September 18 – 27“Arabic Culture and Islam”

• Videos: ‘Islam: Empire of Faith’ [Tues 18 Sept]‘Caravans of Gold’ [Tues 25 Sept]

•Guest: Michael Frishkopf (Music) [Thurs 27 Sept]

The Culture of Islam

[Referring to ‘Islam: empire of faith + readings]What is ‘Arab’ about Islamic culture?

• Orality and veneration of language• Role of clan/patrilineal influence• Concern for the vulnerable• Issues/values of desert life• Belief in spirits, mysticism

How is it reflected in emergence of Islam?• Arabic and literacy• Rules governing gender relations/patrilineal social structure• law• Qur’an (language and imagery)• sufism

The Culture of Islam

What is ‘Islamic’ about being Muslim?• The role of the Mosque• The role of the hajj (pilgrimage)• Veneration of Mohamed• Images of Allah• Pillars (five)• Conversion

As we continue over the next few days to look at ‘culture’ and consider how we should understand ‘Islamic Culture’ as distinct from ‘Arab’ (in particular as it developed in Africa), we need to ask two questions:

1. How did different peoples understand and articulate 'being Muslim’?2. How did those understandings and articulations change over time (and why)?

Mapping Islam: origins to 1700

PBS Video: ‘Islam: Empire of Faith’ – timeline[http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/flashtimeline.html]

• Abyssinia, Arabian Peninsula (7th-8th C)• north (Syria, Persia) (7th-8th C)• west (Egypt, North Africa) (7th-8th C)• Spain, West Africa (8th-15th C )• East Africa (9th-15th)• Asia (12th-16th)• Mediterranean (Byzantine Empire, Greece, Eastern Europe) (14th-16th C)• India (10th-16th C)• China (7th-17th C)• Indonesia (13th-16th)

Which of these are NOT included in the ‘timelilne’?Why do you think they are not?

Brief ‘History of Spread of Islam’ [http://www.barkati.net/english/]

Medieval Empires:Africa, Asia, Mediterranean 12-15th C.

Early Spread of Islam

Medieval Empires: Africa, Asia, East Europe 12-15th C.

OttomanEmpire14th c.through17Th c.

Africa: spread of Islam

“Spread of Islam in Africa”(interactive – click to enlarge)

[http://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/images/islam_spread.jpg]

[Please note error: ‘Spread’ in East Africa should read from 8th century)

Mapping Islam: origins to 1700

How did Islam create a Muslim World?

• political jihad (holy war)• the Caliphs• the Almoravids• the Ottomans [‘Turks’]• the Saffivids [Persians]• the merchants• the clerics

The Culture of Islam

What divided that world?

• Sunni – Shi’a Islam• Schools of Law (eg Hanafi in India, Shafii in East Africa, Maliki in North and West Africa)• politics/emergence of empires (eg Ottomans)• culture (see article and discussion for Thursday, 20 Sept – also source of ‘unity’, therefore complex issue)

The Culture of Islam: Arabic and literacy

• Arabic was language of the Qu’ran -- learned even in non-Arabic speaking regions: as Islam spread, so too did use of Arabic

• Written in different ways in different regions

• some areas primarily ‘oral’ (language of the book), written only by scholarly/religious elite

• some areas, alphabet adopted to transcribe local languages (eg Hausa)

• Other areas Arabic used in conjunction with local languages, written in Arabic script (eg Swahili – East Africa; Hassaniya – Mauritania, West Africa)(see ‘Resources’)

The Culture of Islam: Arabic and literacy

• Reluctance to depict people in art led to attention given to Arabic itself as art-form: decoration on pottery, paintings, rugs, cloth, buildings (see “Caligraphy’ in ‘Resources’)

• Created basis for trans-national ‘culture’ and communication

• Arabic literacy usually included understanding numbers, calculations, book-keeping -- facilitated expansion of commercial networks, ‘diaspora’ Arabic scholars

The Culture of Islam: law

• Shari`a ["The way (to the watering hole)"]: The body and content of Islamic law. Traditionally divided into: Religious duties and Obligations to other people

• Fiqh: The study, or science, of Islamic jurisprudence.

• “Roots” of law: The Qur'an, hadith and umma (‘concensus of the community’); concept of ‘ijtihad’

The Culture of Islam: law

• Four main schools (tend to dominate in different parts of Muslim world):– Hanifi– Maliki– Shafi'i– Hanbali

Shi’ite law –Ja’fari

(see ‘Islamic Law’ and ‘History of Islamic Schools of Law’ under “Resources”)

The Culture of Islam:Rules governing images, worship

• Move from depicting and worshiping many Gods to worshipping onlyone and not depicting him/her other than in calligraphy, as well as fear that recreating the image of a person invited undo attention (potentially ‘worship’) generated distinctive art styles favouring flora, fauna

“ ’atomism’ .... is the notion that all things, living or not, are made up of combinations of exactly identical atoms. The composition of atoms into “things” it is argued, is a divine prerogative, but artists or artisans, who must not compete with God, are allowed to organizethese atoms in any arbitrary way they wish. Thus the free and imaginative variations of Islamic ornament or unusual combinations of motifs were seen as reflections of a philosophical doctrine on the nature of reality.”

