graduate school. But postsecondary straticationlimits Bachelors degree attainment among minorities,restricting them to the educational levels whereinequality is strongest; even among whites, Arican
Americans, and Hispanics with the same test scores:
Figure 17.W w w dy wd B d b A A H.
Associates degree
Bachelors degree or better
81%
28%
Whites
Arican Americans
Hispanics
S: Gw UvyC Ed d
Wk NELS (1988/2000) d
72% 73%
27%19%
A A d H w B d 468 v d 33 , y wd (34%); d
A-A d H d w B d -,-y d
qy w 468 v , b d d wd w d --y ( . 18).
I , A-A d Hd ky A d d ky
B d b y d -, w- d -y ;
C d d , y d d Bd b k d ;
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Figure 18. T B d d w d d d b d.
S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk NCES B dByd (1993/2003) d d NCES B AdCv Idx D F.
33%
468m
ostse
lectiv
efour
-yearc
olle
ges
Open-access,tw
o-andfour-yearcolleges
34%
20%
23%
White
Arican American and Hispanic
Graduate degree attainment
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Part 4.Both Race and Class
Matter in DeterminingPostsecondary Outcomes,
but Race and Class AreNot Te Same Ting.
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Cy w - x dy d d. Yet, controlling or income, race
matters: k , w- A-A d H d j d d w w- w. W d w
d (45%) w y db d qy A A (55%) d H (59%).T w- w B d y w A A dH d b y w b-bd. I , A-A d by .
Class and race overlap and are most virulent incombination. A w y , w
d qyb w A A dH b d by w.Uq d d y ddvd w b xdw vb k y , d,d x. T vb do not ullyx A A d H dd . E w y xd by bvb ,k d , w d by
y dw. T d vd ddv d b dd y . Y, d d d x d d d ; b,ddy, d d y.
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I we are to reverse the polarization o the postsecondarysystem and achieve some measure o racial and economicdiversity, some combination o class-based and race-based admissions criteria are ultimately required.
I qy wd by b d , b d .Iqy -bd. T kby bb, v d v A Ad H. R d y v ddv d v d y y b d , y AA, v y v.
In the real world race-based and class-baseddisadvantages overlap substantially but do not
substitute perectly or each other. R d b d y v d d . T v v by v wd dy.W b x, y bd v d .18C v d w v bw d
d qy 1980. Mw bb ddv A A d x b H v k v.
Ddv w w d d. A A d H y vb -bd ddv b y yd w- d b
dd w v w- d dd v d d v. T bw d w bw wd by d dwwd by dd . M dy d by qy b y d jb
v d w-w jb k vb y kd . B , , yA A, d b w
v d w.
W d y dw b - d -bd dwd b by d, , b d , d vb b k d w 468.
Our study nds that more than 240,000 high schoolstudents every year, who graduate in the top hal otheir high school class and come rom the bottom hal othe amily income distribution, do not go on to one othe top 468 colleges and do not get a two- or our-yeardegree within eight years o graduation rom high
school. Te data show that about one in our (62,000) othese high-scoring/low-income students who dont earna degree are Arican American or Hispanic.
T -bd d
b -bd yv . Ad -bd b d d b - d-bd dvy wd b -bd by v, S C Fisher v. Universityo exas. W y v, db -bd d yd b A-A dH dd d -bd d.19 I , b
w w- d A-A d H dvb v d.
I bd d , , bd y , wdk d v dvy b w- wd
How Do We Choose?
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vy w . T J. K (1999), x, x v -bd d wd b y x v .20
T dy v d. Ev w w
w- d w v w d dw y d, AA d H y qdd v , vy K d bv.
T by dy y d w w-d v wd bd v dv
d w v d vy. I wd qd d w byd b w w .
I d -bd d , w -bd -bdx, b w- dd y dvy v wd b d.S d dv
ddv vd by d () d d w d ddv b d (b) vy d ddv.
Some class-based metrics that reect class-baseddisadvantages in their most extreme orm, like spatialisolation by race and class, dierences in wealth, amily
structure, parental education, and occupational status,can translate into proxies or race in college admissions.
I d w d d d dv b,b vd b vy d d y d w b. I d ddv , ,d z d.
Class Rank Approaches: R b v ddv. A xwd b k v xy bw v -bd v: T dd v ,bd Grutter v. Bollingerd d
Fisher v. University o exas dvy d b b d dd d. B , d dvy w d.
