Sequencing and Structuring

Learning Modules in

Instructional DesignThe last step in the design phase is to determine program sequence and structure to ensure the learning objectives are met. A proper sequence provides the learners with a pattern of relationship so that each activity will have a definite purpose. The more meaningful the content, the easier it is to learn and, consequently, the more effective the instruction.

Proper sequencing also helps to avoid inconsistencies in the content of the instruction. When material is carefully sequenced, duplication is far less likely. Indeed, the presence of duplication often indicates that the program has not been properly sequenced.

Some of the techniques and considerations used in sequencing are:

o Job Performance Order: The learning sequence is the same as the

job sequence

o From Simple to Complex: Objectives may be sequenced in terms

of increasing complexity

o Critical Sequence: Objects are ordered in terms of their relative

importance

o Known to Unknown: Familiar topics are considered before

unfamiliar ones

o Dependent Relationship: Mastery of one objective requires prior

mastery of another

o Supportive relationship: Transfer of learning takes place from

one objective to another, usually because common elements are

included in each objective. These should be placed as close together

as possible so that the maximum transfer of learning can take place.

o Cause to Effect: Objectives are sequenced from cause to effect

If there are a lot of objectives, then they should be organized into clusters which are conductive to learning. The sequencing performed earlier is the basis for breaking the objectives down into clusters based on the class relationship between them.

If the training program is long, then reinforcement also has to be accounted for. One of the behavioral characteristics of learners indicates that not only the rate of which people learn must be accounted for, but also the rate of decay that takes place after an objective is mastered must also be accounted for. To account for this decay factor, reinforcement loops must be built into the instructional process. The decay factor also has to be considered once the learner graduates from the program. If a task is taught in the instructional program and then is not used for some time after the learners return to their duties, then some decay is likely to take place. The remedy for this is to coordinate with the learner's supervisor to ensure the learners perform their newly acquired skills as soon as possible upon returning to the job.

In any instructional program, there is usually a wide variety of abilities among the learners. Some will have extensive experience, while others are somewhat limited. The educational background may extend from high school dropout to college graduate. Many other variables will affect the progression and productivity of the learners. Provisions must be made to compensate for these differences. In a self-paced course, extra modules can help the learners that are having difficulties. In a lock-step course, additional instruction, reading assignments, or study halls may be required to keep the slower learners on pace with the other learners.

The product of the sequencing step should be a learning map which shows the proposed layout of the objectives. An example is shown below.

  

This last step, Sequence and Structure, concludes the Design Phase. You can click any of the sections in the model below to review any of the steps.

Next Steps

Go to the next section: Learning Activity - crossword puzzle

Return to the Table of Contents

References

U.S. Army Field Artillery School (1984). A System Approach To Training (Course Student textbook). ST - 5K061FD92

U.S. Department of Defense Training Document (1975). Pamphlet 350-30. August, 1975

HomeWhat is Instructional Design?

Instructional Design is the process of using our knowledge of how people learn, to guide our choices of instructional sequences and strategies and to meet the needs of the learners and desired learning outcomes.

Research has shown that particular ways of delivering instructions are more effective than others. Different kinds of learning goals require different approaches to instruction. The instructional designer can determine the best instructional conditions or methods to deliver learning outcomes. The Instructional designer develops instructional strategies that are tailored to the learning objectives and the needs of the learners.

The aim of instructional design is to make the instructions effective, efficient, appealing and cost-effective. The instructional designer uses a variety of interactive media to improve learning and address learning objectives. Traditional face-to-face teaching methods can be enhanced by, or even replaced by innovative e-learning methods. The instructional designer is the expert in finding the right technology to support good pedagogy.

The Information Age is making new demands on us all. Education must find ways to face these new challenges. We can no longer see learners as empty vessels that can be filled with information. The information now resides out there, distributed across a vast network and shared between all people. The challenge now is to help people to use this information safely, wisely and productively as they adapt to a rapidly changing world. We need to prepare "students to learn, work and live successfully in a knowledge-based, global society" (Newhouse, 2002). The Instructional Designer is there to facilitate learning in this new epoch, The Knowledge Age.The terms Instructional Design, Educational Design and Learning Design can be used interchangeably.