(from ‘Islamic Textile Arts)

The Culture of Islam:Rules governing images, worship

• Work such as Moroccan Kilims (rugs) often contain imperfections:

This is why the “mistakes” we see in kilims have significance: were the kilim-maker to become too proud of their own skill, to seek perfection in their work and place too much importance upon their own abilities and creations, this would place them in danger. To be an act of devotion their work needs to show humility, an acknowledgement that their skill is given them by God, their materials and leisure provided by God ...... any beauty which they create from their labours is a small light from Allah, a hint of the unlimited beauty created by Allah in the next world .

(from ‘Islamic Textile Arts)

The Culture of Islam:Art, Islam, Gender and Textiles

• Ottoman Empire: - economy largely based on textile production, trade- rulers subsidized and regulated. - Carpets, silks, cottons, and other luxury goods comprised trade,

mainly with Europe, - basis of healthy economy during - Women played extremely important role in textile economy, - outlet in embroidery, spinning allowed for power, financial independence in world dominated by men.

The Culture of Islam:Art, Islam, Gender and Textiles

- Embroidery particularly important- Most from Imperial Harem, other harems of high officials, - also from workshops, factories, - domestic women working independently in homes largest, produced most unique intricate works, widespread reputation for excellence- Ottoman women in city centers, confined to homes used embroidery mainly to pass the time, but could also support themselves by taking individual commissions

Right: Berberrug weaving, Morocco(see Readings – Islamic Textile Art)

OttomanEmbroidery

Textiles(Woven byWomen)

The Culture of Islam:Rules governing images, worship

• particular styles of portraiture and human representation continued to flourish – especially under influence of western art forms in 17th and 18th

centuries• Note lack of perspective, human likeness

• More Representations can be found at (under ‘Readings -- Additional Resources’):Topkapi webpage (Ottoman): http://www.ee.bilkent.edu.tr/%7Ehistory/topkapi.html

The Culture of Islam:Rules governing gender relations

• Impact on architecture -- separate quarters for men and women (see ‘Public and Private Space’ and Timothy Insoll ‘The Archaeology of Islam , Book, pdf file especially pp. 17,19-20; both under “Readings – Additional Resources)

• Harems (also see ‘Public and Private Space)• Impact on dress – ‘modesty’ for women (see Islamic Dress, Islamic Clothing

under “Readings – Additional Resources”)

LeftTurkish

RightPersian

FarModern

The Culture of Islam:role of the mosque

• Islam requires collective prayer on Fridays, usually in Mosque: traditionally, said Muslim community defined by distance call for prayer could be heard; ‘prayer’ unites Muslims everywhere

• Mosque’s differ over Muslim world (according to local building materials, wealth of community), architecturally they aim for similarity in terms of minarets, prayer spaces and often attached social services like libraries, hospitals, schools

The Ka'aba mosque, in Mecca, is an important part of the Hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca.

The Sankore Mosque at Timbuktu in Mali is built in traditional Sahelian style out of dried mud.

The Grand Mosque in Kuwait was inaugurated in 1986,

The Culture of Islam:role of the mosque

Telemcen, Algeria (1303-36)

Istanbul, Turkey (1610-1616)

Damascus, Syria 706-713Tahoua, Niger 1962-82

Sulayman Mosque Istanbul 16th C

Hesseki Hurem, Istanbul 1540 (mosque, school, soupkitchen) 1550s added women’s hospital, bathhouse

The Culture of Islam:role of the hajj

• Hajj: literally 'to set out for a place'. • In Islam, refers to annual pilgrimage Muslims make to Mecca to perform

religious rites in accordance with the method prescribed by the Prophet Muhammad

• traditionally took months, often years• pilgrimage spread ideas, cultures over very long distances (eg Mansa Musa

of Mali)

(See ‘Short History of the Hajj’ under “Readings – Additional Resources”)

Islam in Africa:History, Culture, Religion

In terms of shaping ‘Middle East and Africa:

How important was becoming Muslim, how important was the presence of Islam, as compared to the political, commercial and cultural ways in which the ‘spread of Islam’ drew these regions and their peoples together?

