SETTING AND RESPONDENTS - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/35261/12/12...Setting...

CHAPTER IV

SETTING AND RESPONDENTS

The first part of this chapter highlights the Setting-casting light on the

background and place where the research was conducted and introduces the

profile of the respondents in the second part. The second part on

Respondents- includes select narratives provided by different categories of

children (not included for statistical analysis) and demographic details of

respondents in the study.

SETTING

City of Chennai

Tamil Nadu is the most urbanised state in India. The city of Chennai, its

capital is the fourth largest metropolitan area in India with a population of

4,681,087 and the urban/metropolitan population is 8,696,010 (Provisional

Census 2011). Since the late 1990s, the city of Chennai has been witnessing

phenomenal industrial growth (Wikipedia, 2008). Service contributes to 45%

of the economic activity in the state, followed by manufacturing at 34% and

agriculture at 21%. The Government is the major investor in the state with

51% of total investments, followed by private Indian investors at 29.9% and

foreign private investors at 14.9%.

Software development, business process outsourcing and more recently

electronics manufacturing have emerged as major contributors to the city's

economic growth. The city is now the second largest exporter of Information

and Technology (IT) and IT enabled services in the country. In recent years,

Chennai has emerged as an electronic manufacturing hub in South Asia with

108 Chapter IV

multinational corporations. Chennai is currently the largest electronics

hardware exporter in India, accounting for 45% of the total exports in

2010-2011 which encouraged the Government of India to promote Chennai

as the Electronic Manufacturing and R&D hub of the world in a span of 15

years. Chennai has also emerged as an Offshore Engineering hub due to the

presence of Offshore Technology and Renewable Energy research

institutions. The city accounts for 60 per cent of India's automotive exports,

and is considered to be the ‘Detroit of Asia'. The city is tagged as the

Banking Capital of India, for its vibrant banking culture and trading and has

emerged as an important centre for banking and finance in the world market.

Chennai leads in the health care sector and is considered the ‘Health Capital

of India’. The Chennai Aero Park, a proposed aerospace design,

manufacturing and Maintenance Park is set to become the largest integrated

aerospace ecosystem in the world.

Vision 2026 for Chennai

‘Vision 2026’ envisages Chennai as a prime metropolis which will be more

liveable, economically vibrant and environmentally sustainable with better

assets for the future generations. Several projects are commissioned to make

Chennai a prime metropolis. The projects include

Elevated Expressway, Chennai- a 19 kilo meter expressway extending from

Chennai Port to Maduravoyal is under construction in the city of Chennai.

Starting at Chennai Port (Gate no. 10),it stretches along the bank of the

Cooum river to Koyambedu and along the median of NH4 to Maduravoyal.

The estimates of the project have been worked out at Rs.1468 crores

including the R&R and LA components amounting to Rs.345 crores (GoTN,

2008).

Setting and Respondents 109

The East Coast Elevated Expressway, Chennai - A proposed 9.7 kilometres

elevated expressway in the city of Chennai which runs along the coast of

Bay of Bengal crossing the Adayar Estuary passing by the western side of

Broken Bridge, Chennai (Wikipedia, 2010).

Chennai Metro Rail Project covers a stretch of 45.046 kilometres in 2

corridors [23.085 kilometres (underground 14.300 kilometres + 8.785

kilometres elevated)] with a total of 18 stations from Washermanpet to

Chennai Airport and 21.961 kilometres (underground 9.695 kilometres

+ 12.266 kilometres elevated)] extending from Chennai Central to Saint

Thomas Mount (Press Information Bureau, GOI, 2013).

Chennai River Restoration - In order to facilitate development, maintenance

and conservation of an Eco Park by name "Adayar Poonga", highlighting

best practices in order to create a replicable model project of international

standard, to fulfil the recreational and open space needs of the city was

developed. The restoration projects include

(1) Eco-Restoration of Adayar Creek (58 acres)

(2) Eco-Restoration of for Adayar Creek and Estuary (300 acres)

(3) Integrated Cooum River Eco-Restoration Plan

Flood Alleviation Programme by the Public Works Department (PWD) to

carry out de silting work. The TNSCB and Public Works Department (PWD)

jointly identified 33,313 families living on the river margins who were

posing a hindrance to their work. To enable the PWD to carry out the

de-silting works, 3000 tenements were constructed in Okkium Thoraipakkam

at a cost of Rs. 26.23 crore to be allotted to the slum families in Chennai

(TNSCB, PWD, 2000).

110 Chapter IV

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNURM)

This massive construction programme has been taken up under the Basic

Services for Urban Poor (BSUP) component of the centrally shared

JNNURM funded by the Government of India, State Government. Under this

scheme 35,270 tenements are to be constructed as “integrated townships” in

Chennai, Madurai & Coimbatore at a total cost of Rs.1502.48 crores.

To create a ‘ Slum Free Chennai’ by 2013 ,construction of 18000 tenements

in two model towns, one in North Chennai and the other in the South, to

resettle those living in slums across the city is underway . These multi story

tenements, measuring 270 sq.ft. each will have complete facilities including

piped water. The families living in slums along the river and road margins

will be resettled in these tenements according to the plan. The ambitious

programme to rehouse / resettle the remaining slum families living in

objectionable and unobjectionable locations in Chennai, Madurai and

Coimbatore in self-contained tenements with required infrastructure is

proposed by 2013.

1. Housing for Tsunami affected families

Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board has taken up the construction of

tenements to resettle the Tsunami affected families in Chennai,

Kancheepuram and Thiruvallur Districts under the World Bank funded

“Emergency Tsunami Reconstruction Project” and construction of houses for

Tsunami affected families living in vulnerable areas in 8 coastal districts

under the Government of India funded Rajiv Gandhi Rehabilitation Package.

(a) Emergency Tsunami Reconstruction Project (ETRP)

The construction of 11,520 tenements at a cost of Rs.570.72 crore in Chennai

utilising World Bank assistance under the Emergency Tsunami


Reconstruction Project programme (ETRP) has been taken up. As part of this

programme, construction of 3,616 tenements at AIR Land / Thiruvottiyur at

a cost of Rs.139.51 crore is nearing completion. The construction of 2048

tenements at Okkium Thoraipakkam at a cost of Rs.96.51 crore has been

stayed due to court orders and is expected to be resumed on finalization of

the case. As part of the programme it is planned to construct 5856 tenements

at a cost of Rs.334.70 crore in Marina Beach area. The demolition of 2280

tenements and the reconstruction of 2280 tenements in Marina have

commenced. Work on the remaining 3576 tenements would commence

under the programme for integrated redevelopment of Marina.

(b) Rajiv Gandhi Tsunami Rehabilitation Package I - Construction of

Houses (originally to be constructed by NGOs)

Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board had taken up construction of 1,217

houses at an estimated cost of Rs.45.03 core for Tsunami affected families

which was originally proposed to be constructed by NGOs, who withdrew

services and later construction was undertaken under this package.

(c) Rajiv Gandhi Tsunami Rehabilitation Package II - Construction of

Houses in Tsunami Vulnerable Areas

The families living within 200 meters of the seashore in Tsunami vulnerable

areas in the coastal districts of Tamil Nadu are provided with houses and

infrastructure. Under this programme, the construction of 6521 houses at a

cost of Rs.241.95 crore was taken up.

Slums in Chennai

While on one side, the city has witnessed phenomenal growth in industry,

information technology and services on the other side there has been an

increased growth in slums. Slums have proliferated into the city in the open

112 Chapter IV

and unused (‘porambokku’) spaces belonging to the Government. As the

Census projections on slums in Chennai are not yet available, data as per

Census 2001 is provided.

Slum populations in urban India and in the state of Tamil Nadu (1981-2001)

No. Year Population (Lakh)

Per cent Urban Slum

1

India

i. 1981

ii. 1991

iii. 2001

1594.6

2176.1

2909.4

279.1

462.6

618.3

17.5

21.3

21.3

2

Tamil Nadu

i. 1981

ii. 1991

iii. 2001

159.5

190.8

233.1

26.8

35.7

43.6

16.8

18.7

18.7

Source:-Compendium of Environment Statistics, 2001

It may be inferred from the data that Tamil Nadu housed 8 per cent of the

urban population in India in the year 2001. During the same period 7.1 per

cent of the total slum population in urban India lived in Tamil Nadu. (Total

slum population in India was 21.3 per cent).

Setting and Respondents

Slum Population in Chennai Urban

Source: Compendium of Environment Statistics, 2001

Growth Rates (Per cent)

Chennai Urban Area 1981

No. Years

1. 1981-91

2. 1991-2001

3. 1981-2001


According to Census 2001

Chennai Corporation Area (CCA).

in Chennai city is 1473 of which 1231 are classified as “developed slums”

0

5

10

15

20

13.8

1981

Slum Population in Chennai Urban Area: 1981 – 2001


(Per cent) of Urban Slum Population in Tamil Nadu and

Chennai Urban Area 1981-2001

Tamil Nadu Chennai UA

33.21 10.87

22.13 28.10

62.69 42.03

Source: Compendium of Environment Statistics, 2001.