Learning Science

Learning Science was heralded by the book "How People Learn" edited by Bransford, Brown and Cocking 2000, published by the United States National Research Council. It outlined the following basic facts about learning:

The importance of deeper conceptual understanding: focus the student on understanding rather than memorisation and routine procedures to follow.

Focusing on learning in addition to teaching: engage students in active participation in their own learning.

Creating learning environments: learning scientists have identified the key features of learning environments which help students learn deeper conceptual understanding.

The importance of building on a learner's prior knowledge: provide an environment that engages the students prior knowledge then builds upon this.

The importance of reflection: engage students in activities that help them to reflect on their own learning and understanding.

The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences, edited by R.K. Sawyer was published in 2006. This book describes just how these principles can be applied to the design of learning environments particularly taking advantage of new computer technology.

First Principles of Instruction

1. Learning is promoted when learners are engaged in solving real-world problems.

2. Learning is promoted when existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge.

3. Learning is promoted when new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner.

4. Learning is promoted when new knowledge is applied by the learner.

5. Learning is promoted when new knowledge is integrated into the learner’s world.

(M. David Merrill, 2002)The Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (SEDL) gives an excellent account of Constructivism.The American Psychological Association has developed the Learner-centered Principles. The most important principle is to create a positive climate and positive relationships.

What do Instructional Designers do?

An instructional designer: Analyses learning needs and then systematically develops

instruction.

Studies instructional theories, tools and resources to develop methods to facilitate learning.

Relies on current research in educational psychology, educational theory and systems analysis to ensure the most suitable teaching methods are used.

Bases their decisions on proven instructional design methods.

Uses pedagogically sound teaching methods and the latest technology to design effective learning products.

Has a deep knowledge of the various strategies and technologies that can be applied to course design.

Works with the Subject Matter Expert (SME) or "content specialist" to plan the structure of a course to achieve educational objectives.

Creates:

o online and distributed learning courses,

o tutorials,

o workshops,

o training manuals,

o seminars or

o computer-based training programs

Plans and implements the most effective training strategies.

Integrates feedback, student support, assessment and course evaluation into the training program.

Works with the multimedia designers and programmers to ensure a course will facilitate learning and deliver the objectives in the most effective way.

Evaluates the effectiveness of the learning product.

Don Clarke presents a review of 5 theories of Instructional Design. Goodbye ADDIE?  

 

Developing the Ideas of Ocean Literacy Using Conceptual Flow Diagrams

By Craig Strang, Kathy DiRanna, Jo Topps

Upon publication of Ocean Literacy: the Essential Principles of Ocean Sciences K-12, there was broad recognition of the potential power of a consensus document describing what every person should know about the ocean to be considered science literate. There was also recognition of the limitations of such a document that describes the ideal end state, yet provides no road map for how to get there. We knew that ultimately we would need to craft a road map to provide an answer to the question, “If students are to understand the Ocean Literacy Principles by the end of grade 12, what would we need to teach them in grades K-2, in grades 3-5, in grades 6-8, and in grades 9-12 to help them reach that goal?” The answer to that question—a scope and sequence—would be of great interest to teachers and informal science educators, but also to national and state standards committees, curriculum developers, textbook writers and assessment specialists. But what would be an effective way to represent this complex information so that it would be comprehensive, understandable and accessible for these different end users? For this answer, we turned to literature in learning, teaching and teacher professional development.

Research in the learning sciences (Bransford et al, 1999) reveal that to develop competence in an area of inquiry, students must: (a) have a deep foundation of factual knowledge, (b) understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, and (c) organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application. Thus to facilitate the development of students’ conceptual understanding and organization of ocean sciences ideas, the scope and sequence should have a logical and coherent approach to building the complex ideas of the Ocean Literacy Principles from one grade band to the next. Conceptual flow diagrams (as shown on pages X-XX) offer a way to present and organize such a progression of ideas, and can be a versatile tool for several reasons: they describe the developmentally appropriate concepts at each grade band, as well as the relationships among the concepts, in a graphical format; they provide a research-based example of a sequence in which the concepts can be taught, beginning at the earliest grades; and the diagrams balance the need for accessibility and utility with fidelity to learning theory and cognitive science.

