AbstractIn the 21st century, there has been a growing concernfor the degradation of the environment from largequantities of CO2 and green house gases, produced bythe building industry. This led to the concept of ‘GreenArchitecture’, which aims to reduce the environmentalimpact of buildings through energy efficient designs
and healthy indoor environment. In the context ofPakistan, our current practices in architecture arebased on Western standards, leading to a growingdependence on fossil fuels and resulting in rapidenvironmental degradation. Rapoport (Rapoport,1969)states that, modern solutions to climatic problemsoften do not work, and homes are made bearable bymeans of mechanical means whose cost sometimesexceeds that of the building shell. Before the importof the Western model for architecture, vernacular architecture provided energy efficient and sustainablespaces. Pearson states that, the new importance ofvernacular building is that it has vital ecological lessonsfor today (Pearson, 1994). In the current scenario, thestudy and analysis of indigenous architecture can help
in developing a home-grown and workable model for ‘Green Architecture’ of 21st century Pakistan. In thispaper the climate responsiveness and appropriatenessof the Sethi haveli, Peshawar, are analyzed in order tounderstand the indigenous responses to the issues ofenvironmental comfort. The focus of the study will bethe courtyard and how it provides thermal comfortand day-lighting to the building.
Today, the building sector uses up to 30-40% ofthe world’s total energy consumption (I.E.A.,2008). In developing countries (World EnergyOutlook, 2007) it accounts for a much higher percentage. A large portion of the energy usedin buildings is used for achieving thermal comfortfor the inhabitants through cooling, heating andlighting. This energy is produced by burning offossil fuels, which result in the production of CO²and green house gases. Developing countrieslike Pakistan will make a substantial contributionto the CO² emissions from its commercial anddomestic (21% of total energy consumption)
energy usage (ENERCON, 2006).The concept of green architecture took shapewhen the usage of fossil fuels began to doirreparable damage to our environment. Greenarchitecture involves a holistic approach to thedesign of buildings so that the many conflictingissues and requirements; of ecology, economy
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and human wellbeing are integrated. Modernbuildings are increasingly unable to adapt toa warming climate and are inherently energyintensive. In contrast, vernacular architecture ismore adaptable to the environment, accordingto principles evolved over many generations.
Evolution in the paradigm of traditional housingtook place from the 18th century onwards dueto socio-political and socio-economic reasons(Salama, 2006). This resulted in a completedisregard of vernacular technologies, many ofwhich were energy efficient as they worked withnatural forces (sun-light, wind etc.) to createbuildings that minimize consumption of naturalresources and their subsequent depletion. Asour climate heats up and changes, the needto study and understand vernacular buildings inthe context of green architecture increases.
This research explores the havelis of SethiMohalla, Peshawar, Pakistan, with a viewto address the benefits of the vernacular courtyard form of design and speculate itsappropriateness in the modern architecturalarena of Pakistan. The seven Sethi havelisare located on Bazaar Bolan Road near Gor Khuttree. They were constructed without anymechanical means, and thermal comfort wasachieved through climatic modifying strategieslike internal courtyards, orientation, thermalmass, solar gain and evaporative cooling.Rapoport (1969b) observed that vernacular solutions are a response to climate and culture.
Green Architecture and the Haveli Form
The Haveli is a courtyard house, a predominantform used in the Indian sub-continent sincethe cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.The courtyard form developed as a response
to climatic and cultural factors in regions aswide spread as Europe, Middle East, and Asia.Bahadori (1978) states that the courtyardintroverts space to fulfil several functions,including the creation of an outdoor yetsheltered space, the potential to use indigenous
passive cooling techniques, protection againstdust storms, and the mitigation of thermal heatfrom the sun. Courtyards represent an attemptto bring the forces of nature under partialcontrol (Reynolds, 2002a). European, MiddleEastern and Asian courtyard forms share similar properties of modifying climatic conditions bothcold (Mänty, 1988) and hot. Edward (2006) notesthat Western and Eastern types adjusted their orientation and designs to balance the benefitsof wind and the sun. The courtyard typology isa more sustainable form of housing as it allowsconstant contact with the natural world; sun,
fresh air and water (Sibley, 2006). Revivalistarchitects like Fathay have advocated for andsuccessfully incorporated courtyards in their design for modern housing.