2001, there are 8.2 lakh slum households in the

Chennai Corporation Area (CCA). The total number of “recognized” slums


15.3

19.6

1991 2001

113

of Urban Slum Population in Tamil Nadu and

Chennai UA

there are 8.2 lakh slum households in the

The total number of “recognized” slums


114 Chapter IV

and 242 slums in CCA with an additional 202 slums in the proposed CMA

(Chennai Metropolitan Area)are classified as “underdeveloped” (PUCL,

2010).

A survey entitled “Identification of Environmental Infrastructure

Requirement of Slums in Chennai Metropolitan Area” (PUCL, 2010) under

the World Bank funded Tamil Nadu Urban Development Project (TNUDP

II) reports that of the 242 slums within the CCA, 122 slums (41,683

families) were classified under ‘Objectionable Slums’ and 120 slums

(30157 families) as ‘unobjectionable slums’. The slum families living in

objectionable slums (on river margins, canals, road margins and seashore)

lived on lands which are required for public purposes. TNSCB claims that,

“the areas occupied by them are to be retrieved and handed over to the land

owning department to implement programmes like road widening, de

silting, and strengthening of bunds. Out of the 122 ‘objectionable slums,’

33 slums (5425 families) were found along the road margins, 6 slums (2309

families) along the railway margins, 73 slums (29144 families) along

waterways and 10 (4805 families) along the seashore(Indian Express,2009).

TNSCB also estimates that there are about 35,251 families living in

unobjectionable areas and 6150 families living in slum conditions in the

encroached parts of the tenement areas which are reserved for parks and

public purposes (TNSCB, PWD, 2000).

“In the past, mushrooming of slums was politically sanctioned to promote

vote banks among the slum dwellers (Mary, 2009). However, today in its

attempt to transform the Chennai as a world class city, the same

Government now brands its residents ‘encroachers’ and unauthorised

occupants”. “Boasting of its rational thinking, the political parties have

smoothly embraced market forces without any major protest and resistance


from the masses (Adaikalam, 2010). The poor continue to be the worst

targets of these developmental projects as they are also considered to be

potential law breakers. Though these people migrated to the city with a

hope for better quality of life, they continue to be at the receiving end of

various eviction drives in the recent past and is non- committal with respect

to the holistic rehabilitation for the resettled communities”.

The Government of Tamil Nadu has vested responsibility of strengthening

and creating infrastructural facilities for the urban and sub-urban areas of

the city to the Chennai Metropolitan Development Agency (CMDA), a

statutory bureaucratic body under the Government of Tamil Nadu. CMDA's

mandate is to plan, regulate and approve building construction and

infrastructure for Chennai Metropolitan area. Complementing the work of

the CMDA are the Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board (TNSCB) and the

Public Works Department (PWD). The TNSCB, a pioneer institution for

development and rehabilitation of urban slums was set up in 1970 for the

clearance and improvement of urban slum areas in Tamil Nadu. It has been

implementing various housing, slum improvement and rehabilitation and

resettlement schemes to ameliorate the living conditions of the slum

dwellers in Tamil Nadu by

1. In situ Development - whereby the basic infrastructure/amenities in

slums like water supply, road and sanitation facilities are made

available on site.

2. In situ Reconstruction - the dwelling units (multi-storied tenements)

are constructed at the same location without any relocation of

inhabitants.

116 Chapter IV

3. Rehabilitation and Resettlement - provision of houses at alternative

locations along with infrastructure, livelihood programmes with a

holistic approach.

As the city of Chennai is growing at a rapid pace, there is a demand for

integration of past developments with the future requirements and slum

clearance and relocation of slum dwellers is justified by the concerned

authorities. The issue of tackling the city’s slum problem has a chequered

history (The Hindu, 2009).Policies guiding slum clearance are listed in the

Tamil Nadu Slum (Clearance and Improvement) Act of 1971.The Act

directs agencies to provide notice period to the evictees and immediate

resettlement and rehabilitation measures for the welfare of those evicted.

However, eviction without adequate rehabilitation and resettlement plans

has been the consistent position of all Government agencies-the CMDA,

Chennai Corporation, TNSCB and the PWD. Due to non- availability of

land, these agencies justify providing houses at alternative locations far

from the city. Though it is emphasised that the houses constructed at

alternative sites are of ‘holistic nature’, reality and lived experiences of the

people indicate gross violation of all these claims.

It is estimated that around 36,276 families (more than 1.8 lakh slum

dwellers) face eviction threats under 6 projects. Estimates of people

affected include eviction of families due to the Chennai Port to

Maduravoyal Project (11,193 families), the Buckingham Canal Project

(15,354 families), the Cooum River (9,562 families), the Adyar River

(6,624 families) and in the work undertaken at the Mambalam Canal (3,105

families).


PUCL in their Fact Finding Report on eviction and Rehabilitation of Slum

Dwellers in Chennai (2010) comment that “funding for urban development

of projects is managed by the Tamil Nadu Urban Development Fund

(TNUDF) which is engaged in the development of urban infrastructure in

the state of Tamil Nadu and was established under the Indian Trusts Act,

1882, by GoTN, ICICI, HDFC and IL&FS with credit from the World

Bank. TNUDF is the first public-private partnership initiative providing

long term debt for civic infrastructure on a non-guarantee mode, with

contribution from Government of Tamil Nadu and other financial

institutions. TNUDF broadens the scope of the fund to attract private

capital into urban infrastructure and facilitate better performing urban local

bodies to access capital markets. In this context it is noted that it is the

private-public entities that are involved in making all the decisions with

regard to the ‘development of the city’ including preparation of the

feasibility study and the environmental and social impact study of the

project, indicating that the state is pro- rich and has no qualms in violating

rights of the poor”.

Kannagi Nagar, Okkiyum Thoraipakkam

Beginning in the 2000, the Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board began

construction of houses in a phased manner under several schemes in

Kannagi Nagar, a resettlement site 25 km away from the city. Located on

the IT corridor on Old Mahabalipuram Road, one of the first six lane roads

in Chennai, now known as Rajiv Gandhi Salai, this area lies on the eastern

banks of the Pallikaranai marsh designated as reserve forest area and is one

of the few remaining significant natural ecosystems within Chennai. There

has been substantial growth in this area over the past decade, serving as

a residential and commercial hub for suburbs in the south of Chennai.

118 Chapter IV

However, this area has pollution related problems because a portion of

the Pallikaranai marsh was converted into a garbage dump yard. A number

of information technology companies are based in this area. However,

Kannagi Nagar in the vicinity is bereft of any facilities.

Details on House Construction in Kannagi Nagar- 2000 onwards

• Year 2000 -3000 houses constructed under the Flood Alleviation

Programme

• Tenth Finance Commission –Programme 6500 Houses

• Year 2002-2003 –1620 Tenements Constructed -Eleventh Finance

Commission –Special Problem Grant

• Year 2004-2005 –3618 houses under the Chennai Metropolitan

Area Infrastructure Development Plan

• Year 2005 –1271 Tenements for Seashore Fishermen/Slums

affected by Tsunami

Total Number of Houses Constructed in Kannagi Nagar: 15,656 (2010)

Total Number of Occupied Houses in Kannagi Nagar: 14500 (2010)

Total Number of Houses yet to be constructed in Kannagi Nagar: 8,048

(temporarily stopped due to a court case)

People from Adayar, Taramani, Slaughterpuram, Parrys (Opposite Reserve

Bank), Palavakkam, hutments near Buckingham Canal (Mylapore, Natttan

Kuppam, Chetpet), MTRS railway areas, Teynampet, Doming Kuppam and

those affected by the tsunami were resettled in Kannagi Nagar. People from

49 locations (The New Indian Express, 2009) were relocated to Kannagi

Nagar.


Unlike several areas in the city that have developed over the years, the

conditions in Kannagi Nagar have remained the way they are for the past

10 years. There is limited data on this area and its residents. In the petition

filed under the Right to Information Act 2005 requesting for population

data of the number of families, men, women and children, the Tamil Nadu

Slum Clearance Board requested the petitioner to get the information from

the Survey and Settlement Department of Tamil Nadu indicating that the

Tamil Nadu Slum Clearance Board does not have information about the

demographic indicators of these sites, as revealed by the RTI petition.

The researcher notes that the only comprehensive data on this resettlement

site was from the independent survey undertaken by the PUCL Fact

Finding Team on Forced Eviction and Rehabilitation of Slum Dwellers in

Chennai(2010). Population details recorded in their report is obtained by

survey and field verification. Data obtained by them from the local

Panchayat Office Assistant of Okkiyum Thoraipakkam Panchayat Office

highlights that the total population residing in Kannagi Nagar settlement is

76,750 (as per Panchayat records, 2010). Details in the report include:

Housing/Demographic Details: As of April 2010, the report states there are

15,656 houses constructed of which 14,500 have been allotted to people. In

the year 2009, TNSCB had plans for construction of an additional 8,048

houses, which had to be temporarily stalled due to a court case. TNSCB in

response to a Right to Information (RTI) petition dated 15 March 2010

stated that there are no plans for constructing additional houses at the site.