Concept Maps versus Conceptual Flows

Conceptual flow diagrams are a specialized and distinct form of concept maps. Concept maps are graphical tools for organizing and representing knowledge that were developed in 1972 in the course of Joseph Novak’s research program at Cornell University where he sought to follow and understand changes in children’s knowledge and understanding of science (Novak & Musonda, 1991). The data from Novak’s study indicated “the lasting impact of early instruction in science

and the value of concept maps as a representational tool for cognitive developmental changes." Novak’s concept maps include concepts, usually enclosed in circles or boxes, and relationships between concepts indicated by a connecting line linking two concepts. Text on the connecting line, referred to as linking words or linking phrases, specify the relationship between the two concepts. Concepts are generally represented in a hierarchical fashion with the most inclusive, most general concepts at the top of the map, and more specific concepts arranged below. The hierarchical structure for a domain of knowledge may be somewhat relative as it often depends on the context in which that knowledge is being applied or considered (Novak & Cañas, 2008; Novak & Gowin, 1984). The use of concept maps generally represents a constructivist approach to learning and teaching, as it assists the learner in developing and displaying the trajectory of their understanding of new concepts and ideas.

Conceptual flow diagrams were developed by the K-12 Alliance/WestEd in California in 1989, for use with teachers during professional development institutes conducted for an NSF-funded statewide systemic initiative. In that setting and dozens of others since, teachers developed conceptual flow diagrams to improve their content knowledge, their curriculum planning and their instruction of complex science concepts. As a product, a conceptual flow diagram resembles a map of nested concepts. The biggest ideas are supported by small ideas, and those small ideas are maintained by even smaller ideas that become learning sequence concepts (see Figure 1). The conceptual flow diagram differs from a concept map in that it addresses concepts in a unit of instruction, and has both a hierarchy of ideas (indicating the relationship between and among the ideas) and a direction, i.e., the sequence for instruction of the unit. Conceptual flow diagrams are intended to be read and taught from top to bottom and from left to right. Concepts nested beneath other concepts serve to elucidate and support the concepts above. Concepts to the right build on those to the left, and often move in a developmental sequence, especially in the early grades, from more concrete to more abstract.

--Insert Figure 1 about here --

The process of guiding teachers through the development of conceptual flow diagrams is described at length in the book, Assessment Centered Teaching: A Reflective Practice (DiRanna et al, 2008). The process of making conceptual flow diagrams has also been adapted for a variety of purposes, including planning for classroom instruction and assessment simultaneously, assisting in school district analysis, selection and adoption of instructional materials, and helping curriculum developers to design instructional materials. Given these versatile uses of conceptual flow diagrams to display and organize big ideas and concepts in a well-thought-out progression of learning and teaching for different educational purposes, we decided to use conceptual flow diagrams to represent the scope and sequence.

Purpose of Conceptual Flow Diagrams

 

The conceptual flow diagram is a “backward-planning” tool. Starting with the end in mindand planning backwards (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005) is a means for setting comprehensible goals and designing better instruction. Teachers can array the big ideas that are important for students to know, the standards they are responsible for teaching, and the content presented in the instructional materials into one comprehensive, sequential chart. As teachers identify and integrate these three elements, the process of constructing a conceptual flow diagram enables teachers to clearly identify specific goals for student learning and progress. The conceptual flow diagram assists learners by making them aware of the links in the concepts they are addressing. Too often it is a mystery to students why they are learning what they are learning. As one teacher put it,The conceptual flow diagram is a determination of where you are going in your teaching and what you’re going to reflect on. You have to know what concepts are important and the order in which they go to conceptualize the whole learning. I put my conceptual flow on the wall for the kids so they learn where they’re going, too. —Teacher Leader 1, NSF Center for Assessment & Evaluation of Student LearningDeveloping conceptual flow diagrams helps teachers build foundational knowledge about the importance of helping students to construct conceptual frameworks rather than “learn” factual information. When a conceptual flow is displayed in the classroom, it allows both teachers and students to connect new ideas and information, providing opportunities to learn with deeper understanding.