S w- w v xv y, w d
y d 10 . T x 10- d , b w b dvy x dy y b dd d d d .
Sv v vd wd v w z d d bw d by d -
d w d . S v dv w k wy b d qy y w, y, d v.
T k w -bd v dvd , by z d y v d . I
, y bw v wd dvd d v , , dw- . I , k d . Ty -bd b d qy y dd d , , d .
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A w v dy (Cv d R,2004), U.S. b d wd d w k w . M 75 A w- d w b d d b v d
( x k d q b b ). M 50 A w- d w b d db dd, d d v d d .
C k d w . H k dd db dvy by , b dv dvy d. C k
b qy vb, y k b y -bd,b b A A dH v w. H d x d b v dvy b d.
C k w d v v d
d d d dq. N d k qy d d v Bd. E d k x, d 15 bw 1000. W v d w 50 , w d (82%) v .
A b w k , v w w d v w y bkd. Vy d d vy . Ev wd y -d d w q. Mv, 10 by d dy wy.
Uy, bd k w d -bd k q d Grutterv. Bollinger w dvy d . B v q
x y j , wd b d k, w, x . I b b d b vy b d v w. A d dw wd ydvy w d w dvy d w w y d (d 18-24).
Wealth-Based Approaches: A d v d y w, d -bd dbw w d ddvd . I - d bd w x qy d d - ddv. I2010, x, w w w H, b w d v x d w A Ad H.21 O v, w d $632,000 w d w $98,000 d $110,000,vy, A A d H.W y - x w A A dH bd w y . My d:
Student actors such as hours worked;
Family actors such as parental educationand amily structure;
Neighborhood actors attached to Censustract codes such as educational attainmentand crime rates; and
School actors such as test scores, graduationrates, and percentage participation insubsidized school lunch programs.
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While afrmative action, both race- and class-based,seems clearly justied as a device to encourage race andclass mobility and compensate or persistent racial andeconomic inequality, it is not clear that afrmativeaction as it has been known is a remedy that gets at thedeeper root o race-based and class-based inequality.
I b, b - d -bd v y qd A-A, H, d w- d w-dd d v d . Av , w - -bd b w, w v d v dd yd vy dd v.T d d -bd y b . Ty d
wy k bd v y , , d y d b y.W -bd d-, y y d dd v d v A-A, H, d w- d.
I , y w bv b A d . F,
dd d d , y b d
v , d b d . Sd, d v v by b dd. By v, d w dy. Lv y d d, ,
d yk. B d by d d dvy by z d w v b dd by v d v d vb v.
S, vd k C,x, d Fd, w v b bd b v, d y w k v ,
d v , dvy vy - . Mv, d d - , bd by vy dv dvy byd x, v bd d d v.Lkw, w d K12 v wk v . By b wy v dvy by y
j .
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1. C w d vy qy, y by , w bd. SH, Ed P A A d L Ud S 1950 1990: T I Ay d C, 1999; G, A Sd Ed Iqy, 2001; K, C A H Ed Ud S, 19801992, 2002;Cv d R, S S, R/Ey, d
Sv C Ad, 2003; Ld, A WyF C, C Gw Ov F, 2004; Ad O, T D Eqy A HEd, 2004; S d Bd, T R-P G
Wd C d Sd, 2006; F, M. MAd F I A, 2006; F, E C L Sv Ndy, 2006; S, F Dd SvyD A F Rv Wd SG, 2007; Wy, ., Achievement rap: How America IsFailing Millions o High-Achieving Students rom Lower-IncomeFamilies, 2007; Hxby, C Svy, 2009; Sk, HwC P Iqy, 2007; Sk, earing Down theGates, 2007; Rk, ., C H Ed d
S S Ud S, 2007; Bd dJq, I S d F Hy,2007; Hxby d Avy, T M O-O: T HddSy H-Av, Lw I Sd, 2012.
2. T d dy d xd, d. N-dd dy d dy A Ad H ( Cv, .,Certicates: Gateway toGainul Employment and College Degrees, 2012). Ev 468 , d y w by w A A d H d(bd CEW y D C Pj d: v
y). A dy by Gdk-Rb d Ky w b y ( SI d O D Py, 2013). T w db j w w dy d d w b k v v A
A, H, d w ( Cv, ., Whats ItWorth? Te Economic Value o College Majors, 2011).