This settlement in the outskirts of the city has been considered as a

benchmark model for replication time and time again (The Hindu, 2002). In

the year 2002 Okkiyum Thoraipakkam Scheme (Kannagi Nagar

120 Chapter IV

Settlement) was awarded the third prize in the All-India Low Cost Housing

Competition on Squatter Settlement. Chairman and Managing Director of

Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) stated that “The

TNSCB model was selected for the scale of its effort, a fairly good

people’s participation and convergence of Government department and

NGOs… Importantly, it is a solution that can be replicated in terms of cost

and benefits for the people and the government.”

Despite the fact that this model was highly appreciated, the distance from

the city and lack of adequate facilities have inconvenienced residents in

several ways. Two of the protests by the residents were widely reported in

the newspapers. The angry residents initiated a post card campaign- over

20,000 postcards were addressed to the Minister for Slum Clearance and

Accommodation Control demanding(The New Indian Express, 2008)

provision of basic amenities which were not provided to them even after

eight years of living in the resettlement area.

Newspapers all across Tamil Nadu reported the an appeal sent by hundreds

of children from Jyothiammal Nagar (slum located in Choolaimedu)

standing on the remnants of their razed homes appealing to the Chief

Minister of Tamil Nadu not to evict them in the mid academic year and end

the eviction drives forcing them to move to far off places (The New Indian

Express, 2009). News reports described that the education of the children

was affected due to the constant fear of eviction and that children have

been forced to drop out of schools because of the distance.


Government Higher Secondary School, Kannagi Nagar

District Code-61, School Code-0159

Government Higher Secondary School, Kannagi Nagar was established on

24.10.2004 (four years after establishment of the resettlement area). The

school was upgraded to Higher Secondary on 24.04 2009. The total

strength of the school was 883(at the time of data collection).Though

school records reported this number; absenteeism in all classes is high. The

assistants cooking meals at the school stated that meals for only about 300

children was cooked every day. Children enrolled at the school belonged

predominantly to the Scheduled Caste Community (47.6percent), Most

Backward Caste (17.5percent), Backward Caste (23.2 percent) and other

caste (0.1percent).

There were only 19 teachers (only twelve Government sanctioned posts,

others supported by NGOs and the Parents and Teachers Association). It

needs to be noted that the school does not have a language (Tamil teacher,

inspite of being a Tamil medium school!), drawing, life oriented education,

physical education teacher. The class teachers are expected to follow up

activities of children during these hours.

The school did not have a compound wall (construction of the same

commenced after data collection). As the school did not have a compound

wall, the open space was transformed to a den for anti- social activities.

The compound is strewn with glass bottles and litter which adds additional

burden on the children to clear up on the morning of the following day. The

compound was also shared by stray dogs, cows, goat and fowl. As the

school is housed in the centre of a residential area, surrounded by

122 Chapter IV

tenements, children are disturbed and distracted by domestic activities and

fights, a common feature in the area.

The classrooms have the bare minimum- tables and benches, blackboard, a

chair for the teacher (anything beyond is taken home by the children,

including the fuse in the school!). The room accommodates many more

children than its capacity. Due to inadequate space, children squat on the

floors. The school does not have an attender or sweeper; the children clean

their classrooms and the compound. There are two toilets for students and

one for the teachers. A classroom doubles up as a Laboratory (with bare

equipment) for the students of the Higher Secondary. Mid- day meals are

cooked in the open. The cooks have to carry pots of water and struggle to

cook in the open. They are paid a meagre amount and eagerly await better

monetary benefits

The school is the only one of the kind in the area. The efforts of the Head

Mistress and teachers are noteworthy. In the first batch of twelfth standard

students who took the board exam in 2011, only 35 percent was the pass

percentage, which increased to73 percent in 2012 and 83 percent in 2013.

Schools attended by children outside Kannagi Nagar

Data on schools attended by children outside Kannagi Nagar is not

available. Schools outside Kannagi Nagar were uncooperative in providing

data pertaining children from Kannagi Nagar enrolled in their school. The

researcher was able to establish contact and interview children attending

the schools listed.


S.No Schools attended by respondents outside Kannagi Nagar

1. Govt. Higher Secondary School, Thoraipakkam

2. Lazarus Middle School, Pattinambakkam

3. St. Anthony’s Girls Higher Secondary School, Pattinambakkam

4. Lady Sivasamy Girls Higher Secondary School, Mylapore

5. Olcott Memorial School, Besant Nagar

6. Lady Rani Meyymmai Higher Secondary School, Gandhi Nagar

7. Government Higher Secondary School, Shollinganallur

8. Government Higher Secondary School, Velachery

9. Padma Adarsh Higher Secondary School, Kelambakkam

10. Kumaraja Muthiah School,Adayar

11. Avvai Home, Adayar

12. Lady Rani Meyymmai Higher Secondary School, Mandevali

13. Anderson Rajagopal Girls Higher Secondary School, Parry’s Corner

14. YMCA Boy’s Town, Parry’s Corner

15 CNDT Boys Higher Secondary School, T. Nagar

16 Rapheal’s School, Santhome

17. Government Higher Secondary School, Karapakkam

18 Government School, Medavakkam

124 Chapter IV

The Government and Private schools attended by children are about 3-20

kilometres away from Kannagi Nagar. Reasons for not enrolling in the

school at Kannagi Nagar include the school is not an English medium

school, lacks adequate infrastructure, qualified teachers. Children also

reported they preferred studying in schools outside as they had been studying

there long, school provided scholarships (especially to those affected by the

tsunami) and also as they wanted to be away from Kannagi Nagar.

RESPONDENTS

In-depth Interviews

Thirty four in depth interviews were conducted with children including,

those who have dropped out of school, children enrolled at the Alternate

Education Centre, children irregular to school, children in school and

children with special needs at the CBR Centre. Presented are summary of

fifteen in depth interviews which aid as a prelude to the analysis of research.

The interviews provide glimpse on the changes and challenges faced by

children due to internal displacement. Attempts were made to intervene

suitably with each of the respondents.


I INDRANI (name changed)

Age - 17 years Education - Standard IX, school dropout, physically challenged Marital Status - Married, one child aged 6 months Impact of Event - Moderate stress Self Esteem Score - 12

Indrani hails from a very poor family. Displaced to Kannagi Nagar after a

massive eviction drive, her family has struggled to re-establish themselves.

Her parents struggled to make ends meet and the children were neglected as

a result. During this challenge, her father, an alcoholic had been in and out of

hospital. Her mother, a petty shop owner had to shoulder responsibilities of

the household. The only steady source of financial support was the disability

allowance of Rs. 500 which her mentally challenged younger sister received.

As needs of the younger daughter were met by an NGO (lunch, medical aid,

clothes), the parents needed to fend for themselves. This was however short-

lived when their daughter Indrani’s domestic problems changed their lives.

Indrani, their first born was a student of the Government Higher Secondary

School, Kannagi Nagar. As a student, she was not interested in her studies

and failed in all the examinations. Her mild handicap was always a source of

concern to her. As a student, Indrani was involved in a brief relationship with

a boy in her neighbourhood. She later was involved in another relationship

with an older person, an auto driver who resided in the city who made trips

to Kannagi Nagar. In her 9th grade, much against the wishes of her parents,

she got married and left her home to live in the city.

Indrani’s life changed soon after. The couple lived in a slum in the city. Due

to her inability to manage household matters, her husband’s unmarried older

sister moved into their home. Early in marriage, Indrani felt her husband did

not live up to the promises made. He never spent time or lavished on her the

attention he did before they got married.

Within months of marriage Indrani became pregnant. She had to be rushed

in for an emergency caesarean section as high blood pressure was a threat

to her life and to that of the child. Her parents had to pledge the little

126 Chapter IV

savings they had and cared for her through this difficult time. There was

little support for Indrani from her husband as he spent time in the company

of his friends, drinking. As a young mother, Indrani had become used to

physical violence at home as she went back to live in her husband’s house.

As the torture was unbearable, she returned with her child to her parents'

home and awaits a change in her husband’s behavior. She hopes he will

soon come to take them back.

Indrani has regrets about entering marriage early but she says there is no

point regretting the past. As she is married now, she has accepted her

situation and has accepted violence as part of married life! Her consolation

remains…“he loves our child” and is hopeful that after their second child

(which she is planning in a time of two years) was born, he would realize his

responsibilities and settle down to family life.

Indrani’s family loathes her husband and her mother keeps taunting her

saying ‘he is useless and the biggest mistake she made was to marry him’.

As they are the only support to her, she silently bears all the humiliation.

