The National Environment Agency, The World Bank and The Danish Agency for International Development (DANIDA) contributed to the preparationof this document. The World Bank task team consisted of Messrs./Mmes. Anjali Acharya, Patchamuthu Illangovan (Team Leader), Tran Thi ThanhPhuong and Anthony J. Whitten. NEA was represented by Messrs./Mmes. Truong Manh Tien (General-Director), Ho Van (Director of MonitoringDivision), Hua Chien Thang (Deputy Director of Monitoring Division), and Tran Thi Le Anh (Monitoring Division). Mr. John Carstensen representedDANIDA. Consultants who assisted the Monitor team in providing environmental data and information included Nguyen Hoang Yen, Vu Thu Hanh,Nguyen Hong Thao, Nguyen Minh Son, Mai Ky Vinh, Nguyen Chu Hoi, Vu Xuan Nguyet Hong, Vu Van Tuan and Nat Pinnoi. Contributions and commentsfrom Phan Thu Huong (MPI/DEA) and Zafer Ecevit , Chris Shaw and Ron Zweig (World Bank) are gratefully acknowledged.The document was peerreviewed by Todd M. Johnson of the Environment Department, World Bank and Dr. Nguyen Cong Thanh of Asian Institute Technology Center Vietnam(AITCV). Le Thanh Huong Giang provided logistics support. Ms Yok Dechamorn and Mr. Sorachai Nanthawatcharaviboon assisted in the layout andcover design. Jeffrey Lecksell was responsible for map design. Ms. Sirinun Maitriwatana coordinated the production of this document.

The support and encouragement given by Mr. Andrew D. Steer, Country Director - Vietnam (until September 13,2002) is gratefully acknowledged.

The views expressed in the Vietnam Environment Monitor are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the WorldBank Group, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. The material contained herein has been obtained from sources believed reliablebut it is not necessarily complete and cannot be fully guaranteed.

September 2002

CONTENTSCONTENTS

Table of Contents

Preface.............................................................................................................1Abbreviations and Acronyms...........................................................................2Environmental Scorecard: Trends and Indicators in Vietnam.........................3Executive Summary........................................................................................ 5

Green Agenda...........................................................................................7-14Land.................................................................................................................7Forests.............................................................................................................9Biodiversity and Protected Areas...................................................................11Policy Responses............................................................................................14

Blue Agenda............................................................................................15-19Water Resources............................................................................................ 15Coastal and Marine Resources..................................................................... 17Policy Responses.......................................................................................... 19

Brown Agenda.........................................................................................20-29Water Pollution............................................................................................ 20Air Pollution................................................................................................ 23Solid and Hazardous Waste.......................................................................... 26Policy Responses.......................................................................................... 28

Global Agenda........................................................................................ 29-30Policy Responses........................................................................................... 29

Environmental Management..................................................................31-36Key Institutions............................................................................................. 31Institutional Capacity................................................................................... 33Key Legislation............................................................................................. 34Expenditures................................................................................................. 35

The Challenges............................................................................................ 37Glossary of Environmental Terms.................................................................39Acknowledgements........................................................................................42Vietnam-at-a-Glance.....................................................................................43

PREFACE

The Government of Vietnam's 10 year National Environmental Protection Strategy (NSEP) recognizes that there is a rapiddeterioration in environmental quality and natural resources. In the last 5 decades, natural forest cover has shrunk from 43 to29 percent of land area, and the country is facing an acute shortage of arable land. Habitat loss has led to a rise in the numberof threatened species. High rates of rural under-employment, also linked to land shortages, and an emphasis on industrializa-tion, have contributed to migration to cities. Burgeoning urban populations are over-whelming municipal infrastructure andservices and causing environmental problems such as unmanaged landfills, transport-related air pollution, untreated hospitaland hazardous waste, and raw sewage flowing in open channels. Sedimentation, and point and non-point sources of pollutionare threatening the health of rivers. Over-fishing and destruction of coral reefs and mangroves have reduced the fishing yield.

Over the last decade, Vietnam has put into place several environmental laws, decrees and ordinances addressing environmentalprotection, regulations. The challenge before the country now lies in the implementation of these laws and the formulation ofsound environmental policies, for which accurate and reliable environmental data and information is critical.

Environmental data in Vietnam is collected by a variety of sources including government departments and agencies, academiaand NGOs. Since 1994, the National Environment Agency has published State of the Environment reports based on monitoringdata collected by the National Monitoring Network and DOSTEs. However, information sharing among organizations andaccess to information by the public is a major constraint to building a strong knowledge base for environmental managementin the country.

There is an immediate need for systematic and coherent analysis of environmental data. The Vietnam Environment Monitor2002 is a modest first step to address this gap by presenting a snapshot of key environmental trends in the country. Itspurpose is to engage and inform stakeholders of key envi-ronmental changes as they occur, in an easy-to-understand format.Using charts and graphs, the Monitor benchmarks trends in various environmental indicators associated with green, blue andbrown issues. Environmental changes, however, occur over a period of time, and therefore, unlike economic indicators,annual variations are not easy to measure or assess. Thus, the series is designed to track changes in general environmentaltrends every 5 years. In the intervening years, the Monitor will focus on specific themes, to highlight critical and emergingproblems.

This Monitor consists of six sections. The first four sections describe environmental trends under the Green, Blue, Brown andGlobal agendas. An analysis of the institutions, legislation and budget is presented in a fifth section; and the Monitor concludeswith an assessment of major challenges faced by Vietnam.

The Vietnam Environment Monitor 2002 is the outcome of a joint exercise involving national agencies, academia, civil society,and researchers. The information contained in this Monitor has been compiled from a variety of sources including publishedreports of various government agencies, universities, and nongovernmental organizations, and documents of the World Bankand bilateral donor agencies.

The National Environment Agency served as the lead government agency in the preparation of the Monitor, and provided dataand coordinated the cooperation among government agencies. The Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)supported the data collection, while the World Bank staff were responsible for data validation, analysis and writing of thereport.

PREFACE

Dr. Pham Khoi NguyenVice Minister

Ministry of Science, Technology andEnvironment

Klaus RohlandCountry Director - Vietnam,

East Asia and Pacific Region,The World Bank

Zafer EcevitSector Director,

Environment and Social Development UnitEast Asia and Pacific Region,

The World Bank

Bjarne H. SorensenAmbassador for Denmark in Vietnam

ABBREVIATIONS & A

ADB Asian Development BankBAP Biodiversity Action PlanBOD Biochemical Oxygen DemandDLA General Department of Land Adminis

trationDO Dissolved OxygenDoSTE Department of Science, Technology

and EnvironmentEEZ Exclusive Economic ZoneEIA Environment Impact AssessmentEPA Environmental Protection AgencyFIPI Forest Inventory and Planning InstituteFPD Forest Protection DepartmentGDLA General Department of Land Adminis-

trationGDMH General Department of Meteorology

and HydrologyGDP Gross Domestic ProductGSO General Statistical OfficeHCMC Ho Chi Minh CityIPM Integrated Pest ManagementLWR Law on Water Resourcesmha million hectaresMARD Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Devel-

opmentMoC Ministry of ConstructionMoF Ministry of Fisheries

ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS

MoI Ministry of IndustryMoPH Ministry of Public HealthMoSTE Ministry of Science, Technology and

EnvironmentMoT Ministry of TransportMPA Marine Protected AreasMPI Ministry of Planning and InvestmentMRC Mekong River CommissionNCNST National Center for Natural Sciences

and TechnologyNCSASR National Committee for Search and

RescueNEA National Environment AgencyNGO Non-governmental OrganizationNMN National Monitoring NetworkODA Official Development AssistanceODS Ozone Depleting SubstancesSoE State-owned EnterprisesSFE State Forest EnterpriseSWM Solid Waste ManagementTSP Total Suspended ParticulatesUNEP United Nations Environment ProgramVND Vietnamese DongWB World BankWSC Water Supply CompaniesWHO World Health Organization

1US Dollar = 15,300 Vietnam Dong (Sept 1, 2002)

MENTAL SCORECARD

This scorecard represents an attempt to benchmark key environmental indicators. The selection of indicators was predicated onthe availability of credible data, and also includes indicators for environmental sustainability identified under the MillenniumDevelopment Goals. The indicators selected here represent both production/consumption and deterioration/quality factors. Thisscorecard will be the basis to record future improvements or declines in environmental quality.

GREEN AGENDA: This is a term commonly used to describe environmental impacts caused by agriculture, deforestation, landconversion and destruction of protected species and related protection measures.BLUE AGENDA: This term is commonly used to refer to all forms of water resources management.BROWN AGENDA: This is a term commonly used to describe the pollution caused by industrial, urban, transport and energysources and their single or collective impacts and protection measures.

ENVIRONMENTAL SCORECARD

Green Agenda. Vietnam has a total land area of about 33million hectares (mha), of which 25 mha comprisesmountainous and hilly regions. Land degradation in Viet-nam is caused by urbanization, insecure land tenure, poorlogging practices, drought, salinization and acidification.Steep slopes and deforested landscapes, especially in thehighlands and northwest regions, are very susceptible tosoil erosion during heavy rains. Salinization and acidifica-tion are more severe in the Mekong delta region. The use ofagrochemical inputs –chemical fertilizers and pesticides –are low, but steadily increasing.Pesticide usage has increased200 percent over the last decade.

About 19 mha –58 percent of the country’s land area isclassified as forest land. Of this, only about 11.3 mha isactually covered by forests –9.7 mha of natural forests and1.6 mha of plantations. Despite recent increases in area, thequality of forests remains a concern.Closed canopy forestsstill make up only 13 percent, while poor/regeneratingforests make up 55 percent of total forest area. Plantationforests, on the other hand, have more than doubled from0.7 mha in 1990 to 1.6 mha in 2000.

Since 1999, logging operations by State Forest Enterprises(SFEs) have been curbed –only 130 SFEs are nowpermitted to manage natural forests for productionpurposes. Timber extraction from illegal logging is estimatedat 0.5-2 million cubic meters annually. Fires –from dryweather conditions and shifting cultivation practices –arealso destroying large sections of forests.

Vietnam is one of the world’s 10 most biologically diversecountries –containing about 10 percent of the world’sspecies, even while covering less than 1 percent of the earth’ssurface. The high species diversity and endemism is underthreat from habitat losses caused by population growth,dam and road construction, and agricultural expansion.Demand both from within Vietnam, and outside, fuels amajor wildlife trade. To protect its biodiversity, Vietnam hasdeveloped a protected areas system –currently comprising17 national parks, 58 nature reserves, and 18 protected land-scape areas.

Blue Agenda. Several rivers traverse through Vietnam,providing an abundant supply of water (255 bcm annually).However, inadequate physical infrastructure and financialcapacity results in a low utilization of only 53 bcm per year.

Annual rainfall of 1,960 mm, is uneven across Vietnam,and the dry season results in serious shortage of water inmany areas.