A completed conceptual flow diagram serves the following four purposes:

1. Details the important concepts and linkages to other ideas;2. Identifies an instructional sequence for which resources (e.g., textbooks,

instructional materials) can be used to support teaching;3. Identifies important concepts for assessment of student understanding; and4. Eventually serves as the foundation of an assessment plan for the unit of

instruction.

Construction of Conceptual Flow Diagrams

Conceptual flow diagrams are designed by a team, often led by a facilitator knowledgeable of the process. The process for a team of 2-5 people to build a conceptual flow diagram for a unit of instruction includes these five steps:

1. Individuals write a narrative response to the question, “What should students know about (blank) by the time they leave grade (blank)?

2. Individuals re-write and transfer each concept statement in complete sentences from their narrative responses onto separate post-it notes of three different sizes using the larger size for the larger, more important concepts.

3. Team members share their concepts on post-it notes with one another. They arrange the notes into a collaborative draft conceptual flow diagram with larger concepts at the top, and smaller, nested, supporting concepts below. This step can take several hours.

4. Team members match their collaborative, draft conceptual flow diagram to the concepts addressed in the instructional materials and to the science content standards used by team members.

5. Team members review the progression of concept clusters (each cluster is comprised of a large concept and the nested, smaller concepts below it) and place them in an instructional sequence that provides strong links for student understanding (see Figure 2)

--Insert Figure 2 about here --

Conceptual Flow and Teacher Change

In addition to aiding teachers in curriculum development, conceptual flow diagrams have been used as a foundational process for developing classroom assessment plans. A research study of teachers who received professional development on the building of conceptual flow diagrams found that most grade level teams shifted over time toward a greater focus on big ideas by removing, adding or reorganizing learning goals to focus on what was most important for students to learn. Another common shift was toward more coordinated relationships among big ideas and smaller supporting concepts. Most teams increasingly represented conceptual relationships among unit goals rather than as a list of sequential lesson topics. Paralleling organizational shifts in the conceptual flow diagrams, all of the teachers’ assessment plans were more coherently organized in later portfolios. Assessment plans shifted from long lists of possible assessments toward judicious selection of a few key assessments for tracking student progress. Teachers indicated generally strong understandings of how to use conceptual flow diagrams to guide assessment decisions and to select their “juncture” assessments (Gearhart & Osmundson, 2009).I think teachers need to understand the conceptual flow of their curriculum…what concepts they want students to learn; what concepts to assess with their students...then they can plan for teaching.[Developing the Conceptual Flow] moved us from a list of topics to…nesting of important ideas. Identifying what really matters for student understanding drives decisions about…questions in the assessment. —Teacher Leader 2, NSF Center for Assessment & Evaluation of Student Learning

In a political climate that stresses coverage of material in preparation for state testing, teachers appreciate that building conceptual flow diagrams provides them with a process to think beyond standards checklists and pacing guides, and focus on conceptual understanding. One teacher explained,My district is into curriculum mapping and…I'm trying to cover the standards, but (by using conceptual flow diagrams) you have to go deeper into the standards to assess the concepts that are actually behind the understanding, instead of just checking off standards. —Teacher Leader 3, NSF Center for Assessment & Evaluation of Student Learning