Indrani regrets having discontinued school. On continuing her studies in

correspondence mode, she shared she would never be permitted as her

husband expected her to look after him and the child. In her mother’s house,

she remains confined in the four walls. As her mother’s home is close to the

school, she avoids coming outdoors to save herself the embarrassment of

meeting her fellow classmates, who she feels will laugh at her.

Even in her mother’s house, Indrani is not at peace. Her husband often visits

but every visit only adds to misery. The family is embarrassed by his

behaviour which makes them the laughing stock of the neighbourhood. On

one visit, under the influence of alcohol he physically assaulted not only

Indrani but her younger sister as well. Her parents in a rage of anger

registered a police case against him. The family has some respite as her

husband has not come back. While a sense of outward peace prevails, her

parents are concerned about how they will support their daughter and child

and Indrani is unsure of what the future holds for her!


II SWAMY (name changed) Age - 15 years Education - Standard V, school dropout, breadwinner of family Impact of Event - Moderate Stress Self Esteem Score - 14

Swamy was about five years old when he witnessed his father murder his

mother. His father went to serve a seven year jail term. He was forced to live

with his grandmother. Unable to care for the boy, she admitted him at the

YMCA Boy’s Town Home, Parrys Corner, Chennai, while she cared for his

older sister at home. As their home was razed down for construction of a

flyover they lost most of what they possessed. Their only respite was

allocation of a house in Kannagi Nagar. Displacement changed life for the

three members of Swamy’s family. A daily wage earner, the grandmother

found it difficult to travel far to work. She continued to do odd jobs but the

income was never sufficient to meet the needs of her young granddaughter and

herself. By then the granddaughter, four years older to Swamy dropped out

of school and took care of domestic needs- cooking, cleaning and fetching

water. On his visits home on holidays, Swamy kept hearing of the

grandmothers woes of her inability to find regular work and make ends meet.

As the neighbourhood had many children pursuing work, finding work with

their help was not difficult. He made a decision to start working and that was

the last he saw of his school.

At the age of ten Swamy took up odd jobs which helped meet his daily needs.

As he was not satisfied with his earnings he joined the company of local boys

and began stealing. Being a crime prone area he was mentored by others and

continued without being caught …..this was a matter of great pride to him!

Due to his daring acts, he became extremely popular among his peers. The

boys in his company looked up to him as he could threaten and exhort money

easily. He is presently one of the most feared ‘rowdies’ around!

The neighbourhood breathed a sigh of relief as Swamy and many of his friends

found work in the city and are away for months. They return back occasionally

during the month. Swamy worked at a place which engaged children for

moulding statues. There he not only earned wages for work done but was

128 Chapter IV

provided three meals a day, tea during breaks, shelter and allowances during

festivals. With this regular source of money flow to the house, the household

needs were met. His aged grandmother was relieved.

All was well till his father served his prison term and returned back to the

family. The steady flow of money which his son provided for the home is used

to procure alcohol. The father stayed at home the whole day, drinking and

viling away his time. Tired of the violence at home, Swamy’s sister also

decided to move out of the confines of the house to earn a living. Lured by the

elements in area she joined a drama company .As her needs were met by the

employer, she too returned home only once in a while. Swamy continued to

provide for household needs and never spoke ill of his father in any of the

interviews. Though he refrained from speaking of his mother, his eyes always

swelled up with tears on recollections of her. When coaxed into readmitting

himself to school, he communicated an eagerness to do so, but his

responsibility to provide for his family prevented him from doing so.

Among his peers, Swamy is a ‘hero’. While he handed over all that he earned to his grandmother, she always gave him an amount of Rs. 50/-, which he could use as he pleased. He spent the amount on food and smoke. He shared that though he had tasted alcohol, he never took a fancy to it. He lavished gifts on his friends and even managed to save up a small amount with which he bought a small gold pendant for himself which he proudly wears. He shared that he liked to hang around the school with his friends hoping to get the attention of girls. Though he was party to all that his friends did to harass the female students, he was never in a relationship like them nor had an inclination for the same.

In February 2011, Swamy reported that his sister got married. The family had no news of the marriage. Swamy was disturbed and concerned about her well- being. He visited her and came back happy that she was doing well. Within a months’ time his sister conceived and was back in his house. He has to work harder as there are additional expenses. Swamy faced challenges at his workplace. He no longer enjoyed the favour of his employer and appeared to be dissatisfied with work. Swamy discontinued work and is on the lookout for other openings. While that happens, Swamy does odd jobs to meet the needs of his family and his need for survival. Going back to school, he says would never happen for him!


III RAM (name changed) Age - 13 years Education - Standard III, school dropout Impact of Event - Severe stress Self-esteem score - 8

Thirteen year old Ram dropped out of school when he was in the 3rd standard. His mother was murdered under mysterious circumstances. He recollects someone having offered her a poisoned drink. Tragedy followed one after the other. Their house was gutted following a fire that broke out. Ram refused to accept that the fire was accidental and claims that someone had done it deliberately. Life thereafter changed Ram. Ram’s father remarried stating that there would be someone to look after Ram, but the situation only became worse. His step mother had problems having him as a part of the household. Though allotted a house in Kannagi Nagar, his father continued to live in the city. Ram was sent to Kannagi Nagar to be looked after by his father’s brother and his family. That was the last time he attended school. Ram shared the pain of his father’s remarriage and limited meetings with him. As his cousin’s in the uncle’s family are grown up and had moved out of their home, Ram is the only child in the house. He was never enrolled in the school at Kannagi Nagar.

A sweeper, Ram’s aunt begins her day clearing garbage. Ram assists her in her work. He walks several kilometers picking up rags, which he sells. The money is handed over to his aunt who provides him food. He shares responsibilities on the domestic front. His day begins early, fetching water. He does all the shopping and runs errands. Towards the afternoon, Ram is often spotted near the school as all his friends are there. Extremely popular among his peers, Ram yearns for parental love and is shattered as his father has neglected him. He spends his leisure time on the street. He looks dirty and wears torn clothes. Bathing and grooming happens only if the family goes for an outing.

His friends were very keen that he joins them in school. He looked forward to the same. However, his aunt’s family had other plans for him ….

(An attempt was made to enroll Ram in school. Frequent visits to the house and meeting with his foster family yielded no results. His aunt though outwardly welcoming sensed the researcher’s frequent visits would force her to admit the child in school. Ram was sent away to a relative’s house so that they could not be pressurized to admit the child in school.)

130 Chapter IV

IV NAINA (name changed) Age - 15 years Education - Standard V, school dropout , enrolled at AE Centre Impact of Event - Moderate Stress Self esteem score- 11

“……..I want to go back to Pudupet. My father died when I was very young but

my mother worked hard to feed my three brothers and me. Our house was

destroyed in a fire and the remains were brought down by a bulldozer. As we

had no other place to go for shelter we had to stay on the streets for nearly a

week. Very few of our belongings could be salvaged. Thereafter, a few officials

provided us food and gave us tokens for house allotment at Kannagi Nagar. We

were scared to move there as we had heard so many ‘bad’ things about the

place. My mother found it increasingly difficult to travel far for work and there

was little food for us to eat. She found it very difficult to take care of the family

with her meager earnings. My brothers could not get enrolled in the local school

and were forced to drop out and find work outside Kannagi Nagar.

All this happened a month away prior to the school final exams. After moving

I had irregular attendance in school as I was unaccustomed to travelling alone

by bus for long distances and was often scared to do so. I did however

complete my exams but the school was unwilling to issue me a transfer

certificate and hence could not get enrolled in the local school at Kannagi

Nagar. I thereafter joined St. Lazarus School at Pattinambakkam which was

closer and admitted students without a transfer certificate. I dropped out six

months later as the commute was long, expensive and tiring. My elder brothers

moved out in search of work and gradually distanced they from us barring my

youngest brother who keeps in touch and supports us Rs. 2000/-month.

It has been a struggle moving to Kannagi Nagar. We do not have food to eat

on many days. I feel sad to see my siblings at work and their struggle to earn a

living. I spend all my time doing domestic chores and feel bad seeing children

going to school. I yearn to get back to school. A teacher at the Alternate

Education Centre identified me and advised my mother to send me here so that

I could be integrated back in school after a year. I am at this centre for the past

one year and look forward to joining my friends back in school….”


V ABHISHEK (name changed) Age - 11 years Education - Standard V, school dropout, enrolled at Alternate

Education Centre Impact of Event - Severe stress Self-esteem score - 10

Abhishek and his family lived near the sea. Life then was carefree and enjoyable. Recollecting his earlier days he says, “all the children in the neighbourhood walked to school and played together on the beach in the evening”. His father would bring home fresh catch of fish which they relished with rice. There was never shortage of food and their needs were all met. Occasionally as a family they went to the theatre as well!

The tsunami of 2004, cost the family dearly. They lost their house, nets and for his father, livelihood. The officials did not let them put up their houses in the same area stating safety concerns. They were forced to move to Kannagi Nagar. Moving to Kannagi Nagar made things worse for the family as his father a fisherman, could not find work and his mother a domestic worker struggled commuting to the city every day. His father, he said made no attempt to seek alternate options and spent his time drinking. Violence at home increased. His father fell ill and they could not afford treatment. He did not live long after moving to Kannagi Nagar.