The environmental performance of the courtyardform in relation to the pavilion form was studiedat Cambridge University (Martin & March, 1972).Results confirmed that courtyards performedbetter than pavilions in terms of efficiency inbuilt potential and day-lighting. Raydan etal (2006) re-evaluated the original study andconcluded that the best form in environmentalterms (without sacrificing floor space for a givenplot of land) for hot arid climates is the courtyardform.
Climatic Conditions
The Peshawar district lies between North latitude30º40´ and 32º31´ and East longitude 71º25´
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and 72º47´. The city of Peshawar, experienceslonger summer spells; May to September andshorter winters; December to February, themoderate weather is in October, November,March and April. During the summers, the meanmaximum temperature is over 40 °C (104 °F) and
the mean minimum temperature is 25 °C (77 °F).In winters, the mean minimum temperature is 4°C (39 °F) and maximum is 18.35 °C (65.03 °F)(Weatherbase: Historical Weather for Peshawar,Pakistan). The architectural design of buildingsmust address the problems of both weathersand provide relief accordingly.
The mohallas of the city employ various passivedesign measures to combat the extremesof weather including the use of narrow andwinding streets, the huddling of the varioushavelis together to protect against excessive
heat and cold. By avoiding exposing individualexternal walls, an optimum indoor temperatureis achieved in both summers and winters. Thecourtyard form is dominant in the tightly packedtraditional architecture of Peshawar city.
Methodology of the Research
A case study research method has been adoptedfor analyzing a representative sample of thehavelis of Sethi Mohalla, in order to understandtheir inherent bioclimatic responsiveness anduse of natural and renewable energy sources.
The research tools include:• extensive surveys of the courtyard housesobserved,• interviews with the residents of the havelis,• on-site photography,• analytical sketches.
The Allah Buksh Sethi haveli was chosen as thefinal choice for the case study based on thefollowing factors:
1. All the Sethi havelis are similar in their use of high thermal mass construction externally and
lightw eight c onstruc tion o n the insid e fac ad e.2. The size o f the c ourtyard s in rela tion to the total volume of the havelis and their aspect ratios we re simila r.3. The A llah Buksh ha ve li was ac c essible fo r da ta c ollec tion a nd de tailed study.
The analysis of the Allah Buksh Sethi haveliwas done with respect to the comfort of thecourtyard and the surrounding rooms. Tounderstand the bioclimatic significance ofthese havelis, the analysis is based on courtyardthermal performance with respect to both solar shading and day-lighting.
The Allah Buksh Sethi Haveli
The Karim Buksh haveli, constructed in 1898,was the largest haveli of the Sethi Mohalla (andpossibly of the area), which consisted of separatecourtyards and spaces for the mardana (men’sarea), zenana (women’s area) and servants’areas. The zenana quarters were turned intoan independent haveli by Allah Buksh Sethi in1930.
The haveli has a central courtyard measuring
40’ x 40’ with a water fountain in the center.There are wooden arcades on all four sides,housing the balakhanas (reception rooms)on the ground floor. The balakhanas areelevated five feet above the courtyard andthree balakhanas (NE, NW & SW) have largetehkhanas (basements) underneath them. The
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balakhanas, the rooms behind them and thetehkhanas all receive sunlight, air and ventilationthrough the courtyard.
Courtyard and Climatic Comfort
The placement of the central courtyard, its sizeand orientation are important aspects of thedesign. The courtyard plays a major role in themodification of the harsh summer and winter
environment by providing a comfortable micro-climate for the haveli.
Form and Orientation of the CourtyardThe courtyard forms a perfect square andoccupies nearly 30% of the total haveli area.The surrounding walls rise to 19´ and there areoverhangs of 6´ wide on three sides, whereasthe NW side is covered by a thakht, protectingthat side from excessive solar exposure. The
Figure 1: Ground Floor Plan of the Allah BukshHaveli (Source: Author).