Based on the findings of Gearhart and Osmundson, the benefits of conceptual flow diagrams appear to go beyond assessment planning: teachers take ownership of their instruction by becoming better consumers of instructional materials. As they grapple with important concepts and how they should be arranged in a meaningful sequence, teachers gain insight into how instructional materials are organized, which materials are designed to support students’ understanding of the big ideas, and which lessons, resources, and assessments need to be revised. Teachers can then modify their instruction and assessment practice to address any gaps or weaknesses. With a new focus on the concepts in the conceptual flow diagram, I was able to really see my instructional materials. I mean, I knew that our instructional materials were not often perfect, but this really brought out where the holes are, where I need to revise and what I need to put in there to make sure the students understand the concept that I'm trying to teach. —Teacher Leader 4, NSF Center for Assessment & Evaluation of Student LearningI always look at a unit now and make sure that it does flow conceptually. If not, then I rearrange to make sure I include ideas that build upon one another. I always make that a part of my science teaching and I want to incorporate conceptual flow diagrams into other content areas. —Teacher Leader 5, NSF Center for Assessment & Evaluation of Student Learning

 

--Insert Figure 3 about here --

While collaborative development of working versions of conceptual flow diagrams has been demonstrated as an effective teacher professional development activity, involving hundreds of people in the development of a set of 28 completed conceptual flow diagrams has, to say the least, never been accomplished before. The Ocean Literacy Scope and Sequence for Grades K-12 represents a new use of conceptual flow diagrams. In 2006, the authors and several other colleagues led a group of 46 ocean scientists and educators through the development of the first Ocean Literacy conceptual flow diagrams. The process was uplifting and invaluable. Achieving a final product, however, took considerable revision, iteration and review before consensus was reached on all 28 diagrams. Now

published, we hope that the Scope and Sequence will become a catalyst for future research about how students form and revise their understandings of complex ocean sciences concepts. Further, we anticipate that the Scope and Sequence will become a driving force in defining the content that students will encounter in future standards, textbooks, curriculum materials and assessments.

References

Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., Cocking, R.R. (1999). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington, DC, National Research Council, National Academies Press.

DiRanna, K., Osmundson, E., Topps, J., Barakos, L., Gearhart, M., Cerwin, K., Carnahan, D., Strang, C. (2008). Assessment Centered Teaching: A Reflective Practice. Thousand Oaks, California; Corwin Press.

Gearhart, M., & Osmundson, E. (2009). Assessment Portfolios as Opportunities for Teacher Learning. Educational Assessment. 14:1-24.

Novak, J.D., & Cañas, A.J. (2008). The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and How to Construct and Use Them, Technical Report Institute for Human and Machine Cognition CmapTools.

Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York, NY: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Novak, J. D., & Musonda, D. (1991). A twelve-year longitudinal study of science concept learning. American Educational Research Journal, 28(1), 117-153.

Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by Design, Expanded 2nd Edition. Alexandria, VA; Merrill Education/ASCD College Textbook Series.

Figure 1: Shows the generic layout of conceptual flow diagrams developed by teachers to describe an instructional sequence.

nstructional Design Models and Strategies

There are numerous models of the Instructional Design Process. Gustafson (1981) concluded that there were only a few fundamental differences between models although they often used different terminology to describe the same activities. The principle differences focused on:

· where the model was to be applied

·whether the outcome was to be a product  for distribution and use by people other than it's designers

· whether design and development were to be an individual or a team effort

·whether the emphasis was primarily on designing new materials or selecting from among those that already exist

 In general, however, the models all specified:

· analysing what was to be learned· specifying who was to learn

·describing in detail how the learning was to occur

· conducting formative evaluation· conducting summative evaluation

 The literature indicates a general belief that, the use of systematic design procedures can make instruction more effective and efficient than it has been using more traditional methods. This means that objectives, instructional strategies and methods, assessment and evaluation procedures are all congruent and complement each other. Briggs, Gustafson & Tillman;

The systematic design process provides a framework within which analysis can be performed and intelligent choices made from among the many instructional delivery strategies.  A generalised model of the process is shown overleaf. This can be used as a guide or reconfigured to meet the needs of a specific project. 