The demand for water continues to escalate. Agriculturallands –accounting for 90 percent of water use–continue toexpand. The rapid development of industry and the servicesectors are also projected to increase demand for water inthe future. Water supply falls short of demand in urban andrural areas due to inadequate infrastructure and confusingjurisdictional responsibilities. In 2000, only 52.5 percentof Vietnam’s population of 78 million had access to safewater, and only 24 percent of households had piped waterfacilities.

Vietnam’s rich and diverse coastal and marine ecosystemsare also under threat. Over the last five decades, Vietnamhas lost more than 80 percent of its mangroveforests –with shrimp farming one of the leading causes forthis destruction. About 96 percent of Vietnam’s coral reefsare severely threatened by human activities, includingdestructive fishing methods, over-fishing, and pollution.Over the last decade, the marine catch has doubled to 1.5million tons in 2001. However, the overall catch per uniteffort has steadily declined over the same period,accompanied by a shift to smaller fish catch size.Aquaculture yields, on the other hand, have increased.

Brown Agenda. Wastewater and run-off from urbanareas, industrial centers, and agricultural land, pollutesurface, ground, and coastal waters of Vietnam. Untreatedsewage from households, effluents from industrial enter-prises and seepage from garbage dumps or landfills are themain causes of organic pollution of surface water. Ninetypercent of the enterprises established prior to 1995 have nowastewater treatment facilities, and use obsolete equipment.

Trends in the country’s 9 river basins indicate goodupstream water quality, while downstream sections are oftenpolluted. Organic pollution gets worse in the dry season,when flows in rivers are reduced. Within cities, lakes,streams, and canals increasingly serve as sinks for domes-tic sewage and industrial wastes. Groundwater quality isshowing some contamination. Rapid urbanization andindustrialization in the interior, port and marine transportdevelopment, expansion in coastal tourism, and rise in oilspills contribute to the deterioration of coastal water quality

UTIVE SUMMARYEXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Air quality in nearly all urban and industrial areas isaffected by particulates, lead and nitrous oxides, sulfurdioxide and carbon monoxide emitted by sources includingvehicles, factories, power plants, and households. Fineparticulates (PM10) are an emerging problem in urbanareas. Sulfur dioxide emissions near some factoriesoccasionally exceed the standard by several fold. Leadlevels at major traffic intersections in main cities are start-ing to decline following the government’s decision to banleaded gasoline.

Waste generation is on the rise –ranging from 0.5-0.8 kg/person/day for large cities and 0.3-0.4 kg/person/ day forsmall towns. Household collection efficiencies remain low(national average of 53.4 percent), while recycling is mod-est at 13-15 percent. Most of the collected waste in Viet-nam is disposed in dumps and open landfills, and there is noseparate treatment for hazardous wastes.

Global Agenda. Vietnam is a party to many major inter-national environmental conventions on transboundary andglobal issues, including biodiversity, ozone depletion,climate change, transportation of hazardous, oil spills andtrade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora.

Environmental Management. Vietnam has put in placea sound legal framework for environmental protection andnatural resources conservation which include many laws,regulations, and directives. The national environmental lawwas enacted in 1993. The Ministry of Science, Technologyand Environment is responsible for environmental protec-tion while the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Develop-ment (MARD) oversees forest management and biodiversity

conservation. In all, there are 10 ministries, 15 committeesand general departments, and several local-level agencies,whose actions influence the environment. These ministriesand agencies are highly segmented with limited cooperationamong them. A preliminary review of staffing of theseministries and departments indicates inadequate capacity andover-extended staff.

The budget structure of Vietnam’s public sector expendi-ture does not allow for exact determination of environmen-tal spending. A preliminary analysis indicates that core en-vironmental expenditure hovers just under 1 percent of thetotal public spending.

Challenges. To achieve the vision formulated in theNational Environmental Strategy and Action Plan(2001-2010), the country needs to address the fourchallenges articulated in the Vietnam Development Report2000:

creating incentives for changing behaviorinvolving communities and citizens more fullyimproving institutional effectivenessdiversifying sources of financing for implementing priority programs

At the core of tackling these challenges is the quality ofdata and their timely analysis, so that policy responses canbe designed cost-effectively with broad consensus.Improving data collection and storage methods, system-atizing analysis and enhancing accuracy, sharing informa-tion, and strengthening capacity would provide Vietnam withthe required tools to better formulate, implement, andrefine its environmental policies.

EXECUTIVE SUMMEXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Vietnam has a total land area of about 33 million hectares(mha), of which 25 mha comprises mountainous and hillyregions. Agricultural land accounts for about 9.3 mha (or28.4 percent). Great increases in agricultural productionhave been achieved in recent years, with Vietnam now theworld’s second largest rice exporter. It is also the fifth mostdensely-populated agricultural country (where more than30 percent of GDP is derived from agriculture) afterBangladesh, India, Rwanda, and Burundi.

Over the past decade, the area of cultivated land inVietnam has steadily increased from 9 mha to almost 12.5mha This 38 percent increase is mostly attributed to theexpanding cultivation of perennial crops such as coffee,rubber, and tea. However, cultivated land per capita hasdeclined over the same period.

Forested land comprised almost 11.3 mha of whichdifferent grades and qualities of natural forests covered justabout 9.7 mha. Residential and other minor categoriesaccounted for an additional 1.5 mha. About 10 mha (31percent) of the country’s land –most of this steep slopes –remains ‘unused’.

Land degradation in Vietnam can be attributed to avariety of causes including urbanization, insecure landtenure, poor logging practices, drought, expansion ofaquaculture into areas of acid sulphate prone soils, andacidification. About 50 percent of Vietnam’s land area hasbeen identified as having poor quality soils as a result ofhuman activity.

Soil erosion …Vietnam’s many steep slopes anddeforested landscapes, especially in the highlands andnorthwest regions, are very susceptible to soil erosionduring heavy rains. The eroded topsoil is carried awayand deposited as silt in rivers, lakes and estuaries, and therich diversity of productivity-enhancing organisms is lost.Potential soil erosion ranging from 50-3200 ton/ha/yearaffects about 23 mha, accounting for some 70 percent ofthe country’s land area.

REEN AGENDAGREEN AGENDALand

Salinization and acidification are observed in theplains and coastal areas, but are most common in the Mekongdelta region. Recently many irrigation works and hydro-electric dams have changed the flow regimes of rivers. Oneconsequence of this is saline intrusion into groundwater inestuary areas such as Thai Binh, Hai Phong, Quang Ninhprovinces in the North, and the Mekong delta region in thesouth. This salinization not only affects drinking and indus-trial water, but also threatens ecosystems and agriculturalsystems. The severity of the salinization depends on thetopography and flow —with areas such as the Mekong deltaaffected more than the Red River delta.

The exposure of coastal acid-sulfate soils in estuarineareas, through the development of coastal aquaculture, forexample, causes acidification of land and water. The areaof such soils has reduced from 2.1 mha in 1980 to about1.5 mha today.

Agrochemical inputs remain low…The usage ofchemical fertilizers is still relatively low in Vietnam –but issteadily increasing especially in vegetable-growing areas.The quantity of fertilizers imported and locally producedis now twice and thrice, respectively, what it was in 1990.

Pesticides usage, including insecticides, fungicides, and her-bicides, is also on the rise, increasing by about 200 percentover the last decade. Most of the use and increase is in therice fields of the Mekong delta. In their efforts to controlthe brown planthopper, farmers apply pesticides 5.3 timeseach year on average, spending $40 per hectare1 . In con-trast, farmers in the Red River delta spend $22 using a singleapplication2.

GREEN AGENGREEN AGENDALand

1 FAO, Rome 2000. Nguyen Huu Dung and Tran Thi Thanh DungEconomic and Health Consequences of Pesticide Use in PaddyProduction in the Mekong Delta..

2 EEPSEA, IDRC, Ottawa 2000. Nguyen Huu Dung and Tran ThiThanh Dung. A pesticide tax for Vietnam?.

In Vietnam, about 19 million hectares (mha) –58 percent ofthe country’s land area is classified as forest land althoughmuch of this has no forests. Of this, only about 11.3 mha isactually covered by forests – 9.7 mha3 of natural forestsand 1.6 mha of plantations.

Forest area on the rise… Between 1943 to 1993, for-est cover in Vietnam declined from 14.3 mha to only 9.3mha – an average loss of 100,000 ha/year.4 In the 1960sand 1970s, southern and central Vietnam was subjected tothe spraying of huge quantities of defoliant chemicals whichkilled large areas of inland and coastal forests and alsowildlife. Since then, with improvements in the allocation ofland, as well as better protection and management of forestland, total area of forest and plantations has increased to11.3 mha

… but forest quality remains a concern. Despiterecent increases in forest area, rich and closed-canopyforest are virtually extinct, and medium-quality forestssteadily diminishing. Closed canopy forests still make uponly 13 percent, while poor and regenerating forests makeup 55 percent of total forest area. The chances of fullregeneration are rapidly decreasing with the increasingisolation of the rich natural forest patches. Plantationforests, on the other hand, have almost doubled from 0.7mha in 1990 to 1.6 mha in 2000.

Forests classified by purpose … For administrativepurposes, forests in Vietnam are categorized into Produc-tion Forests, Protection Forests and Special-Use Forests.Production Forests are used mainly for harvesting timberand non-timber products, although commercial timberextraction was suspended in most provinces in 1996. Allforest categories have watershed protection function, butProtection Forests are designated specifically to control soilerosion, moderate floods, regulate climate, and enhance the

REEN AGENDAGREEN AGENDAForests

hydrological regime. Special-Use Forests are demarcatedto conserve biodiversity, and as places to conduct research.These forests include national parks, nature reserves, andenvironmental, cultural, and historical sites.5

3 Forest data vary among sources.4 FIPI, 1993

5 BirdLife International Vietnam Programme. 2000. Sourcebook ofProtected Areas. www.birdlifevietnam.com (English)www.wirdlifevietnam.org (Vietnamese).

Despite major policy reforms, forests in Vietnam continueto be under threat from illegal logging and shifting cultiva-tion. Forest fires are also destroying large sections offorests.

Logging operations curbed… Logging operations havebeen operated and managed by State Forest Enterprises(SFEs). Before 1999, there were 412 SFEs, holdinglogging quotas covering 3.5 mha of forest lands and har-vesting some 3.5 million m3 annually.

In 1999, a Prime Ministerial Decision reformed the SFEs,allowing 130 to manage natural forests for productionpurposes with an output not exceeding 300,000 cubicmeters per year. About 120 other SFEs are required toprotect the forests and to use credit until the forests aremature enough to harvest. The remaining SFEs were to beconverted into Protection Forest Management Boards.

In addition to government logging, illegal cutting,especially in the central highlands, has resulted in largeareas of cleared forest. Estimates of timber extractedillegally range from 0.5-2 million cubic meters annually.

Fires threaten forests… Forest fires are caused bya combination of factors such as dry weather, as well asshifting cultivation. Deliberate fires are set to clear land forcultivation –often killing young trees and further reducingthe diversity and future economic potential of those areas.Official statistics reveal recent annual losses varying fromabout 1000 to highs of about 20,000 hectares in 1990 and1998. In 1998, there were 1681 cases of forest-fires in 37provinces which destroyed 19,819 ha of forest altogether.Since 1998, MARD has had an annual budget of aboutVND18 to 19 billion to help prevent fires.