3. T dy 468 v , B AdCv (k vy k). T b , w y, wv . I 1992 w 399 . W
v by b 2009 k yy b d v (.., Ivy L), b z
w y dd y. (Sdx A d w vy dd d d w b . S dx B d w d w by v vy.
4. T dv d d
Endnotes
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d K-12 d. S Ok, Cy Ad D: S Eqy d Iqy Ed Py, 2009. A, d b-b d b B d d Ck, C-O F, HEd, 1960; Ck, C-O F Rvd,1980; B d Kb, T Dvd D, 1989; dRyb, C O Cy C, 2008.
5. T b d d w d d($1,547,000) d w d($3,648,000). S Cv, ., Te College Payof, 2011.
6. T vd w d w y d d y ( Rd, T Wd Ad
Av G bw R d P, 2011). I d y, -qy dyd d b y d
y. w x,dy dd d y k . F x, d w d y d w B d 13 , d 73 w v dvd d d.
7. T kd d w xd d w w Ud S y dvd .
CollegeDropout
HSDropout
AA
HS
Proffessiona
Voc/SomeCollege
BA
BA
MA
MA
PhD
1st ProfPhD
Wk w dvd d $2.1 d v .
Cd d y d w . Svy- d
w d PD d b B d b.
HS (d)BA (d)
FINKORIA
POLIRL
URESP
MEXSVKCZEGBRHUNNZLBELUSA
0 10 20 30 40 50 60I d by U.S.
w .
SOURCE: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk
y 2006 OECD PISA Db
SOURCE: Cv ., Te College Payof, 2011.
SOURCE: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk
b 341 D Ed S 2011 (d
6/18/13) .d.v//d/d11/b/d11_341.
53%
43%
26%
$1,550,000
$1,730,000
$2.1Md
ifferen
ce
$2,270,000
$2,670,000
$3,250,000
$3,650,000
22%
10%
49%
3%
65%
2%
73%
13%
6%
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8. Sddzd d , dd dy SA/AC , d b SA, ddby Ed Sv d y d 400 1600, d AC, dd by AC I.,
w 36 ( v 36 ). F dy, AC w d qv SA 1600- , wd dvd by ES.
9. T dy bd -y d Id
Pdy Ed D Sy (IPEDS) ; b x. D d .
10. T w dvd by y / w by kw d by d v vy.
11. T v dy y w b d b ,d v B AdCv Idx. T d qy d by d d d vy. T -, -y d v w b , b
v vy d d d v . T v d wd d dd v d v . T w b d , w b-b d A d. B d d w d dd. Bd, . w wd d d d d d d d d d ( Understanding the Decrease in College CompletionRates and the Increased ime to the Baccalaureate Degree, 2007).I bq dy, Bd, . d: () d d b w d d d b -v
b -y d d y. W d bvd d d d d d ,d y d d. W d ,
w b y , . (S Wy Hv C C RDd? 2009. A, O d Pjv MkC W I 2013, d C E Adv,Preparing the Workers o oday or the Jobs o omorrow. 2009.
12. A A d H b $52,000 $63,000 v - v -
y , b 21 d 15 bd by w.
13. Gd y d(35%) d A A d H (33%) 468. M d (21%) d (23%) - .
14. Ed d Rdd d wd v w SA/AC w(No Longer Separate Not Yet Equal: Race and Class in Elite CollegeAdmission and Campus Lie, 2009). Hwv, dy d v d
d y qd - .
15. L, Separate and Unequal: Te Neighborhood Gap or Blacks,Hispanics and Asians in Metropolitan America, 2010, 2011.
16. A w- d, b x.W d d b B d b y w A A d H.
17. Cv d S, Hw I C A I Iqy, d W D Ab I, 2010.
18. T y v b bdd d dv v v
w dd. I , y vd b dd . S b d w ( Hd Fk, Dz Lw Lw: NR Ex O-G, 2006). Fd w d y, dwd z b bd. Sy d k d y b wk z bv. T d x b b d dd d dy k d. y ddv vy d b v , b y jd, y w y dy qky d . M dd
dv wk bv vby by Nb L D K( vky d K, Avby: A H JdFqy d Pbby, 1973; d K, M Bdd Ry, 2003). K wd w wk v d dv dy d d y d dv y. A, Hd, Human Judgment and Social Policy,1996.