  

Figure  1.1  The instructional design sequence  (Gustafson, Tillman) 

The instructional design model shown above implies a sequential process. It is important to note, however that some parts of the model are iterative and some decisions made in the later parts may well affect decisions made earlier. For example, we normally perform the task and content analysis and then sequence the instruction. Leishin, Pollock and Reigluth, (1992) point out that, different sequencing strategies are required for different situations, and each sequencing strategy is based on different types of relationship in the content material.there is a learning prerequisite relationship among skills and this suggests a hierarchical sequencing strategy.based on the order relationship among steps of a procedure. The chronological sequence is based on the time relationship among historical events. Because each type of sequence is based on a different type of relationship within the task or content a different type of analysis is required in order to design each sequence.

 The model of the Instructional Systems Development (ISD) process shown at Figure 1.2 below is a more concise four part model which

expands initially into seven steps and includes the design step necessary for interactive eLearning materials

 

Figure 1.2   Overview of the instructional systems development  (ISD) process.(Leshin, Pollock, Reigeluth) In both of the above models scant attention is paid to the analysis of the learner.  In order to develop and deliver successful and effective eLearning it is essential to have a thorough understanding of the target learners.  In the past, many characteristics of learners were thought to influence their ability to learn from instruction.  Some theorists advocated that instruction be tailored for learners with different cognitive styles, genders, socio-economic backgrounds, ages etc. Clark, (1991) contends that there are two predominant characteristics of learners that influence their ability to learn from instruction.      These are;  intellectual capacity (made up of intelligence and prior knowledge of the subject)  andconfidence). Motivation and the intellectual capacity that is characterised as prior knowledge, are both critical prerequisites of the process for acquiring new knowledge. Learning in general and particularly computer based eLearning must be designed to promote both motivation and the connection of new knowledge to a learner's existing store of knowledge.  In this respect, I am frequently reminded  of  Ability + Motivation = Performance.Many people have the ability to learn new skills and knowledge in many domains. However, when a learners are particularly interested and focused on learning something new, and place a high value on acquiring that knowledge, attention span tends to beenthusiastically engaged in the learning process.  Clark, (1991) calls this the "Engagement Principlepersonal value placed on the task at hand increases beyond the value placed on any other distracting consideration, we will choose to be engaged in the task and not be distracted". 

 Figure 1.3  Engagement Principle ( Clark 1991 )

 Once we know how much prior knowledge the learners have and how motivated they are likely to be, we can make decisions regarding the depth of the task analysis and how much support will have to be built into the eLearning at the lesson design stage.The other side of learner analysis relates to what Clark calls the Effort Principle.  To invest effort in a task is to persist with mindful or intelligent application for a sufficient amount of time to succeed.This principle implies that, as the amount of self confidence increases from very low to very high then the amount of effort a person will invest in the task follows an inverted U curve.  If learners are either under or over confident about succeeding at a task, then they will expend minimum effort. 

 Figure  1.4   The Effort Principle    ( Clark  1991

 Confidence in this situation is defined as " the learners perception of how capable they will be in relation to the job for which they are being

trained and in relation to the training they will undergo".Because of these factors Learner Analysis is an essential part of the design process. It is closely related to and usually part of the Job Analysis step in the sequence. It is essential to gather information about the level of prior knowledge and motivation of prospective learners. Figure 1.5 overleaf shows some of the consequences of this information for the design process. The greater the relevant prior knowledge of the learner the larger the chunks of new information s/he can acquire at one time. This means that the task analysis and the information content of the eLearning can be less detailed.  Also the greater the relevant prior knowledge, the less support for learning new knowledgepractice, feedback ) must be built into the eLearning at the lesson design stage. 

 Figure 1.5  Design implications from learner characteristics  ( Clark 1991 )

 This leads us to the instructional design model defined by Richard E. Clark. This model has its focus on the design of effective eLearning content. It hypothesises that the eventual media selection is a matter which affects the efficiency of course delivery and that the effectiveness of the eLearning is a function of careful attention to the first four stages of the process.Clark defines Effectiveness as "the extent to which the learners are able to apply  the learning content and achieve the required level of job performance" and Efficiency as " relating to the cost in money, organisational resources and learner time, to deliver the eLearning at the level of effectiveness chosen by the client". There are critically important cost advantages or disadvantages to choosing certain media or combinations of media for eLearning. In some settings and courses, eLearning may not be economically feasible without the availability of certain media. It is important here to make a distinction between two very important technologies that are applied to eLearning; instructional technology and delivery technology.