One of the most severe incidents of forest fires was in theU Minh area earlier this year, when about 5,000 ha ofnatural melaleuca forests were consumed. To bring the fireunder control, tens of thousands of firefighters from thepolice and army were needed to extinguish the fire.

GREEN AGENGREEN AGENDAForests

Vietnam is one of the world’s 10 most biologically diversecountries –containing about 10 percent of the world’sspecies, even while covering less than 1 percent of theearth’s surface. A high degree of species diversity – 23,000terrestrial and aquatic species –is found in Vietnam. In termsof fauna diversity, 275 mammal species and subspecies,828 bird species, 82 amphibians, 258 reptilian species andover 5000 insect species have been recorded. Floradiversity can be seen in the 13,766 reported species offlowering plants in Vietnam –of which 2393 are lower plantspecies and 11,373 are flowering plant species.

Endemism in Vietnam is higher as compared to othercountries in the subregion. Seven of Vietnam’s 15 primatespecies, and about 100 bird species are endemic. Highendemism is also observed in the floral kingdom –as muchas 10 percent of country’s local plant species may be foundnowhere else in the world.

The freshwaters of Vietnam are also rich in flora and faunabiodiversity –including species of fish, shrimp, crab, snail,mussels, amphibians, insects and plants. There are about544 fish species in Vietnam, of which an estimated 35 areendemic. In addition, there are 52 species of crabs andshrimps, of which 27 are considered endemic.6

Biodiversity under threat…Mounting pressures frompopulation growth, dam and road construction, and expan-sion of agricultural lands are resulting in serious habitatlosses. Mature natural forests have been damaged ordestroyed, logged, cleared and replaced by plantation for-ests. This habitat loss is threatening the country’s rich spe-cies diversity. Not surprisingly, according to governmentstatistics, of all Vietnam’s endemic species, 28 percent ofmammals, 10 percent of birds, and 21 percent of reptileand amphibian species are endangered mainly due to habi-tat loss and hunting.

Freshwater biodiversity in Vietnam is also threatened bydomestic and industrial water pollution, impoundments,dredging, destructive fishing techniques and overfishing,and the release of exotic alien species. The extent of thedestruction of freshwater biodiversity is still poorly known.

6 UNEP/NEA State of the Environment, 2001.

REEN AGENDAGREEN AGENDABiodiversity and Protected Areas

Box 2 – A plethora of new speciesThe recent discovery of six new mammal species in Vietnamhas made headlines around the world and highlights the globalsignificance of the country’s biodiversity. The new speciesincludes four large mammals (one, an entirely new andenigmatic genus – the famous saola) and the rediscovery of awild pig in the central provinces of Nghe An and Quang Binh.Also, up until about three years ago, the total number of nativefish species known from northern Vietnam was 203. Somerapid surveys and a critical review of the ‘known’ list deter-mined a new total of 268 native species - an increase of over30 percent, many of them now rare and found only in remoteareas. Three new bird species have also been found, as havesome 80 new species of land snail from about 250 speciescollected over a period of just two weeks.These new species are often endemic, thereby underscoringthe importance for biodiversity conservation in Vietnam

Wildlife trade continues …Even in most protected ar-eas it is difficult to see wildlife. Intense demand both fromwithin Vietnam, and externally from China fuels a majortrade in wildlife species. The animals are traded formedicinal use, as wild meat and tonics, as trophies and sou-venirs, and as pets. About half the trade is in reptiles –mainly snakes and turtles. Tens of thousands of animalsare confiscated but these represent only about 5-10percent of the entire trade volume. Fines are imposed, buttheir size is often internalized as a ‘trade tariff’ and is passedonto the end user.

GREEN AGENGREEN AGENDABiodiversity and Protected Areas

Box 3: Changing role of wildlife huntingIn Thua Thien Hue province of Central Vietnam surveys were conducted on wildlife trade in seven villages near therecently established Phong Dien Nature Reserve. During the survey, several dozen hunters were interviewed, 28hunting questionnaires were completed, and two wildlife traders provided detailed information. This area is predomi-nantly inhabited by ethnic minorities and has a high degree of natural forest remaining. Despite this, the results foundthat wildlife hunting is no longer an important source of income for local residents because there are few economi-cally valuable animals left and the costs of the traps used are high relative to the benefits. Most of the hunting that stilltakes place is done as a side line while collecting rattan and does not involve large, protected species. The additionalincome from the majority of the animals hunted is important but to control that sort of hunting, only small-scaleincentives and disincentives are required to deflect activities from hunting. The financial benefits of trading in tigers,bears, etc. are major but relatively few people are engaged in this. Stricter enforcement is the only effective means ofpreventing this threat.

Source: Economic Study of Hunting Practices of Local Communities Living near Phong Dien Nature Reserve, LeTrong Trai et al., WWF Indochina Programme, 2002

In order to protect and conserve its rich biodiversity, Viet-nam has been developing a protected areas system over thelast three decades. In Vietnam, these protected areas areclassified and known as ’special use forests’ –consisting ofnational parks, nature reserves and protected landscapes.Vietnam’s first Nature Reserve was established in 1962, atCuc Phuong near Hanoi.

As of 2001, Vietnam has 93 national-level ‘special useforests’ covering 2.1 million hectares. It comprises of 17national parks, 58 nature reserves and 18 protected land-scape areas. Of the 93 special use forests, about 13protected areas have less than 25 percent of forest withintheir boundaries. Notable in this regard is Muong NheNature Reserve –at 314,642 ha, the country’s largestprotected area, constituting 14 percent of the entire system–supports less than 19 percent forest and that is highlyfragmented. (See table 8). In fact, the entire protected areasystem contains over 500,000 ha of agricultural land,scrub and non-unnatural grasslands.

In addition to terrestrial protected areas, the Governmenthas just proposed fifteen marine protected areas (MPAs).A pilot MPA in Hon Mun, Khanh Hoa province, gazettedin early 2002, consists of a group of eight semi-arid andinfertile islands surrounded by cliffs and various types ofbeaches.

Wetlands protected areas… Wetlands are among themost threatened habitats in Vietnam –with half of globallythreatened birds in Vietnam being dependent on thisecosystem for their survival. However, wetlands have yetto gain official recognition as a distinct landuse or conser-vation management category. In 2000, MoSTE/NEAidentified 79 wetlands of national importance –of whichonly 16 are included within decreed special use forests.

Tourist visits increasing …Visits to protected areas areincreasing. At Cuc Phuong National Park, for example,visits more than doubled from 27,000 to 60,000 between1998 and 2001. Foreigners represent just 5 percent of thosetotals.

REEN AGENDAGREEN AGENDABiodiversity and Protected Areas

To address the issues relating to the management of land,forests and protected areas, the government has formulatedseveral policies and legislation, and undertaken specifictargeted programs.

Land ManagementGovernment target for 2010 includes a 50 percentreduction in barren and degraded lands, as well as90-100 percent regeneration of depleted uplandforest.

The Five Million Hectare program aims to recover5 million hectares (mha) of open lands through naturalregeneration and reforestation of barren lands. Thisprogram is a follow-up to the “Regreening the BarrenHills” program 327 of 1993.

Forest ManagementThe government has banned logging in the majorityof production forests, and has reduced the number ofState Forestry Enterprises from 412 to 130.

The Government has targeted for forest coverage tobe expanded to at least 43 percent by 2010. Inaddition, five million hectares are to be establishedand regenerated by 2010.

Policy changes have resulted in a move from StateForestry towards Household Forestry, Households nowbeginning to replace SFEs in management of forest andforestlands. Long-term rights over forestlands (50 yearleases), as well as accompanying credit and technicalsupport are all aimed at assisting households in forestmanagement.

The strategic goal for the next 2-3 decades is theallocation of forestlands in the following proportions:

Special-use forests: 3 mhaProtection forests: 6 mhaProduction forests: 10 mha

Biodiversity and Protected areasGovernment target for 2010 includes the increase inprotected areas to 109 protected areas covering 2.6mha – equivalent to 8 percent of the total landarea.7

In early 2002, Vietnam passed a Government decree toalign its laws concerning the management of export,import, and transit of wild animals and plants with theConvention on the Trade in International Species(of which Vietnam has been a long-standing member).

The Forest Protection Department within MARD isresponsible for the overall management of special-useforests, while day to day management is undertaken byManagement Boards. MARD’s budget to 9 managementboards8 under its jurisdiction amounts to about 45billion VND per year.

Currently, only about two-thirds (65) of the 93 nationalspecial-use forests have management boards decreedand are therefore eligible for funding.

7 FPD, 2002.8 The 9 National parks include Cuc Phuong, Cat Ba, Bach Ma, Ba Vi,

Yok Don, Tam Dao, Ben EN, Ba Be, and Cat Tien.

GREEN AGENGREEN AGENDAPolicy Responses

Box 4: The Five Million Ha ProgramThe Five Million Ha Reforestation Program is a major manage-ment initiative, approved in July 1998 and directed at meetingforest product needs in a sustainable manner, protecting theenvironment and increasing social and economic benefits.Forest cover will be increased by natural forest regenera-tion and extensive planting efforts, including planting industrialcrops and fruit trees.Guiding principles of the program include: decentralization,local participation, coordination and integration of reforestationactivities and more efficient use of scarce governmentresources.The program will take an operational program approach toimprove policy and the institutional environment in the forestrysector.

Despite being blessed with an abundance of water, accessto safe water is still very low in Vietnam, especially in therural areas where the majority of poor people live.

Water sources abundant but uneven … Severalrivers traverse through Vietnam, providing an annual totalwater volume of 255 billion cubic meters (bcm) for its use.However, inadequate physical infrastructure and financialcapacity results in a utilization capability as low as 20percent or 53 bcm per year.9 Similarly, out of the naturalgroundwater reserves of 50-60 bcm, only one-fifth isutilized annually.10

Furthermore, Vietnam also has an average rainfall of 1,960mm/year. However, this rainfall is uneven, with differentareas receiving waterflow ranging from 10-80 liters/km2.11

The extent of rainfall also varies seasonally. The wet sea-son accounts for 70-85 percent of annual rainfall, whilethe dry season extending over 4 months results in seriousshortage of water in many areas

Floods and droughts getting more severe... A studyon floods in the Mekong Delta during 1991-2000 has shownan increasing flooding water level in all monitoring stations.

Similarly, numbers of over-flooding days in all areas duringthe period 1984-2000 are on the rise. According to MARD(2000), the cost of damage due to floods in 1994 was US$260 million and due to drought in 1998 was more than US$500 million.

Four areas in central Vietnam show evidence of desertifi-cation. In Quang Binh- Quang Tri-Thua Thien Hue and inQuang Nam-Quang Ngai- Binh Dinh, low river water flowsand salt intrusion is severe in coastal areas. Severe drought

9 M. Xie (1995), “Water resources in Vietnam,” Vietnam WaterResources Sector Review: Selected Working Paper, World Bank.

1 0 Pham Xuan Su, Water resources management and IrrigationDepartment, MARD, Seminar on Water supply and sanitation inprovincial towns, Hanoi December 2000.