19. I v wk, CEW d w d d v dvy v d w xy y bd (Cv d R, S S, R-Ey, d
Sv C Ad, 2004; d Cv d S, HwI C A I I Iqy, Ad W D
Ab I, 2010). Px dvy d w -bd v
wd d x .
20. T J. K, M Db v AvA C Ad, 1999.
21. MK d R, L T Eq: R D W A, 2013.
Cd
(%)
C(%)
Ad
(%)
Bd b(%)
W 45 17 15 23
A A 55 24 10 12
H 59 16 12 13
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Appendix A. Data and Barrons SelectivitySection 1. Data
D - w bd U.S. D Ed IdPdy Ed D Sy (IPEDS).1 T y xd d W , w
w d b d d 1997 1998 (96,017 32,910).2 T yw dd w b IPEDS d W d d b xd. T C Ed d Wk (CEW) y d dd d v , y vy. Nd d /- dw d b by b v .
D B vy w dd, N C Ed S (NCES)d B Ad Cv Idx D d w kd d by ID(UNIID).
D w bd by vb D C Pj.3
D d d db d by d vy w d NCES d N Ed Ld Sdy (NELS) 1988/2000 .
D SA/AC qv d wk d by Ed Sv (ES). M d SA/AC w d q dbw - dd NELS vy.
D d d by d vy w d d NCES d B d Byd Ld Sdy (1993/2003).
Y d w d by vb d A Cy Svy, U.S. C B, d C P Svy.
IPEDS (d 10/15/12) ://.d.v/d/2 S b 181 D Ed S, 2004 (d 6/24/13)
://.d.v//d/d04/b/d04_181.?=
D C Pj ://.d.v/d/dj/.
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Section 2. Selectivity
CEW d B k -y 468 . T M Cv, Hy Cv, d Vy Cv C. T bd
d d NCES-B Ad Cv Idx D. T x v d y b k x B Ed S, 2009 ( 3). T dd , dd y dx B, B Cv C. T - by d y w B vy, L dN-Cv C, -y (y d ) dd B, d w-y d -y .
CEW dy kwd -d y v d d b v k . Pz d d v w d v. T wk d y w v vy, d y d w d d b k (Cv d
S, 2010; Cv d R, 2004).
Most Competitive T v v y v d, y q k 10-20 d d v (GPA) B+ d bv. Md SA bw 1310 d 1600 d 29+ AC. Ad y -d .
Highly Competitive T y v k d w GPA B d bv d 20-35 . Md SA bw 1240 d 1310.Md AC 27 28. Ad bw 33 d 50 .
Very Competitive T vy v d d w GPA B d bv w kbw 35 d 50 . Md bw 1150 d 1240 SA d bw 24 d 26 AC. T y - - , b b -d.
Competitive Cv bd y y d d w d SA bw 1000 d 1140 d w AC bw 21 d 23. S q GPA B b, w C GPA. M v d 50-65 , w d bw 75 d 85 . A b - .
Less Competitive Md y bw 1000 SA bw 21 AC, q d d y d. My dw bw C v d 65 . A bv 85.
Noncompetitive Nv q y vd d. E x d . S y , b w 98 d y dd.
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Section 3. Changes in the number of institutions by tiers of selectivity and in the open-access sector.
1995 2009 C
w- d -y 3,688 4,409 721
-y 2,215 2,719 504
M v 43 82 39
Hy v 72 109 37
Vy v 211 277 66
T v 326 468 142
Cv (dd ) 594 671 77
L v 368 198 -170
Nv 163 93 -70
F-y dd B (d) 764 1,289 525
w-y 1,473 1,670 197
- 2,768 3,250 482
S: Gw Uvy C Ed d Wk NCES-B AdCv Idx D (v y), IPEDS (v y), d b 279, D Ed S, 2010.
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Appendix B. Enrollments, Enrollment Flows,and Disproportionality in Enrollments
T dy d y vd y y d dv b zd by b jd w w y qby vdd.
, dy dy, w b d d w d d b dqy vd K-12 y. By , d dw w vd . W dy v , y b dd, d db - y d 18 24 v d xy.W d d x j w w dy y v y by d y.
y, Id Pdy Ed D Sy (IPEDS) (- d-) d w d 1993-1995 d d d d 2007-2009. Td y d 1995 d 2009 d, , d xv yT d d -y d y A Cy Svy y (2007-2009) d U.S. C B 1990 y (1993-1995). I , w d d y y--y v, y . A d dx A, w y W d dy.