After his father’s demise, his mother he said, wanted to marry another man in the neighbourhood. She spent all her spare time in his company. Due to his protests against their relationship, she joined him in a school with hostel facility outside Kannagi Nagar. He stayed there for a few days. He missed his mother and sister so much that he ran away and got back home.

The coordinator of the Alternate Education Centre spotted him and encouraged his mother to enroll him at the Centre. He expressed a desire to be enrolled back at his school in Pattinambakkam. Having witnessed violence in his own home and in those of all children, he wants to join the police force and put all those who drink behind bars!

At the Centre, he is vocal, happy to be with other children and looks forward to being back in school. He is popular among his peers. His leisure includes playing marbles which provides him up to Rs. 15 a day. He loves his sister and fondly spoke about her.

132 Chapter IV

VI AAKRITI (name changed) Age - 17 years Education - Standard IX, school dropout, married, mother Impact of Event - Mild Self Esteem Score - 10

Aakriti is a seventeen year old girl. On moving to Kannagi Nagar, she refused to

enroll in the school in the resettlement area. Travelling to school outside the

resettlement, she was befriended by a ‘rowdy’ in the area. Initially, she tried to

ignore his advances but as it became a daily affair the two became friends. Aakirti

used to leave for school in the morning but would detour elsewhere with the boy.

Her friend, an auto driver, a dropout himself, grew up in a disturbed home

environment. Aakriti was well aware of his family background -he had lost his

father early, has a brother serving a sentence in prison for murder, his helpless

young wife, a school dropout herself struggles caring for a baby on her own,

a dependent handicapped sister and a mother who struggles to support her

family. She was lured into the relationship with all the attention he showered

upon her. The two would spend time together in parks, beach and in the auto.

She began losing interest in studies. At school she was alone withoutcompany of

friends. She became very irregular to school and was very uncomfortable being

there. The school authorities sent messages through her asking her parents to

come to school to discuss their child’s progress. Aakriti never carried these

messages to her parents and would find excuses to get away. When they

pressed, she decided to drop out but did not inform her parents about the same.

Aakriti’s parents were shattered when they heard the news that their daughter

studying in the ninth standard had run away. It was only then that the parents

went to school to enquire about her whereabouts. They were shocked to know

that the school had been trying to fix a meeting with them for long. There was

no news of the two for a few days. They received communication from her over

the phone, consenting to return only on condition that they will agree to get her

married to the boy. The parents were left with no option but to consent to their

marriage which was conducted at the community temple. Aged seventeen years

she delivered a baby and the couple are supported by her parents.

Completing her education is the last thing on her mind. She has resigned herself

to her duties and responsibilities as a wife and a mother.


VII PAWAN (name changed) Age - 17 years Education - Standard XII, not permitted to continue studies Impact of Event - Mild stress Self Esteem Score - 16

Seventeen year old Pawan is a student at a nearby school. His house was

demolished and they had to wait long to be allotted a house in Kannagi

Nagar. His family lived with a relative till house allotment. Accommodating

a family of five was difficult but there was no other option. Though they

were provided a roof over their head at Kannagi Nagar, there were many

problems. His parents had to explore livelihood options and on many days,

there was no work and food. The family battled poverty on a day to day

basis. During the demolition and transit there were unexpected expenses

which resulted in the family borrowing money. He felt he will need to work

and earn to pay off.

Though both parents work to earn a living, by the end of the month there is

no food and the children ate the noon meal obtained at school. Pawan does

not like the school at Kannagi Nagar and is happy going to the Government

School at Thoraipakkam. He feels it is best to be away from the area which is

notorious for crime. Being away for a short time during the day provided him

time and space to concentrate on his study.

Though a good student, he lamented that there is no peace at home or within.

In addition to problems at home he has a greater problem which makes him

restless and disturbed all the time. He feels that he is “trapped inside a man’s

body, but is destined to be a woman”. He has shared his concerns with his

parents and sisters who initially laughed about it. Though his family is aware

of his feelings, they feel that he will grow out of these thoughts and feelings.

Discussion on this issue was never encouraged at home. As there are many

transgender in the area, he has approached them and they gladly consented to

welcome him to their fold. He has many friends in the local Aravani

Association and has had opportunities to meet the office bearers at the

134 Chapter IV

Aravanigal Welfare Board. However, he is delaying his decision to join them

for fear that his family will be ostracised and that no one will marry his

younger sister. Because of his friendship with transgendered persons in the

locality, he faces discrimination. Though he is determined to be part of them,

he expresses a desire to pursue his education and become a teacher.

Pawan was a good student and had participated in several competitions and

won many prizes. He is interested in Tamil literature and his aim in life is to

become a Lecturer in Tamil. Pawan was awaiting his standard XII

examinations results when news spread in the community that he went

missing. A case of missing person was registered at the local police station.

The parents were up in arms against the members of local Aravani group

accusing them of kidnapping their son. They challenged one of them that if

their son did not return, they would put him behind bars. Though he reported

of not knowing Pawan’s whereabouts this transgendered person for the fear

of going to prison, traced Pawan and got him back. His parents have since

then restricted his movements and have kept him locked at home. He is not

permitted to join college and continue his education ….an end to his long

cherished dream of being the first in the family to enroll for higher

education.


VIII MANOHAR (name changed) Age - 15years Education - Standard VII, irregular to school Impact of Event - Moderate stress Self Esteem score - 10

“….Even though we had financial difficulties my parents and I lived happily

before we were forced to move here. With all our savings spent on relocating

and establishing a household at Kannagi Nagar, it seems as if we could never

be happy again. On moving here I was regular to school. I used to get good

marks. My mother encouraged me to study well.

After moving here, my mother fell sick. She was suffering from tuberculosis.

We never saw the urgency in getting her treatment and her condition

worsened every day. There are no hospitals here where treatment could be

availed free of cost and hence we never thought of getting her medical help.

Due to pressing needs at home to make ends meet, my father could not miss

even one day of work. I had to stay back home to take care of my mother.

Our relatives live in the city and as this place is far away they found it

difficult to help. I had to cook, clean, fetch water and wash clothes. Till my

mother was able, she ensured I went to school. I passed all my exams and

was studying in standard VII when my mother died. It was a big loss. I miss

her very much .She took good care of me. I never expected she would die.

After my mother’s death, my father and I live on our own.

My father is an auto driver and leaves home early and returns late in the

night. I look after all the household needs. Initially we used to buy food from

a nearby eatery and my father cooked on Sundays, his day off from work.

Now, I do that too so that he can have his meal when he gets home tired

.Water supply is not regular and on most days the mornings are spent waiting

to fetch water. I used to get late for school and hence would spend the day at

home. I became irregular and went to school only to take my exams. My

teachers used to scold me for my long absences, when I attended school after

long absences. I found it difficult to concentrate and got into bad company. I

136 Chapter IV

was always distracted. I tried to get the attention of others in wrong

ways. The boys ganged up against me and got me into trouble with my

teachers. The girls complained that I used to tease them. I was always

punished and gradually lost interest in my studies.

I have stopped going to school and look around for odd jobs which can earn

me some money. I can do masonry work, painting and repair work. If work

is not available, I spend the day roaming around with others who do not go to

school. These boys are much older to me and I know I am doing wrong

things in their company. I do not have any big ambitions. I want to become a

call taxi driver and earn a living. I miss my mother especially late in the

evening as my father spends his time drinking. He keeps to himself after the

death of my mother. I would like to stay away from home but feel sorry for

my father….”

My friends and teachers in school keep asking me to come to school. I have

lost interest and I have decided that school is not where I want to be…..”


IX LAKHSMAN (name changed) Age - 10 years Education - Standard V, speech impairment, mild

retardation Informant - Mother, teacher, NGO personnel Impact of Event - Not Applicable Self-esteem score - Not Applicable

A ten year old boy, Lakshman has a speech impairment. Hardships in life

have resulted in his family neglecting his special need.

“……we are very poor. I am the bread winner of the family. My husband is

unwell and refuses to take treatment. He drinks all day and is unable to take

care of us. I have three children to look after. Lakshman cannot speak; he is

able to say only a few words, “appa”, “amma”. He can follow instructions

though. We were advised to take him for speech therapy and surgery. I took

him for a few sessions. As there is no place here in Kannagi Nagar, it is

difficult to be regular for therapy. Moreover, as I am the only earning

member, it is expensive and difficult for me to miss work. We were unable to

get the surgery done as there are financial problems in our family due to my

husband’s failing health. Lakshman is older now. As he is unable to speak,

he cannot defend himself and the children hurt him for no fault of his."

-Lakshman’s mother

“……..We spotted Lakshman in his home on one of our community visits.

As there was no one to stay back home to care for him, his mother would

leave him in the house unattended and go for work. He could not go to

regular school as he could not speak. We spoke to his mother and got her to

send the child to the CBR center. We had the doctor evaluate his condition.