11 Lam Minh Triet and Nguyen Thanh Hung (Environment ProtectionMagazine N0-11/2001).

is a frequent occurrence in the Phu Yen-Khanh Hoa andBinh Thuan-Ninh Thuan areas, where the dry season is pro-longed to 7-8 months.

LUE AGENDABLUE AGENDAWater Resources

Water demand escalating ... Nearly ninety percent ofVietnam’s water use today is for agricultural purposes –cultivation, aquaculture, and animal husbandry. In 2000,however, only 8 mha (64%) of the agriculture land areawas irrigated. Given this, and the expansion of cultivatedlands, agricultural demand for water is expected to increasefrom 63 bcm in 1990 to 95 bcm in 2010.

Industry currently comprises only about 7 percent in termsof water usage. However, with rapid industrial develop-ment and urbanization, industry and the service sectors areprojected to account for 14 percent and 9 percent of waterusage by 2010.

Water supply falls short … In 2000, only 52.5 percentof Vietnam’s population of 78 million had access to safewater.12 In both urban and rural areas, inadequate watersupply infrastructure and confusing jurisdictional responsi-bilities has contributed to an inefficient system. In 1999,only 24 percent of households had piped water facilities.

Urban water supply: Water Supply Companies (WSCs) atthe city, town, or provincial levels are primarily respon-sible for the operation and maintenance of water supplyfacilities. In 2000, only 45 percent of towns had water sup-ply networks providing 2.7 million m3 per day or 60-80liters per capita per day. The targets for 2010 are to in-crease urban coverage to 95 percent and the total produc-tion capacity of WSCs to 4.5 million m3 to satisfy domesticwater consumption of 150 liters/day per capita.

Rural water supply: In 1999, on average, about 36 percentof rural population was supplied with clean water. Accord-ing to Ministry of Construction (MOC) estimates, about30 percent of district centers and 15 percent of communecenters have piped water –which is provided to about 50percent of the population living in districts and communecenters.

12 “Immediate Objective, by the year 2020”, National Clean WaterSupply and Sanitation Strategy up to year 2020, MOC and MARD,August 2000.

BLUE AGENDBLUE AGENDAWater Resources

Coastal and marine ecosystems in Vietnam are diverse andabundant. They include coral reefs, mangrove forests, seagrass beds, tidal swamps, estuaries, lagoons, deltas,embayment, islands, sand and mud flats and other wetlands.

Mangroves losses continue … Over the last fivedecades, Vietnam has lost more than 80 percent of itsmangrove forests. The surge in shrimp farming is one ofthe leading causes for this destruction. Other causesinclude conversion to agricultural and construction land,war destruction, and fuel wood collection.

The loss of mangrove forests is largest in the Quang Ninhand Hai Phong provinces. Between 1960 and 1995, thesetwo provinces have seen the disappearance of close to fortythousands hectares of mangrove forest, with only 15,700hectares still remaining. It was estimated that the annualloss in terms of forgone benefits of mangrove functions(e.g. fishery, forestry, and erosion) could be in the range ofUS$ 10-32 million per year.13

Coral reefs under threat … The condition of coralreefs is also declining –with 96 percent of Vietnam’s reefsseverely threatened by human activities. Of this 75 percentis extremely threatened. The coral reef decline is recordedin several locations including Ha Long Bay (Quang Ninh),Cai Ba (Hai Phong), Ninh Thuan, Binh Thuan, and KhanhHoa. Studies conducted between 1994 and 1997 in 142sites concludes that only 1 percent of the country’s reefsare in excellent condition.

The main threats to the reefs are destructive fishingmethods, over-fishing, sedimentation, and pollution fromterritorial sources. Destructive fishing practices, such asthe use of poison and dynamite, threaten as much as 85percent of the country’s reefs. Over-fishing is a pervasivethreat to more than 60 percent, while sediment fromupland sources is estimated to threaten 50 percent ofVietnam’s reefs.

13 The World Bank, (1999), “ The Quang Ninh and Hai Phong CoastalRegion: Options for Comprehensive Development,” A Report forthe Seminar on Options for Comprehensive Development in theQuang Ninh and Hai Phong Coastal Region, World Bank inVietnam.

LUE AGENDABLUE AGENDACoastal and Marine Resources

Seagrasses being degraded…Seagrasses aredistributed in the coastal waters of Quang Ninh, Hai Phong,Nam Dinh, Thua Thien-Hue, Khanh Hoa provinces, DaNang City, Con Dao and Phu Quoc islands. A number ofsurveys carried out between 1995-2001 in 23 places of 12provinces show 15 species of seagrasses distributed in atotal area of 5,583 ha. Seagrasses in Vietnam have beenover exploited mainly for fertilizers and animal feed.Seagrass beds have also been severely degraded frominappropriate fishing, aquaculture production, andpollution from waste discharges.

Fisheries catch increases … Over the last decade,marine catch has doubled from 0.7 million tons in 1991 to1.5 million tons in 2001. Vietnam’s sea has a fish reserveof over 3 millions tons, while the catch production is about1.2–1.5 million tons, still within the allowable limit. About80 percent of fisheries production comes from the coastalecosystems to the depth of 50m.

...but yields show decline. Qualitative evidence,however, indicates that fishery resources within Vietnam’sexclusive economic zone (EEZ) are on the decline.Off-shore fishing boats have increased by 20 percentbetween 1997 and 2001. Thus, while fish catch hasincreased over the last 15 years, the overall catch per uniteffort has steadily declined over the same period. Therehas also been a shift in the catch size distribution towardssmaller fish.

Aquaculture yields increase… Total coastal andmarine aquaculture production has increased by 153 per-cent between 1991 and 2001. However, the coastal andmarine aquaculture area has increased by 94 percent overthis same period, indicating the increase in aquaculture yieldper hectare.

BLUE AGENDBLUE AGENDACoastal and Marine Resources

Water resourcesA number of laws and regulations have been issued by theVietnamese Government to protect water resources.Ministry of Construction (MOC) is responsible for urbanwater supply and sanitation, while MARD is responsiblefor rural, including for commune centers, water supply andsanitation.

The Vietnam Mekong River Commission wasestablished in April 1995. Master plans on waterresources development for the Red River and theMekong delta are under preparation.

Instruction 487/ TTg dated July 30, 1996 strengthensthe state management of water resources.

The Law on Water Resources was enacted in 1998,followed by the Decree No-179/1999/ND-CPspecifying the implementation of the Law. The NationalCouncil on Water Resources was established in 2000.

Water supply has also been addressed in DecisionNo-63/1998/QD-TTg, dated March 18, 1998, onGuiding direction for the Development of Urban WaterSupply until 2020; and Decision No 104/2000-QD-TTg,dated August 25, 2000, on National Strategy for RuralWater Supply and Sanitation.

Over the last 5 years, the government has also issuedordinances on protection and exploitation of irrigationschemes; on dykes; and on flood and storm prevention,together with decrees guiding the implementation ofthese ordinances.

Coastal and marine resourcesThe General National Marine Development Policy wasformulated in 1997 to ensure the efficient exploitation ofrenewable and nonrenewable coastal and marine resourcesas it had a significant economic potential for Vietnam.

National Program on Proposed Marine ProtectedAreas Planning: This program, executed by MoSTE, setsout a proposed system of 15 marine protected areas (MPAs)for the country. This proposal has been endorsed by thegovernment, and the Ministry of Fisheries has beenentrusted to develop regulations for the establishment,management, and planning of the MPAs system. As of2000, there were 5 existing MPAs covering an areaof 72,491 ha. A list of 10 additional sites covering an areaof 1,850,218 ha is yet to be formally approved by thegovernment.

Fisheries policies and plansFisheries policies and plans in Viet Nam focus largely onincreased exploitation of coastal and marine resources. TheMaster plan for the fishery sector 2000-2010 targets toincrease aquaculture yield to compensate for the limitedincrease of marine catch due to the decline in the marinefish stock.

In 1999, the Aquaculture Program for 1999-2010 wasapproved. Its overall objective was of achieving anaquaculture output of 2 million t/yr by 2010 from currentlevels of about 350,000 t/yr. Other components includeincreasing the efficiency of investments in aquacultureproduction; increasing utilization of land and water areasfor cultivating marine products; and favorable credit forpoor farmers and fisherman; and preferential conditionsfor remote areas.

LUE AGENDABLUE AGENDAPolicy Responses

A quarter of the country’s population live in urban centers.Over half of the country’s GDP is contributed by theindustrial and agricultural sectors. Wastewater andrun-off from urban areas14 , industrial centers15 and agri-cultural land pollute surface, ground and coastal waters ofVietnam.

Households and enterprises main polluters ofrivers… Untreated sewage from households, effluentsfrom industrial enterprises, and seepage from garbagedumps or landfills are the main causes of organic pollutionof surface water bodies. Toxicity is caused by heavymetals from industrial processes and pesticide run-off. Noestimation has yet been made to quantify the differentsources of pollution.

More than half of the country’s urban population live in 4major cities, and sewerage coverage varies between 20(Hanoi and Haiphong) and 60 (Ho Chi Minh City) percent.Treatment of collected sewage, however, does not takeplace.

Only 5 of the 65 industrial zones have operatingwastewater treatment facilities. Ninety percent of theenterprises established prior to 1995 have no wastewaterpollution control measures, and most of them are spreadacross the country. The Provincial DoSTEs have identi-fied over 3300 polluting enterprises that cause water andair pollution, three-fourths of which are State owned En-terprises (SoEs).

14 4 major cities, 82 provincial cities and towns and 537 district towns.15 62 industrial zones, 3 export processing zones and 1 hi-tech zone

are distributed in 27 provinces and cities. 15 of these zones containolder enterprises, 31 are for small-medium sized enterprises and20 newer zones. Only 5 of these zones have effluent treatmentfacilities.

BROWN AGENDBROWN AGENDAWater Pollution

Upstream water quality of most rivers remainsgood, while downstream is badly polluted… Ofthe 9 river basins in the country, the National MonitoringNetwork (NMN)16 has time series data for only fourrivers -Red River (Hanoi); Cam River (Haiphong); HuongRiver (Hue) and the Saigon River (HCM City). However,other rivers have also had their water quality testedbetween 1993 and 1999 (see Table 18).

Trends indicate that biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)and Ammonia-Nitrogen (NH4-N), both indicators formeasuring organic pollution, vary widely and exceednational water quality standards by several fold. Theproblems are worse during the 4-month dry season, whenflows in rivers are reduced. Results suggest that pollutionis most obvious at locations where rivers traverse throughurban and industrial centers, while in upstream reaches thewater quality has been found to be good. A few locationsstand-out as hotspots:

Thi Vai River in the south This has become thewaste sink for the economic development triangleof HCM City-Bien Hoa-Vung Tau. Pollutionlevels are far in excess of acceptable standards.