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courtyard is laid in a SE- NW orientation. Thisis about 40° off the cardinal points, whichexposes the NW wall to morning sun. The NEwall also gets the sunlight from early morninguntil midday, after which the sun penetration islargely controlled by the takht on the NW side(fig. 2). The lower winter sun is able to penetratethe courtyard (NW, NE & SE sides) until mid-afternoon i.e. 4 pm (Personal observation on site
15th Nov. 2008).
Courtyard and Thermal Comfort
The intense heat and glare from the sun,especially in the summer months can easilycause overheating, discomfort and glare ifthe courtyard is not designed and protected
properly. The Sethi haveli employs multipledevices to avoid heat gain through thecourtyard, through a variety of permanent andtemporary shading devices; wooden arcades,roof overhangs, lattice-work screens, stain glasswindows etc.
Roof Overhangs of the CourtyardThe courtyard is protected by 6´ overhangs on
all four sides (figure 3). On the NW side there isa thakht (fig. 4) for sitting and eating meals onthe first floor. This blocks excessive sunlight intothe courtyard and provides vital shade. Earlymorning, late afternoon and a lower sun path inwinter are the only time that direct sunlight mayfall on the internal walls of the courtyard.
Figure 2: Sunlight on NEfaçade; Taken by author on October 21st 2008 at12 am. (Source: Author).
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Open-able Shading DevicesThere are iron loops and hooks on the sides ofthe overhang of the courtyard indicating theuse of a large covering which was tied to cover the opening of the courtyard. This was closed inthe day to reduce direct sun penetration andglare. During mid-day (the hottest part of the
day) of the hottest summer months, the amountof light and heat are greatly reduced. The cover was folded away in the early evening, whenwater is sprinkled on the floor of the courtyardto facilitate evaporative cooling, ventilationand cold-sky radiation.
Large Fabric Fans in Courtyard to Promote AirFlowA steel rope was hung across the opening ofthe courtyard; this had large loops which helda large fan. The fan was moved manually toincrease the air flow within the courtyard andinto the balakhanas.
Water Fountain in Centre of CourtyardThere is a water fountain in the courtyard,which inducts water into the air. This cools andmoistens the hot dry air inside the courtyard andthe balakhanas providing relief from the hot dryconditions.
Figure 3: Overhangsof the courtyard.Taken by author onNovember 15th 2008.(Source: Author).
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Sprinkling Water on the FloorWater was sprayed on the brick floor of thecourtyard in the mornings and evenings andthis encouraged cooling of the area throughevaporation.
Analysis of Thermal Comfort of Courtyard
Exposure of the Courtyard: Aspect RatioThe courtyard’s effectiveness in terms ofenvironmental response may be measuredby studying its aspect ratio (Reynolds, 2002b).The aspect ratio is a measure of the degree ofthe courtyard’s openness to the sky; a greater aspect ratio indicates that the courtyard is more
exposed to the sky.
The Allah Buksh Sethi haveli’s courtyard has anAspect Ratio of 2.11. This indicates that this is arelatively shallow courtyard and thus has goodexposure to the sky. This exposure allows winter sunlight to warm the courtyard and the roomson the N, NE and S sides. The summer sun will
also heat up the courtyardfloor but most of thebalakhanas are protected by the overhangs
and the takht on the NW side. The courtyardfloor which is heated during the day is quicklycooled by evaporative cooling (wetting of thefloor) in the early evenings and radiation to thecold sky at night time. This aspect ratio allowsdirect and diffused light into the courtyard and
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facilitates entry of the wind.
Solar Shadow Index and Winter SolarPenetrationAnother aspect of comfort is the solar shadowindex, which deals with winter sun exposure in
the courtyard. In the context of the Sethi haveli,the solar shadow index was calculated as0.575. This value shows that the courtyard wellis not very deep and allows more winter sun onthe Sethi haveli’s courtyard’s sunny (NE) faceat noon. The haveli’s living rooms on the SWsides are used in the summer and the main NEbalakhana is predominantly used in the wintersas this side gets the maximum winter sun all day(figure 5).