Lakshman was diagnosed to have a speech problem. We were happy to have

him. Being the youngest and most active around, he radiated happiness and

138 Chapter IV

the children loved his presence. He was our ‘star’ at all the sports events. By

coming to the center every day, he got to interact with others, got a meal to

eat and remained visibly happy…………”

- Assistant, CBR Centre

“………At the CBR Centre, Lakshman, won the hearts of all.

Lakshman followed instructions and was keen to learn. We provided him

challenging tasks to perform which he did well .We tried to convince the

family for surgery to rectify his speech problem but due to constraints the

family was unable to do so. We were convinced he could be part of regular

school. In the course of the two years he was with us, we prepared him for

transition to school. Lakshman was integrated to main stream education at

Govt. Primary School, Kannagi Nagar last year. We celebrate his joining

school and are proud of him……...”

-Supervisor CBR Centre

“Lakshman is an active and intelligent child. Even though he is unable to

speak, he tries to express and make himself understood. He grasps easily and

is determined to learn. He is blessed with the capacity to memorize and write

well. In the classroom, he is popular among his peers and all children follow

him! I wish his family could raise money for his treatment and I ask for

God’s help that he be given opportunities to further improve and develop”.

-Teacher, Govt. Primary School, Kannagi Nagar


X KISHORE (name changed)

Mentally challenged (mild retardation)

Informant - Grandmother

Impact of Event - Not Applicable

Self-esteem score - Not Applicable

“My daughter lived in the village with her husband and two children, one of

who is mentally challenged. As her husband is also mentally challenged and

incapable of work, she moved to Chennai hoping to earn and provide for her

family. Calamities happened one after the other.

We moved to this area after we were forced to relocate as the Government

was constructing a flyover near our home. My daughter had no other place to

go and hence accompanied us. This area is bad; the security of young girls

and women is always under threat. My daughter entered into an extra

marital relationship and went away leaving her family with me. The children

do not remember their mother and have little contact with their father who

returned to the village.

It has been very difficult providing for the children. As Kishore comes to the

CBR center his needs are taken care of. His brother has been very difficult to

manage. He dropped out of school in standard IX and spends his time in bad

company. He used to demand money and often threatened to leave if we did

not yield to his demands. One day he came home, packed his bags stating a

desire to find employment in the city. We have no news of him. He comes

occasionally but tells us nothing about his whereabouts.

We feel bad for Kishore. His mother abandoned him and his father is

incapable of taking care of him. We hoped his brother would study, earn a

living and support him. That hope will not be realized. We cannot afford to

send him to a special school nor accompany him to one every day. I have a

kidney problem which is getting worse with each passing day. Kishore’s

grandfather is a watchman and is the only earning member. I cannot afford

treatment. The thought that this child will be all alone in this world after I die

haunts me. I will not be able to die in peace. MCDS has been my biggest

support in caring for Kishore”.

140 Chapter IV

XI RITA (name changed) Cerebral Palsy Informant - Mother Impact of Event - Not Applicable Self-esteem score - Not Applicable

“My mother in law keeps taunting me saying that birth of Rita has only brought bad luck to the family. I was admitted to the hospital with labour pains when we got the news that our house was razed down. We were very tense. As all of us were in the hospital, there was no one at home when the incident happened. We lost all we had. I was so anxious and maybe that is why this child is born with disability.

We were allotted a house at Kannagi Nagar. This has been Rita’s home since she was born. I had no time to rest and recuperate. In addition to financial difficulties, being in an unfamiliar environment and braving the hardships was so difficult. Due to lack of water, I had to carry pots of water and walk long distances. As there were no hospitals nearby and hence we could not provide Rita any medical care after she was born. I am not educated and was not able to identify her disability early. We lost a lot of time. We were shattered to hear that she was disabled when a doctor in a city hospital explained her condition to us. My life has revolved only around her. She has no bladder and bowel control and is incapable of taking care of herself . We were advised to join her in a special school and that regular physiotherapy would be beneficial. We could not afford food, how could we take her to the city every day. The Government should open centres for the differently abled so that we don’t need to travel far to access these facilities.

The staff here used to regularly visit Rita at home and convinced me that I should enroll her at the CBR centre. We were regular till I had to undergo a surgery. She was unable to attend the Centre for three months. Doctors had advised me not to carry weights but I had no choice; if she had to attend the centre, I had to carry her.

I am worried about her future. Like all mothers I would like to see her go to school. We need to save up for her future. With the income of my husband who is an auto driver we can barely make ends meet. I am scared to leave Rita in the care of anyone in this area and go for work. I am so troubled, nothing can be done…. it is my fate!”


XII KUMARI (name changed)

Mentally challenged, speech impairment, attending CBR Centre

Informant - Mother

Impact of Event - Not Applicable

Self esteem score - Not Applicable

Kumari’s family moved to Kannagi Nagar after their house in Nandanam

was razed down for construction of a multistoried building. “I will never

vote for any of these politicians. Our houses were deliberately set on fire as

we had resisted their order to vacate the area. We lost everything. We did not

have even a spare set of clothes to wear. We stayed with a relative for three

months. In comparison to others, because we have a disabled daughter, they

allotted us a house in Kannagi Nagar soon after.

This area is not safe. I cannot go for work for fear of safety of a young girl.

Because she is mentally challenged, she will not be able to defend herself.

Debts were so much that we could not meet the needs of three children.

While one of my sons discontinued school to go for work, I gave up my

second son to a relative who expressed willingness to care for him. I have

not been able to provide for my children. Safety and welfare of this child is

my only concern now.

Kumari likes to come to the CBR Centre and enjoys interacting with the staff

and children. I want to set up a shop for her and hope she will get married

someday.

The Government had treated us badly. They have given us houses with no

facilities. We have only known hardship after moving here. There needs to

be special schools, speech therapy centres, and vocational training centres for

the disabled. They also have a right to live a life of dignity”.

142 Chapter IV

XIII RAJA (name changed)

Mentally Challenged

Informant- Staff at the CBR centre, neighbour

Raja is the youngest of four children. The staff at the center report that the

child is neglected at home and was enrolled very late at the centre. Raja’s

mother had tried terminating the pregnancy. She believes it is because of

regular intake of the pills that the child was born with a mental handicap.

The child’s home environment is disturbed. A neighbour shared that two of

his older siblings died under mysterious circumstances –‘due to weight loss’.

The father is alcoholic and after the death of these children, the mother is

often found drinking. As both parents find it difficult to provide for the

family, Raja’s older brother dropped out of school to provide for the family.

Raja’s presence at the CBR centre is not very comforting to the other

children as he is aggressive and uses abusive language. The staff at the centre

feels the need for more parental involvement for their efforts and

intervention to be effective. The child is not very regular and his mother not

very interactive. It is his school going sister who cares for him and brings

him to the centre.


XIV AMITAB (name changed) Age - 15 years Education - Standard X, student in school outside Kannagi

Nagar Impact of Event - Moderate stress Self-esteem score - 14

“…..My parents, sister and I used to live by the sea. My parents had a shop

near the hamlet where they used to collect and sell old newspapers. We

would walk to school. In the evenings we would play together. My mother

would come back home while my father stayed back late to finish work. As

my father used to drink, there were fights at home but we lived happily.

I can still recall the memories of the Tsunami. I saw the waves. The waves

washed away our home and we could only salvage some of our things. As

school was closed for vacation, it was a shelter for many of us. We were safe

inside unlike many of the other families who had to stay on the road.

Thereafter, we stayed with our relatives for a few days.

The Government issued us a token and we got a house in Kannagi

Nagar. We had so many difficulties and settling down was not easy. My

mother stopped going to work as it was expensive to travel. My sister and I

were not used to travelling in buses and found it difficult to commute to

school. We attended the Government Higher Secondary School in Kannagi

Nagar for a day. There were too many children in a class and the teaching

not good. The teachers made us clean the classroom and campus! We have

been students of this school for long and prefer changing two buses and

coming here to study. We are also happy to be away from Kannagi Nagar

during the day. The children in Kannagi Nagar are ‘rowdies’ so we keep

away from them. On our return in the evening, we do not go to play with the

children there, we keep to ourselves.

144 Chapter IV

My father became alcoholic and fights between my parents increased

manifold after moving to Kannagi Nagar. My mother figured that my father

was in a relationship with another lady who lived near our shop. My father

started living with her and since then his visits home were infrequent and one

day he walked out of the house. We did not hear from our father for a long

time.

My mother had to take up work as a domestic worker after my father left

home. It was very difficult and we felt helpless. One day the unexpected

happened. My father returned. He had remarried and brought with him his

young wife and a three month old baby. Now we all live together. While

both my parents go to work during the day, my father’s second wife takes

care of the domestic needs. My father continues to drink and beats both my

mother and his second wife. It is very difficult to concentrate and study.