Cau River in the north The river section in ThaiNguyen is highly polluted due to industrial wastes,where BOD and NH4 standards are exceededseveral fold, and the dissolved oxygen level is wellbelow the threshold of sustaining any aquatic life.

Han River near Danang receives wastewaterdischarges from domestic and industrial sources.The level of BOD, COD and NH4 is exceeded1.5-2 fold, while the concentration of some heavymetals in many places are higher than the nationalstandard.

16 Managed by Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment.Monitoring is done four times a year for selected parameters.

ROWN AGENDABROWN AGENDAWater Pollution

Lakes, small streams and canals polluted… Withincities, lakes, streams, and canals increasingly serve as sinksfor domestic sewage, municipal, and industrial wastes. Mostof the lakes in Hanoi are seriously polluted with high BODlevels. Similarly, 4 small rivers in Hanoi and 5 canals inHCM City have levels of DO as low as 0-2 mg/l, and BODlevels as high as 50-200 mg/l.

Ground water quality remains good … Groundwa-ter is emerging as an important source of water for domes-tic, industrial, and agricultural uses. It is estimated that 20percent of the ground water reserves (50-60 billion cubicmeters) are currently being exploited. While the qualityof ground water remains good, there are some pockets ofcontamination. There is evidence of pollution –from poorlymaintained septic tanks, garbage dumping, and industrialeffluents –and overexploitation in parts of Hanoi, HCMCand the Mekong River Delta. Saltwater intrusion intoground water aquifers is observed in about 15 coastal prov-inces. In some neighborhoods of Hanoi, overexploitationof ground water is causing land subsidence.

Coastal water quality deteriorating… Rapid urban-ization and industrialization in the interior, port and marinetransport development, expansion in coastal tourism, risein nutrient flows, and oil spills are all contributing to thedeterioration of coastal water quality and threatening themarine ecosystems in southern and northern coastalwaters.

NEA’s National Marine Stations –which monitor coastalwater quality –report an increase in some pollutants, whileothers remain steady. The three critical pollutants – oil,pesticides, and fecal matter –appear to have wide fluctua-tion. Oil concentrations in the coastal waters range from0.003 to 2.5 mg/l, with some stations exceeding thestandard. Pesticides concentration measured between CuaLuc and Quy Nhon appear to be within the permissiblerange.

Total coliform ranges between 0 to 201,500 MPN/100 mlwhich indicates that coastal water varies from very cleanto very dirty.

BROWN AGENDBROWN AGENDAWater Pollution

Box 5: Growing health impacts from poorwater quality

The exposure of the public in urban areas to contami-nated water is resulting in many cases of illness anddeath relating to water-borne diseases. Statistics fromthe Ministry of Health show nationwide cases ofDiarrhea steadily increasing between 1997 and 1999.No estimation has been made of the health costsof environmental pollution in cities and towns.

Air quality in nearly all urban and industrial areas is affectedby high levels of particulates, lead, nitrous oxides, sulfurdioxide and carbon monoxide emitted from various sourcesincluding vehicles, factories (chemical and metallurgy in-dustry), power plants, and households.

Mobile sources major polluters of urban air… Therapid growth of Vietnam’s automobile and motorcycle fleetfrom the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s hascontributed substantially to air pollution, in the form of leadand fine particulates. In recent years, the growth rate ofcars and three-wheelers increased by 7 percent. Motorcycleownership –heavily concentrated in the country’s largestcities17 –grew at around 18 percent per year between 1993and 2000. In terms of fuel usage, about 75 percent of theautomobiles and all motorcycles use gasoline, while25 percent of the vehicles use diesel.

Thermal power plants emit sulfur dioxide… Thepower plants –generating 60 percent of the nation’s energyneeds using coal, fuel oil and natural gas –are located inthe north and south. The coal used in power generation ismined from Quang Ninh (sulfur content 0.5 percent andash content 10-15 percent) and provinces such as ThaiNguyen (sulfur content 3-3.5 percent and ash content30-40 percent). Imported fuel oil also have high sulfurcontent. Altogether, 14 large and medium-sized power plantsemit large amounts of sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, ni-trogen oxide, and fine particulates.

Some industrial sectors also causing air pollution… Plants and factories in the cement and building material,metallurgy, and chemical sectors also contribute to airpollution. Emission inventories are yet to be compiled andtherefore source apportionment of air pollution is notavailable.

17 HCMC has around third of all vehicles, and Hanoi another fifth.

ROWN AGENDABROWN AGENDAAir Pollution

Fine particulates remain a major concern … Thegreatest damage to human health comes from exposure tofine particulate matter (PM10 and smaller particles). InVietnam, however, the monitoring of PM10 has commencedonly recently.

In the absence of PM10 monitoring, total suspendedparticulate concentrations are often used as a proxyindicator. In the main urban centers in Vietnam, TSP ex-ceed standards by 1-3 fold (see Fig. 21), and the problemis most acute near busy roads, traffic intersections, andfactories. TSP levels in urban residential areas are onaverage 1.2 to 2 times higher than the prescribed standard;but those adjacent to factories or busy roads exceed thestandard by 1.5 to 3 times.

In Vietnam, solid fuels (both biomass and coal) accountfor a large percentage of residential energy consumption.Consequently, indoor air pollution is likely to be a signifi-cant health problem. There is, however, a lack of data onindoor air pollution.

Sulfur dioxide levels are steady… Monitoring of SO2

emissions at most industrial sites show levels that are stillbelow the standard of 0.3 mg/m3. Occasional exceedanceshave been recorded. SO2 levels in residential areas are stillvery low. However, thermal power plants and industries inthe north using coal are contributing to not only highlevels of sulfur, but also fine particulates.

Levels of pollutants such as CO and NO2 are within theprescribed standards in large cities like Hanoi, Ho Chi MinhCity, Hai Phong and Da Nang and therefore do not poseimmediate problems.

BROWN AGENDBROWN AGENDAAir Pollution

Lead levels start decline… Ambient lead is caused byexhaust emissions from vehicles using leaded-gasoline. InHCMC, which has the highest vehicle ownership in thecountry, it was estimated that in 1997 787,000 tons ofgasoline were consumed and 98 tons/year of lead18 wereemitted. Concentrations of suspended particulate matter ex-ceeded the standard by 5-8 times, and lead reached thepermissible limits.19

The National Network of Environmental Monitoring Sta-tions (MOSTE) only recently began monitoring ambient leadlevels. However, preliminary scientific studies of lead pol-lution in Hanoi and HCM city have been carried out. Onestudy undertaken by DoSTE of Hanoi in 2000 showed asharp increase in lead levels at five major cross roads, andthe permissible limit was exceeded 2-6 fold.

18 Lam Minh Triet, 1999.19 It is important to note, that the lead standard in Vietnam (0.005 mg/

m3) is three times higher than the standard of other countries in theregion (e.g. Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines). Accordingto these standards (about 0.0015 mg/m3) nearly all traffic roads inVietnam are already polluted by lead.

ROWN AGENDABROWN AGENDAAir Pollution

Box 6: An Overnight Success: Vietnam’s Switch to Unleaded GasolineOn July 1, 2001 Vietnam switched to unleaded gasoline —thus reducing the health risk of its citizens from lead pollution.Furthermore, by making the overnight switch to unleaded gasoline –aided by government commitment and leadership –Vietnam avoided a lengthy and costly phaseout program.

Initial attempts to eliminate leaded gasoline in Vietnam began in 1995 with the passage of transport-related environmen-tal regulations. However, implementation was delayed due to concerns regarding the cost of the switch, and over fearsthat many vehicles in Vietnam would be unable to operate on unleaded gasoline without significant modifications.Subsequently, a 1999 workshop organized by the Ministry of Transport was instrumental in discussing the switch tounleaded gasoline. Participants at this workshop included representatives from government, industry, academic andresearch institutions, and the media. In addition, experts from neighboring countries with recent success in phasing outleaded gasoline presented their experiences.

The workshop was followed by the preparation of an Action Plan for switching to unleaded gasoline which included: (1) anevaluation Vietnam’s vehicle fleet and what measures, if any, would need to be taken for older vehicles, (2) an estimationof the financial costs of switching to unleaded gasoline, and (3) the launching of a public education and awarenessprogram on the benefits and process of switching to unleaded gasoline in Vietnam. There was particular concern inVietnam that older vehicles—which accounted for about 10 percent of the automobile fleet—might be damaged withoutthe use of leaded gasoline.

Through a number of discussions with the business community, Vietnamese officials recognized that not only were therefewer costs associated with a switch to unleaded gasoline, but that there were numerous benefits as well. Vehiclemanufacturers reported that there would be significant benefits to vehicle owners through the reduction in maintenanceand repair expenses associated with the corrosion of vehicle parts by lead. In addition, removing lead from gasolinewould allow the use of catalytic converters for more advanced control of vehicle exhaust.

In October 2000, the Prime Minister’s office announced that Vietnam would switch to unleaded gasoline nationwidebeginning July 1st, 2001. This timeline gave the government less than nine months to finalize preparations for imple-menting the switch, including: the development of new gasoline standards, the finalization and dissemination of theresults of vehicle tests, a national inventory of lead levels of imported gasoline at randomly selected gas stations, themonitoring of ambient lead levels prior to the switch, and a broad-based public outreach program including radio andtelevision announcements. Vietnam successfully implemented the switch to unleaded gasoline on July 1, 2001 asplanned, and all leaded gasoline was banned in September 2001.

Source: Excerpts from a forthcoming World Bank publication with the same title

The generation of solid waste in urban towns in Vietnam ison the rise, and poses an emerging threat to the quality ofsurface and groundwater. Poor collection efficiencies,combined with largely inadequate disposal facilities arecompounding the level of pollution. In addition, thegeneration of industrial and medical hazardous wastes isalso increasing, which has accompanying health effects.

Waste generation on the rise… In 2000, the wastegeneration for large cities ranged between 0.5-0.8 kg/per-son/day, while for small towns, it was 0.3-0.4 kg/person/day.

Waste generation between 1997 and 1999 increased by 30percent, with domestic waste, construction waste, and in-dustrial hazardous waste accounting for most of this in-crease. The annual waste generation in 1999 was estimatedto be over 9 million tons (or 25,000 tons/day). Domesticwaste accounted for three-quarters, followed by industrialand medical hazardous waste (11%). (See Fig. 23).

Household wastes have high organic content… Theurban solid waste in Vietnam is high in organic content(50-62 percent), low in calorific value (900 kCal/kg) andhas a high proportion of construction materials such as soil,sand, stone, and broken bricks. Hanoi and HCMC are ex-periencing increases in plastic content, while Haiphong hashalved plastic content through improved recycling efforts.

Household collection efficiencies improve... Esti-mates for collection efficiency in big cities range from 40to 70 percent and small towns between 20 and 40 percent.The national average collection rate is estimated at 53.4percent.20 In general, solid wastes are not segregated atsource. In Vietnam, solid waste from streets and house-holds is collected and loaded onto handcarts or wastecollection vehicles, and then taken to transfer stations.Private contractors are used to collect and transport solidwaste from hospitals, industrial centers, and constructionsites.