Courtyard’s Role in Modifying ExtremeTemperatures
The hottest summer month is June when thetemperature swings between an averagehigh of 81°F/27.2°C - 101°F/38.33°C. In order totest the assumption that the courtyard formsmodify the external temperature extremes, thetemperature of the Sethi courtyard in relationto the outside temperature (taken as 38°C) wascalculated;14(1- 0.759)°C = 3.374 ° C (Reynolds, 2002c)
The calculated temperature difference thatthe courtyard offers from the outside is 3.374°C.Thus, for an external temperature of 38°C the
Sethi courtyard will maintain a temperature ofabout 34.62°C.
Daily Temperature Range (Summer)Discomfort in the hot-dry summer is also causedby the extreme diurnal swings in temperature.In order to understand the courtyard’s responseto the diurnal temperature swings, its response
to the daily temperature range was calculated.The average temperature range of Peshawar is11.13° (between 27.2°C – 38.33° C).
The calculated range that the courtyard offersis between 29.5°C – 34.62° C; a variation of5.12°C. The courtyard form avoids large heatingand cooling ranges and is effective against theextremes of the diurnal swings in temperatureduring the day. Thus the temperature withinthe house is more stable and thus morecomfortable.
Figure 5: Light in NE balakhana, Taken by author,November 20th 2008. (Source: Author).
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The Courtyard and Daylight
To fulfil the needs for adequate day-lighting,there is the need to maximize light through amplewindow area, yet protection and shading mustbe provided to prevent solar gain. In the context
of daylight, various factors influence the amountof daylight available in rooms; these include thepath of direct sunlight on the facades, the ratioof room sizes and the proportion of window sizeto floor size.
Solar Angles of Summer and Winter SunTo calculate how much of direct sunlightpenetrates the courtyard and into the
balakhanas in summer and winter, the angle ofthe summer and winter sun into the courtyardwere calculated. The noon solar angle for summer solstice was 79.5°, this is almost a straightangle of the sun. The height of the balakhanas(raised 5´ off the courtyard floor) and the
overhang of the courtyard (6´) protect themfrom direct solar penetration in the summers. Thusdirect sunlight into the balakhanas is avertedin summer by design. The winter solstice angleof sun is 32.5°, this much lower angle of the sun.It is facilitated by the design of the haveli, andsunlight penetrates the courtyard floor and allrooms on the N, NE and NW sides, during the day.A graphic representation is given in figure 6.
Figure 6: Section(SW-NE) showingthe path of summer and winter sunlight.(Source: Author).
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The importance of the solar path during thesummer and winter months has played an integralpart in the design and layout of the balakhanasand dalans of the first floor. All windows areplaced within the internal courtyard and areprotected by the overhangs of the courtyard
roof. The NE side of the haveli is deeper thanthe other sides of the haveli due to maximumamount of sunlight in this direction. The largesttehkhanas (basement) is also located on theNE side, its ventilators face the courtyard, andprovide ample amount of light in the daytime.
Ratio of Room SizeIn the Allah Buksh haveli, all rooms on the ground,basement and first floors face inwards and aredependent on the courtyard for daylight. As aconsequent the layout of the balakhanas areadjusted in such a way that the longer side
of the room lies along the courtyard and thedepths of the rooms are shallow in comparison.For even distribution of daylight, Reynolds(2002d) specifies the preferred proportion of aroom adjacent to a courtyard should be 3 : 1(length along courtyard to rear wall of room).The proportions of the balakhanas of the havelialso show a longer length to width ratio (Table1).
The NE balakhana receives the maximumamount of direct and reflected sunlight in bothsummer and winter and thus has the lowestlength to width ratio (2.4:1). The three other balakhanas have greater proportions (2.7:1),their size allows maximum amount of direct anddefused light to enter the rooms (figure 7).
Proportion of Window Size to FloorThe relationship of the window size to the totalfloor area of a room also determines the amount
of daylight in a room. According to Reynolds(2002e) the larger the window relative to thefloor area, the higher the daylight factor (DF).This relationship is calculated for the balakhanassurrounding the courtyard and presented intable 2:
The above table shows that there is a highpercentage of window area to the floor areaof the balakhanas. The three balakhanas (SE,SW and NW ) have 40%- 66% of window areato floor area, as these are facing away fromthe sun, there is a need for larger percentageof window area. The NE balakhana has thelowest percentage of the window area to floor area (33%), and by virtue of its location on thesunniest side of the courtyard, this is a deliberatedesign element to control the amount of lightand the resultant heat.