Islam in Africa:History, Culture, Religion

• first BBC audio text emphasized ways in which Africa and Middle East became connected through shared religion – Islam• emphasized ‘unity’ through shared values• additional articles spoke of conflict and tensions arising from how history and politics shaped spread of Islam and Islamic connections over time• article on Islam and Culture argued that history and politics ensured diversity even as Islam provided ‘shared’ world values – conflict not necessary• today will follow that reasoning emphasizing material ways in which Africa drawn into larger Muslim world

Spread of Islam:conversion

[source:http://exploringafrica.matrix.msu.edu/images/islam_spread.jpg]

Spread ofIslam Into Africa:7th -19th C.

8th.

Spread of Islam:conversion

Muslim Africa (2003)

[source: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/africa_islam_87.jpg]

Spread of Islam:[Reference: BBC Story of Africa - Islam]

North Africa and the Horn:• 7th C. Islamic armies move into Egypt, then across

north Africa, incorporating pre-existing Arab communities, traders

• Islam brought political conquest in its wake (dynasties complete with administration, taxation eg Umayyad)

• Drew Africa into conflicts and political battles of Middle Eastern world (stretched from Spain to Baghdad)

• Early caliphates followed by shift from ‘Arab’ world (Mecca, Damascus, Baghdad) to Turkish world: rise of Ottoman empire – absorbed North Africa by 16th C.

• Remained part of Ottoman empire until 19th C.

Spread of Islam:[Reference: BBC Story of Africa - Islam]

North Africa and the Horn:• Berbers belong to story of North and West Africa• Many resisted Arab armies initially; later converted

and became base of Islamic expansion (eg into Spain)• Source of intellectual ‘purity’, reformism: Almoravids• Moved into West Africa – possibly conquered ancient

African kingdom of Ghana• Left religious and intellectual legacy but did not settle

or conquer politically• Although critical to spread of Islam, retained Berber

language – Saharans speak ‘dialects’ combining Berber and Arabic; Arab influence reinforced in some areas by arrival ‘hassan’ tribes from 16th c.

Early Spread of Islam

Medieval Empires: Africa, Asia, East Europe 12-15th C.

OttomanEmpire14th c.through17Th c.

Spread of Islam:[Reference: BBC Story of Islam]

West Africa:• Takrur earliest West African kingdom to identify with

Islam – influence of Muslim administrators, traders 11th

century (recount story of drought and power of Allah)• Political allies of Almoravids• Neighbouring Ghana incorporated first by trade (gold,

salt), later through Almoravid legacy: economic not political

• Successor empire of Mali was Muslim: Mansa Musa established connections with Egypt and Mecca; made the pilgrimage – returned with scholars, architects

• Previously known for trade, now seen as part of ‘Muslim world’

Ibn Battuta’s Mali (West Africa)

Ibn Battuta, 14th

Century traveller

[see link to Ibn Battuta’sAfrican and Middle East travels in ‘Resources’]

]

For Ibn Battuta’s description of Mali, seeReadings – not required’ – click “Ibn Battuta: West”

Ibn Battuta’s Muslim Africa(14th century)

[Catalan Atlas (Spain): 14th Century. [for larger view: http://historymedren.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://web.archive.org/web/20030418081940/http://www.bnf.fr/enluminures/manuscrits/aman6/i8%5F0000m.htm]]

Facsimile: Mansa Musa holding Golden orb

Spread of Islam:

West Africa:• Most famous was Niger trading centre of Timbuktu:

established as nomadic camp 12thc, major trading centre by 14th; 15th -16th centuries became centre of Islamic and Arab scholarship

• Reflected in famous Sankore Mosque (15th C), home to Sankore University (“university of Timbuktu)

• Several colleges, led by imams, specialized in knowledge Islam but also astronomy, law, medicine

• Students worked with ‘experts’ in each area• attracted scholars throughout Middle East-North Africa

Spread of Islam:

• Known as ‘city of books;• Manuscripts and libraries among most valued in world

Old West African proverb: "Salt comes from the north, gold from the south, and silver from the country of the white men, but the word of God and the treasures of wisdom are only to be found in Timbuktu."