Modest recycling and composting efforts … Recy-cling takes place at source, in-between and at disposal sites,and is estimated to be between 13 and 15 percent. There isno organized recycling, and is mainly done by waste pick-ers and scavengers who collect plastic, paper, metals, andglass. Only about 1.5 to 5 percent of domestic waste iscomposted.

20 UNEP/NEA State of Environment Report, 2001.

BROWN AGENDBROWN AGENDASolid and Hazardous Waste

Inadequate treatment and disposal facilities… Mostof the collected waste in Vietnam is disposed in open dumpsites and landfills. However, these landfills are not properlydesigned, suffer from poor siting, lack of equipment, andno leachate collection or treatment.

Hazardous solid wastes largely untreated … Haz-ardous wastes are comprised of wastes from industries andinfectious medical waste from hospitals. In the four largestcities (Hanoi, Haiphong, Danang, HCMC) industrial solidwaste comprises around 15-26 percent of municipalsolid waste. Of this, 35-40 percent is considered hazard-ous.

In 1999, the total industrial hazardous waste generationwas 109,469 tons –an increase of 33 per cent over 1997.Over 90 per cent of this generation comes from industriesin HCMC, Dong Nai and Hanoi. (see Table 24) Light in-dustries contribute more than half of these wastes, whilemechanical and chemical industries contribute 18 and 16percent respectively.

The daily production of hazardous infectious medicalwaste from hospitals is estimated to be about 50-75 tons,which is a quarter of all hospital wastes generated in thecountry21 .

Currently, there is no classification system for hazardouswaste in Vietnam. Hazardous solid waste from both enter-prises and hospitals is not segregated before collection andis often disposed along with municipal solid waste at land-fill sites along with household wastes.

Budgets for SWM remain low … The budget allo-cated for management of urban solid waste is still very small.As of 1996, annual expenditure per capita was between20,000-30,000 VND (US$1.30-2) in large cities and 5,000-7,000 VND (less than US$1) in smaller cities and towns.Urban sanitation fees per capita range from 400-1,000 VND/month, which covers only about 4-14 percent of the totalexpenditure incurred for solid waste management22 .

21 Report on Medical Waste Management by Ministry of Health (1998).

22 Strategy on Solid Waste Management for Urban and IndustrialAreas (2000-2020), Office of the Prime Minister (1999).

ROWN AGENDABROWN AGENDASolid and Hazardous Waste

Numerous policy, regulatory and investment initiatives havebeen taken to address air and water pollution, solid wastemanagement, and industrial pollution management.

Water Quality ManagementIn 1998, the National Program for clean water andenvironmental sanitation in rural areas was approved.Targets for 2005 include 80 percent rural inhabitantshaving access to clean water, 50 percent having hygieniclatrines. Also 30 percent of breeding farms and 10percent of artisan villages will have facilities to treatwastewater;

A nation-wide network for ground water monitoring isbeing developed by the Ministry of Industry. About 470measuring points throughout the country will measurewater levels and temperature; the quality of water willalso be measured twice a year at some points;

Through financial assistance provided by internationalfinancial institutions and bilateral agencies, the govern-ment is making investments for the future collection andtreatment of domestic wastewater in HCMC, Hanoi,Haiphong, and Danang.

Air Quality ManagementAir quality standards have been promulgated;

As of July 2001, the government has phased out leadedgasoline which took full effect from September 1, 2001;

Government is promoting efforts to improve energyefficiency in power plants and enterprises;

With assistance from international financial institutionsthe government is investing in renewable energysources.

Solid/Hazardous Waste ManagementBy 2005 all provinces should prepare strategic plansfor treatment and management of solid waste in all urban and industrial areas. The goal is to collect and treat75-90 percent of the total waste generated. The govern-ment directive also requires that appropriate technologies are found for the safe disposal of infectiousmedical waste and industrial hazardous waste;

Ministry of Planning and Investment has estimated thatthe government will need to invest approximatelyUS$100-150m for collecting and treating urban solidwaste in Vietnam for the next 5 years;

With assistance from donor agencies, the governmentis upgrading existing open dumps or rehabilitatinglandfills;

Regulations for infectious medical waste managementwere issued by the Ministry of Health in 1999;

Regulations for hazardous waste management werepromulgated by the Prime Minister in 1999.

BROWN AGENDBROWN AGENDAPolicy Responses

Box 7: Disposing Infectious Medical WastesRecognizing the pollution and health threats from improperdisposal of medical wastes, the Government of Vietnam hasrecently invested in the collection and treatment of medicalhazardous waste. Hanoi City has built an incinerator in Tay Mowith a capacity of 4.8 tons/day for burning hospital solid waste.HCM City and the Province of Tien Giang also have built theirown incinerators for hospitals.

In 2000, the Government approved a project costing over$5 million which finances 25 incinerators in 25 provinces. Inaddition, some provinces have invested in their own facilitiesfor treating medical waste. For example, the province of BinhDinh has built an incinerator with capacity 400-500 kg/h forburning hazardous waste from a hospital for tuberculosistreatment.

Most of these incinerators are in a pilot phase, and will needsome time to reach full capacity.

Vietnam is a party to many major international environmen-tal conventions on transboundary and global issues,including biodiversity, ozone depletion, climate change,transportation of hazardous, oil spills and trade inendangered species of wild fauna and flora.

Phase-out of Ozone Depleting Substances –Montreal ProtocolIn 1995, Vietnam adopted the national program to phaseout ODS, and has taken the following actions:

ODS consumption of aerosols in cosmetic andpharmaceutical industry will be maintained at 1994levels and will be completely eliminated by 2005;

Reduction and depletion of ODS in foam productioncommenced in 1996 and will be completed in 2005;depletion of ODS in production of air conditioners andrefrigerators, halon in fire extinguishers, and FCF insolvent cleaning commenced in 1996;

Use of methyl bromide in the production of agriculturaland forestry products will end in 2006;

An Ozone Office was established in GDMH in 1996to oversee the implementation of the protocol.

It is estimated that Vietnam has been able to reduce ODSconsumption by 40 per cent since 1996. However, specifictypes of ODS, such as those used in foam blowing hassharply increased from 30 tons in 1998 to 100 tons in 1999.After peaking in 1996 at 235 tons, refrigerants initiallydeclined but stabilized at 170 tons in 1999. Refrigerants andfoam blowing substances accounted for 80 percent of allODS consumption in 1999.

LOBAL AGENDAGLOBAL AGENDAPolicy Responses

Climate Change (Greenhouse Gas Reduction)A national greenhouse gas inventory was prepared in 1994for the Vietnam Initial National Communication on ClimateChange. Based on this inventory, the country releaseda total of 103.8 million tons of CO2 equivalent intothe atmosphere, which translated to 1.4 tons of CO2 equiva-lent per capita. The energy sector accounted for 24.7percent of these emissions, agriculture 50.5percent,industry 3.7 percent, forestry and land use change 18.6percent, and wastes 2.5 percent.

A recent study23 has projected greenhouse gas emissionsfor the next 20 years which indicates that share of theenergy sector will grow to 88 percent, while agriculturewill account for the rest. At the same time, land use andforestry will sequester 24.8 million tons of CO2 equiva-lent. This projection does not take into account contribu-tions from industry and waste sources.

In response to the Kyoto Protocol, Vietnam is preparinga National Action Plan on Climate Change. Concurrently,a National Strategy for Clean Development Mechanism isalso at an advanced stage of preparation.

Biodiversity Conservation –Biodiversity Conven-tionIn response to its commitment to the Convention onBiodiversity, a Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) forVietnam was prepared in 1995, and is currently beingimplemented. Recent achievements include:

Directives issued on the conservation of high valueagricultural species; and on the control of illegal tradein species of wild flora and fauna;

A ban on logging of natural forests was issued in 1993;

Management boards have been established for 10protected areas. The protected areas list has beenrevised to remove some areas, and expand others;

Policy on socio-economic development in areasadjacent to the conservation sites has been issued;

Regulations on the management of special use forests,production forests and natural forests have beenissued; and

A protocol on biological safeguards is awaitingGovernment endorsement.

Wetlands Protection – Ramsar ConventionIn response to the above convention, the government hasinitiated the following actions:

A strategy for the protection of wetlands is being drafted;

Xuan Thuy Wetland Protected Area in Nam DinhProvince is included in the list of Wetlands of Interna-tional Importance. It has an area of 12,000 hectares andis a Waterfowl Habitat; and

Currently, two sites have been listed as Ramsar sites:the Con Lu-Con Ngan area and the Red River DeltaWetland.

Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazard-ous Wastes and Their Disposal – Basel Conven-tionFollowing the ratification of this convention, the govern-ment has initiated the following actions:

A national inventory of hazardous wastes, sources,locations, and quantities was completed in 1998; and

Regulations to control and manage hazardous wasteswere adopted in 1999

23 Vietnam – National Sector Strategy for Clean Development Mechanism (Interim Report, 2002).

GLOBAL AGENGLOBAL AGENDAPolicy Responses

Until the recent goverment reorganization,24 the main Min-istry responsible for environment in Vietnam was the Min-istry of Science, Technology and Environment (MoSTE).However, in addition, at least 10 other ministries and 15state committees/general departments have responsibility forenvironmental and natural resource management functions.These ministries and agencies are highly segmented, withlimited cooperation among them. There are significantfunctional overlaps, making coordination time consumingand resource intensive, and accountability difficult.

Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment(MOSTE): is Vietnam’s highest central environmentalauthority. It has an overall mandate for environmentalstrategy, legislation and policy formulation, environmentalinstitution building, environmental impact assessment,environmental research, environmental quality standards,data collection and management. It also supervises andsupports the provinces in environmental management andthe implementation of national policy and regulations.

National Environmental Agency (NEA) was estab-lished in 1993 as an executive department for environmentwithin MoSTE. NEA is headed by a Director Generalassisted by two deputies and has nine divisions:Education, Training and Information, DatabaseManagement, EIA, Inspection, International Relations,Monitoring, Pollution Control, Policy and Legislation andNature Conservation.

Department of Science, Technology and Environ-ment (DoSTE): At the provincial level, DoSTEs have beenestablished in all 61 provinces. As of 1995, environmentalmanagement divisions are part of DoSTE offices.

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development(MARD): Responsible for the State management overactivities relating agriculture, forestry, water resources andrural development, terrestrial national parks and protectedareas, including coastal wetlands.

Ministry of Construction (MoC) is responsible for spa-

tial planning and building water supply and sanitation facili-ties.

Ministry of Fisheries (MoF): Responsible for theprotection activities of aquatic resources in coastal andmarine areas.

Ministry of Industry (MOI): Monitors individualfactory pollution control and assists firms with environ-mental problem solving.

Ministry of Planning & Investment (MPI): Respon-sible for overall planning projects relating to environmentalissues through DSEE – Department of Science, Educationand Environment – which oversees environment sectorissues and is the MPI counterpart to MOSTE and NEA;

Ministry of Public Health (MOPH): Responsible foroverseeing the delivery of health services in the country.Has a direct role in raising awareness relating to environ-mental health issues.