Sometimes I am so angry that I go fight with others at school. I have also got

suspended from school for that. My sister and I like to play and take care of

the baby. We are sad but have accepted the situation. We forget all our

problems when at school. Our teachers understand all our problems and help

us. We are happy to come to school…..”


XV SAMYUKTA (name changed) Age - 16years Education - Standard XI, student Impact of Event - Mild stress Self-esteem score - 13

Samyukta, the last born in her family lost her father after she was born. The

family battled poverty and struggled for survival. To add to their woes they

lost all they had. Recollecting the fateful day Samyukta reminisces, “I was

having a bath when I heard my mother screaming asking us to get out in the

open. The flames spread fast and our house was reduced to ashes. We had

nothing much to salvage except for some utensils. There was talk about foul

play and rumours that the fire was intentionally set to make us vacate. They

had been asking us to vacate the area for many months.

As we had nowhere else to go,we stayed on the road for three days. The

nights were scary and my brothers who were young themselves took the

responsibility to stay awake and watch over us during the night. Women

were teased and it was not safe to stay on the road .We were all asked to

leave as the Government was providing us houses in Kannagi Nagar.

Relocating was not easy. New surroundings, no work for my mother and

being far away from relatives made it very difficult for the family. As young

children, my brothers were forced to take up work and the responsibility of

the family. One of my brother’s went to work at a tea shop at the age of 12

and earned a meager sum of Rs. 5/- day. He used to eat what the owner of

the shop provided him and brought home the rest to share with us. My

second brother went to work at a juice shop at the age of 15 years. They did

other odd jobs and substantiated their income. While they discontinued their

studies, they ensured I continue my studies. With the meager earnings of my

brothers we met household needs. There were many days we had no food to

146 Chapter IV

eat. I used to eat lunch at school and bring back some for the others. As they

grew older they started driving auto-rickshaws. By saving money in a chit

fund today one of them is a proud owner of an auto rickshaw. I feel very sad

about the hardships we have gone through in life. My brothers have lost their

childhood and could not complete their studies. I am fortunate I have

brothers who say they have to continue working hard as they have to get me

married. They are old enough to get married. After that we don’t know what

the situation will be.

My mother is keen that I get married as I have completed my XII standard.

Our area is notorious for crime and they are scared about my wellbeing. I

want to study and work and support my family. My family situation may not

permit me.I am indebted to my brothers as they discontinued their studies

and work so that we could all live”.

Summing up

In-depth interviews with children indicate the magnitude of challenges they

faced and continue to endure after being internally displaced. However, their

ability to move on and meet the demands of life thereafter is extremely

noteworthy. Violations of Rights of the Child are evident in interviews with

all respondents. Every child has the right to survival, to development, to

participate in matters concerning his/ her life and be protected. It is

imperative that all efforts be directed to ensuring children their rights and

making the provisions in the UNCRC a reality.


RESPONDENTS -

Demographic Profile

While in depth interviews with school dropouts, children irregular to school,

children in school and differently- abled children provided qualitative inputs,

this section of the chapter provides demographic details of 228 school going

children (statistically analysed).

Table No. 1

Age and Sex of Respondents

Age (years)

Sex

Total Male Female

10.00 Count 2 2 4

% of Total .9% .9% 1.8%

11.00 Count 5 17 22

% of Total 2.2% 7.5% 9.7%

12.00 Count 7 29 36

% of Total 3.1% 12.7% 15.8%

13.00 Count 23 34 57

% of Total 10.1% 14.9% 25%

14.00 Count 18 14 32

% of Total 7.9% 6.1% 14%

15.00 Count 15 24 39

% of Total 6.6% 10.5% 17.1%

16.00 Count 8 14 22

% of Total 3.5% 6.1% 9.6%

17.00 Count 4 12 16

% of Total 1.8% 5.2% 7%

Total Count 82 146 228

% of Total 36.0% 64.0% 100%

Mean Age = 13.69 years

148 Chapter IV

The Census of India defines a child as an individual below the age of 14

years.

Definition of a child in the UNCRC is adopted for research purposes. The

UNCRC defines a child as a person below the age of 18 years, unless

majority is attained earlier under the applicable national law (Article 1).

Keeping in mind the better verbal and written communication of this group

of children and providing scope for participation of more number of children

below the age of 18 years, this definition was adopted.

Data in Table No 1 shows the age and sex of the school going respondents at

the time of interview. Among the sample of 228 school going children , 68

percent were studying at the Government Higher Secondary School and 32

percent in 18 schools outside Kannagi Nagar. Being students of classes VI -

XII, 1.8 percent were 10 years old, 9.7 percent were 11 years old,15.8

percent 12 years old, 25 percent were 13 years old, 14 percent 14 years old,

17.1 percent 15 years old, 9.6 percent 16 years old and 7 percent 17 years

old. Mean age of the respondents is 13.69 years.

Children’s experience and memories of internal displacement often differ

from those of the adults. The focus of children’s accounts is often on the

elements not available from the narrative accounts of reports provided by

grownups. Children’s concerns include their difficulties such as adjusting to

new schools and integrating into a new environment. It is important to obtain

this child perspective as living in camps and resettlement areas for prolonged

periods, pose additional challenges for the young which can have a

significant impact on their identity and later life choices.

In protracted situations of displacement, internally displaced children may

spend their entire childhood in camps or temporary shelters (Machel, 2001).


Many displaced children are unable to attend school because of insecurity,

lack of infrastructure, fees, discrimination and language barriers. Girls’

education is of particular concern, as girls are more likely to drop out of

school. Schools lack infrastructure in IDP camps and lack the capacity to

integrate influxes of displaced or returnee children.

It is interesting to note that 64 percent of the respondents were female.

Contrary to review that suggests that the burden on girl children increases

with internal displacement, data in this study shows that though challenges

exist, they have been able to continue schooling.

Analysis on overall enrolment of 883 children in the academic year 2009-

2010 at the Government Higher Secondary School in Kannagi Nagar

indicates that there are 466 female and 417 male students. It is also noted

that there is higher enrolment of children in classes VI (100 boys, 110 girls),

VII (78 boys, 95 girls), VIII (85 boys, 80 girls), IX (79 boys, 74 girls) X (49

boys, 50 girls). The disparity in enrolment widens in the Higher Secondary

classes- XI (17 boys, 37 girls) and XII (9 boys, 20 girls).

This data was compared to school enrolment in 2009-2010 at Olcott

Memorial School, a private school in Besant Nagar (extending educational

services to many children affected by the Tsunami). Enrolment of boys was

higher in classes- VI (26 boys, 26 girls), VII (35 boys, 26 girls), VIII (34

boys, 22 girls), IX (30boys, 19 girls), X (27boys, 31 girls)

Reasons stated for lesser enrolment at the Higher Secondary level by

teachers, peers and NGO personnel at Kannagi Nagar included males

students dropping out of school for work, joining vocational courses like the

ITI and girls dropping out of school to take care of domestic responsibilities

or get married (opinion of respondents on mean age of marriage of children

150 Chapter IV

in the area was reported is 16.05 years).In depth interviews and focussed

group discussions with children in Kannagi Nagar suggest participation of

male children in the work force .It may be inferred that one of the

consequences of internal displacement in this area is lesser enrolment of

males in school.

Understanding and knowledge of details of traumatic experiences and their

possible effects like dropping out of school during the childhood years for

gainful employment or marriage can help professional caregivers formulate

approaches that help retain children in school. For IDPs who have lost their

home and possessions, education can restore hope and the essential tools

needed to build a secure future.

Education is an important way of supporting the psychosocial well-being of

children and youth during an emergency situation like displacement.

Education can promote children’s protection and welfare by providing,

among other things, structured daily routines where children can play and

interact with peers and adults in a positive manner, provide physically-safe

spaces for children to go to every day that keep them out of other potentially

harmful situations. Hence, attempts need to be directed to enhance school

enrolment and retention.


Figure No. 1

Class Studying at Time of Interview

Data in Figure No 1. shows the class respondents were studying at the time

of interview. The respondents were students of class six (17.5 percent), seven

(19.3 percent), eight (25 percent), nine (12.7 percent), ten (9.6 percent),

eleven (9.6 percent) and twelve (6.1 percent). As children have missed

school and enrolled late, many classes have older children.

152 Chapter IV

Figure No. 2

Caste of Respondents

Dalits (referred to in the Indian Census as Scheduled Caste) make up

approximately 170 million of India’s billion people (Minority Rights Group

International, 2006). Also referred to as ‘untouchables’, historically they

have been poor, deprived of basic human rights, are treated as social inferiors

in India and face discrimination of every kind. Among other castes, the

Government of India classifies citizens who are disadvantaged based on their

social and economic conditions. They are collectively called the Backward

Class (BC) or Most Backward Class (MBC).

The school records at the time of data collection(academic year 2009-2010)

indicate that almost half (47.6percent ) the students enrolled belonged to the

Scheduled Caste community ( boys 216, girls 215), 17.5 percent MBC, 23.2

percent BC, 0.1 percent each respectively belonged to the ST and OC

communities.