T d dx w d d y d d dy. D dx b d v , w, w dd A, Nv A, A A,H, d w, d dd- vy.
Section 1. Disproportionality
T 1995 db d by d by vy d b 2, v b d d b 1. b 3 w v dy xd 1995 d w d by b db dvd db.
b 3 d 1995 w w 5 bv d y (vd). A , A A d H w ddby 2 d 5 , vy. A w vd by 2 Nv A d bd .
By vy, d 1995 w w 9 vd vy, 12 vd dd , d j 1 - . T 64 w - 1995 x v v 5 v ( b 11). AA d H w b y dd (-8 d-9 , vy) d dd (-5 d -8 ,
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vy.) H d v dy - w w 3 d . A w j y vd dA A d Nv A b d bd - .
b 4 d 2009, d b 5 d db /y v dw v vy. b 5 d j w v d w w y . T w dd 10 w AA d H w 4 . T A dby 1 ; Nv A w dy.
I dy, 2009 dy w w w vd (b 6) b v d dd by 3 1995 (b 7). A-A vd by 3 w w H (d), A (v), d Nv A (bd).
A vy x. I 1995, w w 9 vd v w A A (-8 ) d H(-7 ) w y dd. Cvy, w d - w w w ; A A w bd; dH w dd by 3 ( b 3).
By 2009, z d d w . W vw by 4 w w 13 bv y ( b 6 d 7). R A A d dy -8 w H wd by 4 w d -11 bw
y .
A d , w v vd, d 6 ww w 4 d y . A-A d vy - w d by 5 bv y d H d by 1 .
Section 2. Te missing middle.
T dd vy, Barrons Competitive Colleges, A dyd y b d y dy d z. I 1995, dd
d 21 d dd 20 by 2009 ( b 11). T w by 77 w w 28 , y w (b 14). B 468 d - d w w .I wy, dd d v dy z. O , y d d d : b 12, , d w ; 23 wA-A d 15 w H w . T dy w b vd y .
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Section 3. Asians and Native Americans.
A A d H y Ud S, b d dd by d d d y A d Nv A. I , w b yz d d , , . T
IPEDS-bd y x y b A w. b 10 w 50 w A v v b 30 v - . Py d bd y b dy y A. b 7 d b dy A yvy . A 2 bv y , 6 bv , d 1 dd- d - .
Nv A y . T IPEDS d y d NvA v bd dy d dy d .
Table 1. Enrollment and population, 99
Population aged8-
EnrollmentTop three tierso selectivity
Middle tierOpen-access,
two- and our-year schools
All ,9,7 ,, ,8 , ,,9
White ,9,7 ,, 9,7 9, 9,
Arican American ,, , ,77 , 9,
Hispanic ,,8 8,9 , ,8 7,
Asian 9,9 , , 8, ,77
Native American , , ,9 ,9 ,78
Table 2. Distribution o population and reshman enrollment by selectivity and race/ethnicity; 99
Population aged8- (%)
Enrollment (%)Top three tiers
o selectivity (%)Middle tier (%)
Open-access,two- and our-
year schools (%)
All White 8 7 77 8 9
Arican American 9
Hispanic 9
Asian
Native American
*In the ollowing Tables, numbers may not add to percent due to rounding.
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Table 3. Enrollment disproportionality, 99
Total (%)Top three tiers o
selectivity (%)Middle tier (%)
Open-access, two-and our-year schools
(%)
White 9
Arican American - -8 -
Hispanic - -7 -8 -
Asian
Native American
Percentages calculated rom enrollment shares minus population shares in table .