Ministry of Transport (MOT): Responsible for overallplanning, implementation of infrastructure and controlof air, land, railway and maritime transport over thecountry.

National Committee for Sea and Air Search andRescue (NCSASR): Responsible for the overall plan-ning and implementation of the National Contingency Planfor the Prevention of and response to oil spills.

General Department of Land Administration(GDLA) oversees land-use planning and management.

General Department of Meteorology and Hydrol-ogy (GDMH) is a ministerial level agency responsiblefor water quality, precipitation, climate change and ozoneprotection.

National Center for Natural Sciences and Tech-nology (NCNST) and a network of research institutes inthe line ministries serve as a technical advisor on environ-mental issues.

2 4 Note: The National Assembly approved the creation of a newMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment on August 5, 2002.The new Ministry will have oversight over NEA, GDLA andGDHM and will become operational shortly.

MENTAL MANAGEMENTENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENTKey Institutions

Key: AFED – Agriculture and Forestry Extension Department; DARD – Department of Agriculture and Rural Development; DFRP –Department of Fisheries Resources Protection; DMFCD – Dyke Management and Flood Control Department; DOF – Department ofFisheries; DOPH – Department of Public Health; DOSTE – Department of Science, Technique and Environment; DOT – Department ofTransport; DPI – Department of Planning and Investment; DSEE – Department of Science, Education and Environment; EF of Hanoi –Environmental Fund of Hanoi; FDD – Forestry Development Department; FPD – Forestry Protection Department; GDMH – GeneralDepartment of Meteorology and Hydrology; GDSMQ – General Department of Standard, Measurement, Quality; GEF Vietnam –Global Environment Fund of Vietnam; IPMF of HCM city – Industrial Pollution Minimization Fund of Ho Chi Minh City; LTD – LandTransport Department; MARD – Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development; MOF – Ministry of Fisheries; MOI – Ministry ofIndustry; MOPH – Ministry of Public Health; MOSTE – Ministry of Science, Technique and Environment; MOT- Ministry of Trans-port; NCFT – National Committee for Fighting against Floods and Typhoons; NCSASR - National Committee for Search and Rescue;NEA – National Environment Agency; NGO – Non-Governmental Organizations; NSCESIS – National Steering Committee for East Sea(Bien Dong) and Island Issues; PPC – People Provincial Committee; RNSB – Radiation and Nuclear Safety Board; VNMB – VietnamMaritime Bureau; WD – Waterways Department; WRHWMD – Water Resource and Hydraulic Work Management Department.

ENVIRONMENTAL MANENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENTKey Institutions

A preliminary review was undertaken to identify the number of staff (state personnel) with environment and natural resourcesresponsibilities in key ministries, departments and local authorities in Vietnam paid by the government budget. While it waseasy to define staff working on core environmental protection functions, it was not the same for natural resources functions,where staff tend to have responsibility for both conservations and development functions. Thus, the General Department ofLand Administration (GDLA) was excluded, though it administers land. Furthermore, research institutions, universities andSoEs that depend on their own resources were excluded. The numbers presented in Table 27 present an incomplete list, and anaggregation will not present the real capacity. The review did not consider staff qualifications, training and competence levels.

MENTAL MANAGEMENTENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENTInstitutional Capacity

Vietnamese Maritime Code (June 30, 1990);Law on Forest Protection & Development (August 12, 1991)and Decree 17-HDBT of January 17, 1992 on implementingthe Law on Forest Protection & Development;

Decision 327 CT of September 15, 1992 on Policies for the useof bare land, denuded hills, forests, alluvial flats and waterbodies;

National Law on Environmental Protection (December 27,1993) and Decree N0 175-CP of October 18, 1994 of the Gov-ernment detailing the implementation of the Law on Protectionof the Environment;

Law on the Water Resources (May 20 1998) and Decree 179/1999/ND-CP of July 10th, 1999 on implementing the Law onthe Water Resources;

Law of Land (July 14 1993 (amended 2001);Ordinance on Protection and Development of Aquatic Re-sources of April 25, 1989;

Ordinance N0 5/1998/PL-UBTVQH (April 16 1998) on Re-sources Tax (amended);

Decree N0 26-CP of April 26, 1996 of the Government pro-mulgating the Regulation on Sanctions against AdministrativeViolations in the field of Protection of the environment;

Decree N0 242-HDBT of August 5, 1991 of the Council ofMinisters stipulating the marine scientific research on the seaareas of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam by foreign partnersand means;

Decree N0 18-HDBT of January 17, 1992 stipulating on thelist of rare and precious forest fauna, flora and animal and theirmanagement and protection;

Decree N0 48-CP of August 12, 1996 of the Government pro-mulgating the Regulation on sanctions against administrativeviolations in the field of protection of aquatic resources;

Decree of Government N049/1998/ND-CP of July 13th, 1998 onfishing by persons and entities in the maritime zones of Viet-nam;

Decree 163/ND-CP of November 16, 1999 on the Allocation and

lease of forest land to organizations, households and individu-als for long-term forestry purposes;

Decision 845/TTg of December 22, 1995 on Biodiversity Con-servation Action Plan;

Decision 661 QD/TTg of July 29, 1998 on the target, task, policyand organization for the implementation of the project of plant-ing five million new hectares of forest;

Decision 245 QD/TTg of December 21, 1998 on Implementa-tion of the State’s management at different levels on forest andforest land

Decision N0 152/1999/QD-TTg July 10 1999 of the Premier onapproval of solid wastes managing strategy in urban areas andindustrial zones of Vietnam towards the year 2020;

Decision N0 155/1999/QD-TTg July 16 1999 of the Premier onissuance of the hazardous wastes management regulations;

Decision 67/2000/QD-TTg on establishing a National Commit-tee for Water resources;

Decision 08 QD-TTg of January 11, 2001 on the Regulation onmanagement of special-use forest, protection forest and pro-duction forest;

Directive No. 359/TTg of May 29, 1996 on the urgent mea-sures to protect and develop wild animal species;

Directive of Prime Minister N0 01/1998/CT-TTg of 02 January1998 prohibiting the use of noxious substances, explosives,ammunition and electric current for catching aquatic resources;

Directive 24/2000/CT/TTg of 23/11/2000 issued by the PrimeMinister to define that from 1/7/2001 transportation means be-gin use unleaded gasoline to replace the leaded one;

National Contingency Plan for the Prevention of and responseto oil spills 2001;

MOSTE Minister’s Directive N0 395/1998/QD-BKHCNMT ofApril 10th, 1998 on the issuance of the regulations on environ-mental protection in searching, exploring, developing fields,exploiting, storing, transporting, refining petroleum and otherrelated services.

ENVIRONMENTAL MANENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENTKey Legislation

Vietnam has put in place a sound legal framework for environmental protection and natural resources conservation thatincludes legislation, regulations, and directives. Their implementation remains a challenge to the responsible governmentagencies. The National Strategy for Environmental aProtection 2001-2010 accords priority to modernizing and strengtheningenvironmental legislation in the country. A summary of the relevant legislation, regulations, and directives is provided below.

In Vietnam, data relating to state budget expenditures on environment management is not categorized separately and are listedunder the heading of about 10 Ministries including MoSTE and MARD. Environmental management functions are spreadamong numerous organizations and agencies, consequently, environmental expenditures are also similarly allocated.

A preliminary review was undertaken to estimate environmental spending by the government. Relevant line items pertainingto environmental protection and natural resources management from various ministries and departments were assessed andaggregated.

Spending was categorized into four categories: (i)Operating costs, which mainly recurrent expenses; (ii)Investment projects; (iii) Infrastructure constructionprojects relating to environmental management; and (iv)Research costs incurred by state institutions. Environmen-tal expenditure increased between 1996 and 2001. In 1996,the state budget environmental expenditure was around582 billion VND (US$ 40 million) and by 2001 this hadgrown by 66 percent by 2001 to 966 billion VND.Environmental expenditures peaked at 1,155 billion VNDin 2000.

As a percentage of total public expenditure, estimated environmental expenditure amounts to just under 1 percent (except for2000). However, this is only a preliminary estimation to gain a sense of environmental spending and should not be construedas a comprehensive environmental expenditure review. This lays the groundwork for further detailed expenditure analysis,which should gradually be integrated into the government’s Public Expenditure Review

MENTAL MANAGEMENTENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENTExpenditures

Environmental Official Development Assistance (ODA) in VietnamIn the period from 1985 to 2000, almost 80 percent of all environmental ODA was directed to the natural resource sector,while urban and industrial projects accounted for an additional 15 percent. About 5 percent of environmental ODA hastargeted institutional strengthening including environmental policy coordination, EIA, and increasing public awareness. Innatural resource projects, focus areas have been watershed protection in upland forests, income generation in hill areas, andmangrove and inland marshes.

ENVIRONMENTAL MANENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENTExpenditures

The environmental challenges confronting Vietnam has beenanalyzed in three recent documents – National Environ-mental Protection Strategy and Action Plan (2000), theVietnam Development Report (2000) and the State ofthe Environment Report(2001) – and summarized in Box 8.This Monitor reiterates that these challenges are importantfor the country to achieve the ambitious targets set out inthe national strategy, as well as to achieve its sustainabledevelopment objectives.

At the core of tackling these challenges is improving thequality and analysis of environmental data is order to makeinformed and cost-effective policy responses that havebroad consensus. Over the last decade, Vietnam has putinto place the required policy and legal framework forenvironmental protection. The next step is their effectiveimplementation through:

Improving Data Collection and Storage:In Vietnam, a considerable amount of staff time andbudget resources are being spent by numerous agencies tocollect basic environment and natural resources data. Since1994, the government has put into place a NationalEnvironmental Monitoring Network (see Box 9). Some ofthe data collection –recorded in manual and computerizeddatabases –is guided by protocols which specify method-ologies and techniques. However, quality assurance is oftenlacking and erroneous entries are common, often leadingto skewed trends. Furthermore, some of the monitoringprotocols need to be aligned with global practices (e.g. inwater quality monitoring). It may be prudent for thegovernment to identify a few selected environmental andnatural resource indicators (such as those on environmentspecified under the Millennium Development Goals) andput in place a mechanism and supporting institutionalarrangement to collect this data.

HE CHLLENGESTHE CHALLENGES

Box 8: Environmental challenges in thefirst decade of the new millennium

(a) Creating Incentives for changing behaviorCommunity empowerment, enforcement of laws and decrees,access to knowledge and the provision of information and tradeopportunities, act as incentives to induce behavioral changesnecessary for environmental protection and sustainable resourceuse.(b) Involving communities and citizens more fullyThe Government plans to give high priority to encouraging publicparticipation. This high level attention should start a process toensure means for greater local accountability and increased com-munity participation.

(c) Improving institutional effectivenessGovernment agencies with responsibility for environmental pro-tection are relatively young and operate in a weak public admin-istration context. While donors and government are actively seek-ing to strengthen environmental agencies, it is also important tomainstream environment into sectoral ministries and agencies.