 Instructional Technology is "a set of eLearning procedures which can be embedded in instruction to solve problems of learning, motivation and transfer" ( that is to make eLearning more effective). Delivery Technology is "a set of facilities that exist for recording and or transmitting instruction to solve problems of cost, speed, access, reliability and utilisation of resources".Therefore, to be efficient, eLearning must use the delivery technology that will achieve the desired level of effectiveness with the least cost in terms of facilities and learner time. 

 Figure 1.6  Model for the design of effective eLearning.  Clark  (1991)

 All of the models discussed so far have their focus on the design of eLearning materials with a variety of media in mind. However in this guide we are particularly concerned with the design of eLearning for delivery using interactive multimedia eLearning systems. So, while bearing the lessons from the previous pages in mind we have to consider those aspects of the design process which will not only help us to produce effective eLearning materials but also the additional steps and procedures necessary to produce interactive multimedia eLearning materials. Research indicates that multimedia based eLearning projects require that about 60% of the project time be used for design and evaluation with the remaining 40% being used for production and authoring activities. Because the design stages are so important in multimedia production we must develop a model which recognises the additional steps in the process. One such model, which takes account of the (ISD) instructional systems development steps of analysis, design, development and evaluation and at the same time has additional steps to take care of the multimedia development aspects is proposed by Allen Communications. 

 Figure 1.7  Model for the development of interactive multimedia eLearning materials. (Allen Communications)

 

The Allen Communication model looks at the production of eLearning materials from the point of view of the designer. This company has produced a suite of software tools, which enable the design process according to this model. However, yet another view can be taken of the process and this is the view from the desk of the Project Manager. This view has a more commercial bias and while recognising the quality aspects of the final production, and the pedagogic imperative, has a focus very much on the bottom line. This model looks at design from the perspective of the Project Manager and seeks to list the steps in the process, define who is responsible for each component, examine the resources needed, list the deliverables and look more closely at the cyclical nature and dependencies of the various parts of each step.

 

 Figure 1.8 Project managers view of the production of multimedia based eLearning materials. ( BNH expert software Inc. )

 The next part of this guide looks at the design and development model in more depth and seeks to combine the best aspects of the Allen and BNH models. It takes account of the iterative nature of the process particularly when producing a multi-module courseWe must be clear at this point to declare the case to be taken for the purposes of this paper. At one end of the spectrum of cases is the need to produce a generic eLearning product for general use and sale to the public. In this situation there is a perceived need in the market place for eLearning material on a particular topic.The production company will make a decision whether or not to proceed paying special attention to the identification of the audience profile. This is an essential step for all eLearning materials and will, in the case of a generic product, be less specific than a situation where the exact learner profile is known or can be defined. For the generic product then, certain assumptions have to be made with regard to the age, gender, job situation, degree of prior knowledge and motivation of the potential users. This profile will then become part of the material used by the designers to select learning goals and activities and by the marketing department in the design of packaging, instructions for use and the development of advertising materials.  Somewhere in the middle of the spectrum is a case where a client will approach a production company with a course in a variety of media and ask for this material to be converted into a CD or DVD product or a product for delivery using the Internet. In this case the audience profile and many of the other items usually gathered in the analysis and design stages will be known. The process of production may well start at the choice of delivery platform and proceed through selection of an authoring tool, making the functions list, into storyboarding and through to implementation.At the far end of the spectrum is the situation where a client approaches the production company with a performance problem which he believes can be solved by eLearning. It is the first task of the company to check this hypothesis and confirm that the performance problem has been correctly identified and can in fact be solved by eLearning. At this time, the client will enter into discussion with the design company in order to examine the feasibility of the project