Elements to Control GlareAlthough there are continuous windows alongthe internal arcades, yet they have multipleoperable parts which facilitate the amount ofdaylight admitted to the rooms. The balakhanawindow shutters may be opened to create anarcade along the courtyard and this allowsmaximum amount of light and ventilation toreach the rooms (fig 9). The windows are madeof multiple components so that they may beopened and closed in parts to control theamount of daylight admitted inside. Stain-glass
windows in these shutters also diffuse the brightsunlight (fig 10). The use of ventilators on top ofthe windows also are a controlling elements,as they may be opened up and tilted to adjustlight in the room.
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Conclusions
Today the typical architectural solution toglobal warming concentrates on makingbuildings more efficient by enclosing them withglass and increasing the use of mechanizedcooling and heating systems. There is a need to
look at courtyard buildings not just as remnantsof the past, but rather as lessons for our future.Fathy (1986) states that traditional solutions invernacular architecture should be evaluated,and then adopted or modified and developedto make them compatible with modernrequirements. This research concludes that byopening up the house around a courtyard formcreates more thermally comfortable conditionsinside the house and also improves theamount of daylight in the house, thus reducingdependence on mechanical energy.
In the analysis of the Allah Buksh Sethi haveliwe observe that the factors of shape and sizeconfiguration and orientation of the courtyardhas an impact on its environmental performance.Reinvesting in the successful vernacular courtyard house by updating its features andamenities to provide for contemporary needs isthe answer to our quest for green architecture.
Table 2: Ratio ofWindow to Floor Area.(Source: Author).
Figure 8: Windows of the internal arcades. Taken byAuthor, October 2008 (Source: Author).
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A number of general design guidelines can bededucted from this study:
• Reintroduction of the courtyard form in homesas a garden or parking area; the size of thecourtyard to be calculated so that the square of
average height of the surrounding walls shouldbe less than area of the courtyard. An aspectRatio that is not too shallow (increases summer heat gain) and not too deep (decreases daylightpenetration) is important. A balance betweenthe two is ideal for winter solar penetration,adequate daylight and ventilation benefits.
• Orientation of the house to avoid solar gainin summer and utilize prevailing winds on site. Inthe context of Pakistan, a N-S orientation is bestas it reduces lengths of South facing facades.
• Opening majority of windows within the
courtyard to benefit from its micro-climate.Calculation of summer/winter sun angles for designing window overhangs to maximise day-lighting and minimise glare in the summers andallow winter sun penetration. Providing multipleopen-able components within windows toincreases the ability of the occupant to controlthe level of light and heat in the room.
The need for making today’s architecture greenmay well be served by employing climateresponsive designs based on vernacular architecture. Modern interpretations of these
principles can be energy conserving andculturally responsive.
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Sibley, M. (2006). The courtyard houses of northAfrican medinas: Past, present and future. In B.Edward, M. Sibley, M. Hakmi & P. Land ( Eds.),Courtyard housing: Past, present and future. UK:
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Samra M. KhanSam ra Khan is an asspc iate profe ssor of a rchitec ture at the COMSATS Institute of Informa tion Tec hnolog y,
Islama ba d. She has be en wo rking since 1987, in Karachi, Islama ba d and Ireland . Projects include : Terminal Building of Allama Iqb al Internationa l Airport,Lahore.( Part o f NESPAK Design Tea m) , Ad ministrative block, Cargo block, F.C.R ( fi re, crash rescue) building; Islamaba d International Airpo rt.( Part o f d esign tea m).Multiple commercial, educational and residential projects do ne. Her research work includes “ Indigeno us architecture of Earthquake areas; Godar and Jabber,Mansehra, N.W.F.P.”, ‘Mapping architecture of Rawalpindi cantonment during the colonial era’,‘Heritage mapping of Pre-colonial Rawalpindi city’,‘Havelis of Mo halla Sethian, Peshawa r; Architec tural and environmental design’, ‘Mapping of the Architectural Heritage and Cultural Identity of Islamabad City’.
Ms Khan has published in the area of vernacular architecture, sustainable building design and related green d esign issues. She c an be conta cted at sjmkhan@