(d) Diversifying financial sources for implementing pri-ority programsGovernment plans are ambitious and its 5-year strategy isunaffordable if public funds are the only source of funding. Acore workplan should be identified from the many desirableactivities proposed in the Strategy. Sources of financing forenvironmental protection will have to be diversified by imple-menting user charges, resource pricing, making environmentalfunds effective, and improving SoE environmental performance

Source: Vietnam Development Report (2000)

Box 9: Vietnam’s Environmental Monitoring SystemThe National Environmental Monitoring Network, managed by theMinistry of Science, Technology and Environment, wasestablished at the end of 1994. By 2001, the Network has ex-panded to 20 stations, which carry out monitoring at 72 locationsin 40 provinces. These locations include environmental hotspotssuch as industrial zones, large cities, and environmentally sensi-tive ecological regions. In 2001 monitoring networks were estab-lished for the basins of rivers Saigon - Dongnai and river Cau.

The monitoring parameters are the basic quality parameters of air,water, land, coastal environment, solid waste, noise, aciddeposition, radioactivity, and working environment. Up to 2000,the monitoring frequency had been 4 times/year; in 2001 this wasraised to 6 times/year. The Network also manages 6 automatic airmonitoring stations that run 24 hours/day.

The data obtained by the National Network are used effectively incompiling annual state of environment reports and also forenvironmental protection managerial activities.

Systematizing Analysis and Enhancing Accuracy:A major gap in environmental information managementin Vietnam is the lack of systematic and consistent dataanalysis. Most analysis tends to take a “project orientation”rather than feeding into a process of policy making. Thisabsence of supporting analytical work affects environmen-tal policy making. For example, the time series data avail-able for dissolved oxygen for selected rivers show widefluctuations, and reported values are not representative ofthe environmental health of these rivers or the amount ofpollution being discharged into these rivers. The down sideof such information could be either a delayed response toan urgent problem or the formulation of a costly policy.

Promoting Information Sharing: Widening thecurrent accessibility to data and information in Vietnam iscritical in order to build a broader constituency for envi-ronmental protection and improve the knowledge sharingin the country. Availability of information on environmen-tal trends will raise awareness and encourage publicparticipation in environmental decisions, while at the sametime hold agencies accountable. The on-going publicdisclosure efforts by the NEA, which reports on environ-mental performance of enterprises in Hanoi, (see Box 10) isa step in the right direction.

Strengthening Capacity: The current levels of staffand facilities are inadequate to operate an effectiveenvironmental information system. This is furthercompounded by the lack of coordination among agencies.The staff capabilities need to be improved, monitoringsystems need to be modernized and expanded, and researchinstitutions should be better integrated to the monitoringand information management system.

THE CHLLENGETHE CHALLENGES

Box 10: Public Disclosure of EnvironmentalPerformance of Enterprises in Hanoi

The National Environmental Agency is implementing a program todisclose the environmental performance of enterprises in Hanoi.

Based on similar initiatives done previously in Indonesia andPhilippines, the program developed a color coded rating systemto disclose the performance of enterprises to the public. The5 color codes – gold, green, blue, red and black — representdifferent levels of performance of the participating enterprises,with gold being the best.

50 enterprises participated on a voluntary basis in two round ofdisclosure, and their performance was disclosed by the DeputyPrime Minister at two public functions held in February and Juneof 2002.

Air Quality Standards:The level of pollutants prescribed by regulations that arenot to be exceeded during a given time in a defined area.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD):The amount of oxygen consumed in the biological processesthat break down organic matter in water. The greater theBOD, the greater the degree of organic pollution.

Biodiversity:Refers to the variety and variability among living organismsand the ecological complexes in which they occur. It en-compasses different ecosystems, species, and genes.

Carbon Monoxide:A colorless, odorless, poisonous gas produced by incom-plete fossil fuel combustion.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): A family of inert, nontoxic, and easily liquefied chemicalsused in refrigeration, air conditioning, packaging, insula-tion, or as solvents and aerosol propellants. Because CFCsare not destroyed in the lower atmosphere they drift intothe upper atmosphere where their chlorine componentsdestroy ozone.

Climate Change (also referred to as ‘global climatechange’):Used to imply a significant change from one climatic con-dition to another. In some cases, ‘climate change’ has beenused synonymously with the term, ‘global warming’; sci-entists however, tend to use the term in the wider sense toalso include natural changes in climate.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO):The oxygen freely available in water, vital to fish and otheraquatic life and for the prevention of odors. DO levels areconsidered a most important indicator of a water body’sability to support desirable aquatic life.

Effluent:Wastewater –treated or untreated –that flows out of a treat-ment plant, sewer, or industrial outfall. Generally refers towastes discharged into surface waters.

Endangered Species:Animals, birds, fish, plants, or other living organisms threat-ened with extinction by anthropogenic (man-caused) or othernatural changes in their environment.

Greenhouse Gas:A gas, such as carbon dioxide or methane, which contrib-utes to potential climate change.

Habitat:The place where a population (e.g., human, animal, plant,microorganism) lives and its surroundings, both living andnon-living.

Hazardous Waste:By-products of society that can pose a substantial or po-tential hazard to human health or the environment whenimproperly managed.

Landfills:Sanitary landfills are disposal sites for non-hazardous solidwastes spread in layers, compacted to the smallest practi-cal volume, and covered by material applied at the end ofeach operating day.

Mangroves:Coastal vegetation which plays a significant role in the pro-tection of sea shore and spawning of fish.

Most Probable Number (MPN):An estimate of microbial density per unit volume of watersample, based on probability theory.

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) :The result of nitric oxide combining with oxygen in theatmosphere; major component of photochemical smog.

Organic Pollution:Carbonaceous waste contained in plant or animal matterand originating from domestic or industrial sources.

Ozone (O3):In the stratosphere (the atmospheric layer 7 to 10 miles ormore above the earth’s surface) ozone is a natural form of

ONMENTAL GLOSSARYENVIRONMENTAL GLOSSARY

oxygen that provides a protective layer shielding the earthfrom ultraviolet radiation. In the troposphere (the layer ex-tending up 7 to 10 miles from the earth’s surface), ozone isa chemical oxidant and major component of photochemicalsmog.

Ozone Depletion:Destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer which shieldsthe earth from ultraviolet radiation harmful to life. This de-struction of ozone is caused by the breakdown of certainchlorine and/or bromine containing compounds (chlorof-luorocarbons or halons), which break down when theyreach the stratosphere and then destroy ozone molecules.

Particulates:Fine liquid or solid particles such as dust, smoke, mist,fumes, or smog, found in air or emissions.

PM10:Particulates smaller than 10 microns. Small particulates areof special concern because of their ability to penetrate deepinto the lungs and cause major health impacts.

Pesticide:Substances or mixture thereof intended for preventing, de-stroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest. Also, any sub-stance or mixture intended for use as a plant regulator, de-foliant, or desiccant.

Pollutant:Generally, any substance introduced into the environmentthat adversely affects the usefulness of a resource or thehealth of humans, animals, or ecosystems.

Protected Areas:An area of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the pro-tection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of naturaland associated cultural resources, and managed throughlegal or other effective means

Run-Off:That part of precipitation, snow melt, or irrigation waterthat runs off the land into streams or other surface-water.It can carry pollutants from the air and land into receiving

waters.

Salinization /Saline Intrusion:The invasion of fresh surface or ground water by salt wa-ter.

Sewage:The waste and wastewater produced by residential andcommercial sources and discharged into sewers.

Soil Erosion:The wearing away of land surface by water, intensified byland-clearing practices related to farming, residential or in-dustrial development, road building, or logging.

Solid Waste:Non-liquid, non-soluble materials ranging from municipalgarbage to industrial wastes that contain complex and some-times hazardous substances. Solid wastes also include sew-age sludge, agricultural refuse, demolition wastes, and miningresidues.

Species:1. A reproductively isolated aggregate of interbreeding or-ganisms having common attributes and usually designatedby a common name. 2. An organism belonging to belongingto such a category.

Sulfur Dioxide:A heavy, pungent, colorless, gaseous air pollutant formedprimarily by processes involving fossil fuel combustion.

Total Coliform Bacteria (TCB):A collection of relatively harmless microorganisms that livein large numbers in the intestines of man and warm- andcold-blooded animals. A specific subgroup of this collec-tion is the fecal coliform bacteria - whose presence inaquatic environments indicates that the water has been con-taminated with the fecal material of man or other animals.

Total Suspended Particles (TSP):A method of monitoring airborne particulate matter by totalweight, regardless of particle size.

ENVIRONMENTAL GENVIRONMENTAL GLOSSARY

Water Quality Standards:The standards prescribe the use of the water body and es-tablish the water quality criteria that must be met to protectdesignated uses.

Watershed:The land area that drains into a stream; the watershed for amajor river may encompass a number of smaller water-sheds that ultimately combine at a common point.

Wetlands:An area that is regularly saturated by surface water orgroundwater and is subsequently characterized by a preva-lence of vegetation adapted for life in saturated soil condi-tions. Examples include swamps, marshes and estuaries.

Source : This list of environmental terms is based on severalenvironmental glossaries.

ONMENTAL GLOSSARYENVIRONMENTAL GLOSSARY

This Monitor is a joint effort of several government agencies, private sector and civil society organizations at both the nationaland local levels. On May 23, 2002, a technical workshop was held in Hanoi to discuss the Vietnam Environment Monitor 2002.The following representatives from government, academia, NGOs and media attended the workshop and provided valuablecomments and inputs, which is gratefully acknowledged:

Government agenciesMinistry of Science, Technology and Environment (MoSTE): Doan Nang

National Environment Agency (NEA): Truong Manh Tien, Hoang Duong Tung, Le Thanh Binh, Le Minh Tam, Phan Minh

Tuan, Nguyen Thanh Tram, Nguyen Van Tai, Nguyen Duc Hung, Nguyen Hoang Anh, Le Dai Thang, Ho Thi Van, Nguyen

Anh Hieu, Hua Chien Thang, Tran Le Anh, Le Bich Thuy, and Tran Hong Ha

Central Institute of Economic Management (CIEM) of Ministry of Planning and Investment: Vu Xuan Nguyet Hong

General Department of Meteorology and Hydrology: Do Hoai Duong and Nguyen Duc Ngu

Vietnam Register, Ministry of Transport: Cao Xuan Vinh

Academia, NGOs and othersVietnam National University: Dang Trung Thuan, Pham Binh Quyen, and Trinh Thi Thanh

Vietnam News Agency: Do Phuong Anh

Vietnam Radio: Nguyen Thi Thuong

Environment Protection Magazine: Do Thanh Thuy and Tran Chi Vien

Environment Research Centre: Phan Nguyen Hong

Institute for Environmental Science and Technology: Dinh Van Sam

Marine Environment Centre: Pham Van Ninh and Nguyen Hong Khanh

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Vietnam at a GLANCEVietnam at a GLANCE