[see ‘Timbuktu’s Ancient manuscripts’:http://www.guardian.co.uk/slideshow/page/0,,2114993,00.html]•Also: ‘Wonders of the African World- Road to Timbuktu”: http://www.pbs.org/wonders/Episodes/Epi5/5_wondr6.htm]

Spread of Islam:[Reference: BBC Story of Africa –West African Kingdoms “Kanem”]

• Further west, parallel developments along trade route from southern Libya to Kanem and Bornu (Chad)

• Kanem confederation: one clan leader converted to Islam late 11th c; state consolidated, became Muslim by 13th C

• by 16th c. merged with Bornu: established diplomatic relations with Ottomans, called ‘Fourth Sultanate of the World’ by 17th c. writer

• King made pilgrimage, instituted Islamic law, supported Islamic scholarship, established relations with N Africa

• adopted army structure (slave soldiers), harem, administration (slave treasurers) – like Ottomans

• received arms from Egyptians, used Ottoman soldiers

Spread of Islam:[Reference: BBC Story of Islam]

West Africa:• Hausa City States: stories of origin reflect process of

‘Islamization’ and early African relations with Middle East[see ‘Story of Africa: “West African Kingdoms – Hausa”]

- Lake Chad (Bornu) connection- Northern connection- Ethiopia- Baghdad (and the ‘legend’)

Spread of Islam:[Reference: BBC Story of Islam]

West Africa:• 18th and 19th centuries: waves of reformist Islam

engaged societies across West Africa in jihad: these were not primarily about conversion, so much as ‘purification’

• Also political: consolidated wealth, developed economic infrastructure, resisted colonial influences (some like Northern Nigerian Caliphate of Sokoto, very successfully) – Islamic gov’t retained by colonial rulers

• Intellectual influences drawn from North Africa and Middle East; remained in forms of brotherhoods that continue to shape both politics and societies

Spread of Islam:[Reference: BBC Story of Islam]

West Africa:• dynamics between Islam and culture

reflected many areas (music, material culture)

• ‘The Durbar’: example of creating tradition that ‘looked’ African, drew on Arab/Bedouin values, tied itself directly to Islam (celebration of Islamic feasts), finally drawn back into society to express other ‘African’feasts

[http://www.ontheglobe.com/photos/nigeria/nigeria1.htm]

West Africa

[source: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/africa_islam_87.jpg]

East Africa[reference BBC Story of Africa: Islam]

• Islamic influences came from several directions, over long period time: Egypt, Somalia, Arabia, Persia

• Most important process: trade and intermarriage with locals by merchants

• Indian Ocean: monsoon winds controlled when ships could move across and around Ocean – merchants forced to spend up to six months on East African coast

• Local chronicles speak of founding of city-states by Persians (Shiraz) – tale of purchasing island of Kilwawith the cloth it took to surround the land, establishes link between commerce and Islam

• Archaeology (excavation Mosques Isle Shanga) shows growing Muslim community from 11th c.

Spread of Islam:‘cutlure’

[ “Swahili Coast”http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html# ]

Spread of Islam:‘cutlure’

• Emergence of Swahili (from Arabic ‘sahil’ or coast) –language of Bantu origin, grammar, large Arabic vocabulary, also Persian words [‘Readings’ -- articles on “Islam, Language…” and “Arab culture…’”]

• Mixed ‘Arab-Persian’ influence seen in architecture, literature (poetry – utendi)[Readings – articles on ‘Swahili Poems’ and ‘Islam, Language and Ethnicity’under “Readings”]

• Network provided basis for spread of Islam, especially during Colonial era

Spread of Islam:‘cutlure’

• 1830s Sultan Sayid Said (Oman) established capital at Zanzibar

• Traders of mixed descent: ‘Swahili’and African (eg ‘Tippu Tip’)

• Took language, ‘culture’, religion to settlements far in interior

• looked not only to Zanzibar but to traditions of Oman

• affected social structure, marriage, identity

• [see ‘Readings’--not required’ – “Marriage that was not to be” for story reflecting how commerce, culture, Islam and history shapedthis region of East Africa]

Spread of Islam:‘cutlure’

• Tippu Tip (Muhammad bin Hamid c.1830-1905)

• Established commercial empire in Equatorial Africa (1860s -- 1890)

• Born in Zanzibar:father- Swahili merchant; mother- Nyamwezi

• began ventures early 1860s south of Lake Tanganyika – ended under colonial rule

[See also ‘BBC Story of Africa: Islam – East Africa]

Spread of Islam:‘cutlure’

[“Swahili Coast”http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html# ]

Children in ‘traditional’, IslamicClothing

Celebration of the Prophet’s Birthday – Swahili style

Arab Culture and Islam:conclusion

• As Islam spread outside Arab heartland, adapted to different languages, customs, environments.

• shows in everything: architecture, scholarship, music, customs, dress, social identity, government structure

• Essential tenets of the faith, centrality of Arabic as ‘the’language of Islam (even adapting to new linguistic environments) remained influential everywhere

• Need to look at individual societies over time to understand exactly how (and when) ‘essential’ aspects of culture and religion became integral to their new hosts

• Understanding processes in historical context –initial rise of Islam, ways in which people converted as Islam spread –aids us in understanding attraction of Islam and culture today