Table 4. Enrollment and population, 9
Population aged8-
EnrollmentTop three tierso selectivity
Middle tierOpen-access,
two- and our-year schools
All 8,8,7 ,79,89 78, 7,9 ,,9
White 7,7,8 ,7, ,8 89, 9,7
Arican American ,7,79 , 8,99 8,9 ,
Hispanic ,, 7,8 ,7 ,8 7,98
Asian ,,7 9, 9,7 8, 8,8Native American ,7 ,9 ,9 ,9 ,7
Table 5. Distribution o population and reshman enrollment by selectivity, and race/ethnicity, 9
Population aged8- (%)
Enrollment (%)Top three tiers
o selectivity (%)Middle tier (%)
Open-access,two- and our-
year schools (%)
All White 7 7 7
Arican American 7
Hispanic 8 8 9 7
Asian
Native American
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Table 6. Distribution o postsecondary enrollment by race across institutional selectivity tiers, 99-9
Top three tiers oselectivity (%)
Middle tier (%)Open-access, two-
and our-year school(%)
All Title IVpostecondary
institutions (%)
99 9 99 9 99 9 99 9
All 9
White
Arican American 8 9 9 7 7
Hispanic 7 7
Asian 8 7 8
Native American 9 7 7
Table 7. Enrollment disproportionality, 9
Total (%)Top three tiers o
selectivity (%)Middle tier (%)
Open-access, two-and our-year schools
(%)
White 8 -
Arican American -8
Hispanic - - -9 -
Asian
Native American Percentages calculated rom enrollment shares minus population shares in table .
Table 8. Percentage point changes in disproportionality by selectivity, race, and ethnicity, 99-9
Total (%)Top three tiers o
selectivity (%)Middle tier (%)
Open-access, two-and our-year schools
(%)
White - - -Arican American
Hispanic - -
Asian
Native American
Change calculated by subtracting table 7 rom table .
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Table 9. Net new gains in enrollments by selectivity, race and ethnicity, 99-9
TotalTop three tiers o
selectivityMiddle tier
Open-access, two-and our-year schools
All , ,77 ,9 88,7
White , 8,8 9,9 8
Arican American 8,97 7, ,877 ,9
Hispanic 9, , 9, 8,98
Asian ,8 7,9 9,9 7,79
Native American 8,9 ,98 ,8 ,
Table 10. Distribution o net new enrollment gains within total and selectivity tiers by race and ethnicity
Total (%)Top three tiers o
selectivity (%)Middle tier (%)
Open-access, two-and our-year schools
(%)
All
White 7
Arican American 8 7
Hispanic 9 8
Asian 8 8
Native American
Table 11. Distribution o net new enrollment gains across selectivity tiers by race and ethnicity
Total (%) Top tier(%) Middle tier (%)Open-access, two-
and our-year schools(%)
All 8 9 White 8 8
Arican American 9 8
Hispanic 7
Asian 8
Native American 8
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Table 12. Enrollment shares and change in shares across tiers o selectivity, 99-9
Top three tiers oselectivity (%)
Middle tier (%) Bottom tier (%)
99
9 9
Share shif 99-9 - -
Table 13. Shares o net gains across tiers o selectivity
Top three tiers o
selectivity (%)
Middle tier (%) Bottom tier (%)
All 8 9
White 8 8
Arican American 9 8
Hispanic 7
Asian 8
Native American 8
Table 14. Shares o enrollment gains in selective tiers by race/ethnicity
Total (%)Top three tiers o
selectivity (%)Middle tier (%) Bottom tier (%)
White 7
Arican American 8 7
Hispanic 9 8
Asian 8 8
Native American
Table 15. Enrollment growth by selectivity tier
Total %
Top three tiers o selectivity 78%
Middle tier 8%
Open-access %
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Appendix C. Low-Hanging Fruit High AchievingMinority Students Who Either Dont Complete or Dont
Attend CollegeCy b, vy -dy d d d . T C Ed d Wk (CEW) vd - y d w-d d k dd y d x, v NEd Ld Sdy (NELS) vy, dv d SA/AC qv . T d d vb d N C EdS (NCES). T d b d w d k x, dy d w d y w d d .
Ay d d 580,000 d y, w w , d d d d. A d , d , , d w dy d
d d d w . W yzd by d y, 111,000A-A d H d y d , wd b xd, d d. T 55 , w vby 37 y dd w d. A d, d d dd v, A-A d H d wd b dd d 73 .T w d d b xd d bvd.
Ay d - d by w 240,000 (43%) d b (SES) db; 340,000 . AA-A d H - d, 56 b
db.
M y, CEW -d -d w- (-dy d wd d ) w vdd. Hxby d (2013) dd y (35,000) vy -, w- d dd d v wd , d w bw . O dw w d d d vy d d. Hxby d wk d dv d d, w d w k x. CEW wk b d bdy - d d d .
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3300 Whitehaven Street NW, Suite 5000Washington, DC 20007
M l C B 57
Separate and Unequal: How Higher Education
Reinorces the Intergenerational Reproduction o
White Racial Privilege
, d xv y.
B b d w.w.d/dq