Data in Figure No. 2 shows caste wise participation of the students who

fulfilled the criteria to be included in the research. More than half the

respondents (52.2 percent) belonged to the Scheduled Caste community

(SC). Among others, 26.3 percent belonged to the Backward Caste (BC),

15.4 percent to the Most Backward Class (MBC) and 1.3 percent to the

Scheduled Tribe (ST) community. It may be assumed that because of the

numerous surveys that had been taken, all respondents were able to indicate

their caste.

The NR&R Bill 2009, states interests of the weaker sections especially the

SC community needs to be protected while planning rehabilitation and

resettlement. Wherever possible, the Bill recommends affected SC

populations should be resettled close to their place of habitation. This aspect

has not been considered during displacing this group. Being a community

already marginalised and braving poverty on an everyday basis, internal

displacement has added to their misery and struggles making them poorer

than they were before displacement

Micheal Cernea in a study on Development Oustees (Cernea, 1996) states,

“….Like becoming a refugee, being forcibly ousted from one’s land and

habitat by a dam, reservoir or highway is not only immediately disruptive

and painful, it is also fraught with serious long-term risks of becoming

poorer than before displacement, more vulnerable economically, and

disintegrated socially ”.

Being communities already marginalised and braving poverty on an

everyday basis, internal displacement has increased their misery and

struggles making them poorer than they were before.

154 Chapter IV

Figure No. 3

Religion of Respondents

Data in Figure No. 3 shows the religion of the respondents. Among the

respondents, 75.9 percent were Hindus, 20.2 percent Christians and 3.9

percent Muslim.

Table No. 2

Nature of Family

S.No Nature of family Frequency Percent

1. Nuclear 177 77.6

2. Joint 15 6.6

3. Single parent 27 11.8

4. Single parent with other relatives 5 2.2

5. Other 4 1.8

Total 228 100


Data in Table No. 2 shows that more than three fourths of the respondents

(77.6 percent) reported their family was nuclear, 6.6 percent joint. It needs to

be noted that 11.8 percent of respondents reported living with a single parent

while in another 2.2 percent of the single parent households included other

relatives.

The family is the first line of defense especially for children and a major

factor in their survival, health, education, development, and protection. It is

also a major source of nurturance, emotional bonding and socialization, and

a link between continuity and change. It has the major potential to provide

stability and support when there are problems. Human development can,

thus, be enhanced by enriching family life (Desai, 1995).

In a joint family, the child has many adult figures while in a nuclear family,

the child has a limited set of adult models to emulate. As a result, he or she

develops a strong sense of personal bond with the parents, with a greater

scope of developing clear-cut self -identity (Sinha, 1984). Children brought

up in single parent families have only one adult member in the family and

often lack kinship and community support especially in displaced situations.

These children develop early independence with added responsibilities. A

majority of the single parent families being the poorest of the poor cannot

adequately meet their children’s needs.

While extended family may have played this role of child-caring back home,

in displaced situations, the nuclear family often needs to provide these

services, which means an additional burden on children. Even if the child

does not have to work, school fees may make education financially out of

reach to displaced children. Thus, to enhance the impact of child

development, direct work with children is not adequate. Family life and the

156

family’s environment need to be enriched. A strong family unit would

promote child development.

Education of Father and Mother of Respondents

An understanding of education of the respondents’ parents states that 36.8

percent of mother and 26.3 percent of father of the respondents is illiterate

(Figure No. 4).

Though the sample is small, it is observed that the 73.70 percent literacy rate

of fathers is lower than the Census 2011 projections of the male literacy rate

(86.8percent) in Tamil Nadu. Similarly, among mothers, 63.2 percent

literacy rate is also not very favourable when compared to Census

2011projections of female literacy rates

Among literate parents, there is limited levels of education

18 percent each) secondary

higher secondary

being less educated, they are unable to assert themselves during eviction


promote child development.

Figure No. 4

Education of Father and Mother of Respondents




ers is lower than the Census 2011 projections of the male literacy rate



2011projections of female literacy rates (73.4 percent) in Tamil Nadu.

Among literate parents, there is limited levels of education-primary (about

percent each) secondary (35.5 percent of mother ,33.8 percent of father),

(2.2 percent mothers, 3 percent fathers) .It is assumed that

ing less educated, they are unable to assert themselves during eviction

Chapter IV





ers is lower than the Census 2011 projections of the male literacy rate



cent) in Tamil Nadu.

primary (about

of mother ,33.8 percent of father),

(2.2 percent mothers, 3 percent fathers) .It is assumed that

ing less educated, they are unable to assert themselves during eviction


drives and demand rights especially with regard to information, basic

amenities and health care.

Figure No. 5

Occupation of Respondents’ Father Before and after Displacement

(*Not applicable-11.8% of respondents do not have father)

Data in Figure No. 5 shows occupation of respondents’ father before and

after internal displacement. There is marginal increase in work participation

of father in the unorganised sector and marginal decrease in their

participation in the organised sector.

As companies recruit skilled workers, moving people with limited education

and skills to the IT corridor offers limited opportunities for employment. For

a population of more than one lakh, most of who are unskilled labourers,

living in a single location results in increased supply of labour but no

demand (PUCL, 2010). Even those who get employed have to agree to work

for cheap labour. Further, reputation of this resettlement does not ensure easy

0102030405060708090

100

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Before After

Father Occupation

158 Chapter IV

access to work as outsiders perceived Kannagi Nagar as a crime prone

neighbourhood.

Figure No. 6

Occupation of Respondents’ Mother Before and after Internal Displacement

(*Not applicable -2.2% respondents do not have mother)

It may be inferred that due to financial demands at home, there is an increase

in the percentage of women who have entered the work force (Figure No. 6).

While 49.1 percent of respondents reported their mother did not work before

moving to Kannagi Nagar, only 35.1 percent reported they remained at home

after moving to Kannagi Nagar.

Data shows an increase in participation both in the unorganised and

organised sectors. Contrary to situation for men, proximity of Kannagi Nagar

to the IT corridor, provides opportunities for women to work in shops and

offices especially as house- keeping staff. This probably is the reason that

work participation of women in the organised sector has increased.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

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Before After

Mother Occupation


Table No. 3

Monthly Income of the Family

S. No Monthly Income (Rs) Frequency Percent

1. Less than Rs.1000 2 1

2. Rs.1001-3000 55 24

3. Rs.3001-6000 78 34

4. Rs.6001- 9000 26 12

5. Rs.9001- 12,000 21 9

6. Above Rs.12,001 11 5

7 Don’t know 35 15

Total 228 100

Poverty is estimated with reference to the poverty line (Planning Commission,

2012). Below Poverty Line is an economic benchmark and poverty threshold

used by the government of India to indicate economic disadvantage. India’s

poverty line has usually corresponded with the World Bank’s definition of

poverty, which is $ 1.25 (in purchasing power parity terms) per person per day.

It is discouraging to note that 24 percent of the respondents’ monthly family

income ranged only between Rs. 1001-3000, 34 percent between Rs. 3001-

6000. Among others, 12 percent respondents’ family income ranged between

Rs. 6000-9000, 9 percent between Rs. 9000-12,000 and only 5 percent above

Rs. 12,000 (Table No.3).

It was interesting to note that few respondents who quoted figures on the day

of the interview reported back the following day with a request to change the

income stated to a lower amount. On probing further, children shared that their

160 Chapter IV

parents hoped that in case the survey made them eligible for some

rehabilitation package, they did not want to lose out on the opportunity.

Table No. 4

Place Evicted From

Place Frequency Percent

1 Pudupet 24 10.5

2 Mylapore 18 7.9

3 Chetpet, Choolaimedu, Shenoy Nagar, 14 6.1

4 Santhome, Pattinambakkam, Nochikuppam, Dhideer Nagar

28 12.3

5 Palavakkam, Neelankarai, Kottivakkam, Thiruvanmayur

28 12.3

6 Teynampet, Gemini, Mount Road, Thousand Lights

11 4.8

7 Thoraipakkam, Kandanchavadi, Perungudi, Mettukuppam

16 7

8 Central / Parrys 15 6.6

9 Saidapet 3 1.3

10 Ayanavaram 3 1.3

11 Adayar 11 4.8

12 K.K.Nagar 2 0.9

13 Mandaveli, Sathya Studio 4 1.8

14 Taramani 7 3.1

15 Besant Nagar 20 8.8

16 Velachery 6 2.6

17 T. Nagar 2 0.9

18 Porur 3 1.3

19 Others 10 4.4

20 Outside Chennai 3 1.3

Total 228 100


The fact that each internally displaced person has his own roots, education,

interests, and skills is not taken into account while evicting people and

sending them to Kannagi Nagar. Data in Table No. 4 shows the original

place of stay of respondent. Respondents were evicted and resettled from

places in Chennai which included Pudupet (10.5 percent) Mylapore

(7.9 percent), Chetpet (6.1 percent), Santhome 12.3 percent), Palavakkam

(12.3 percent), Teynampet (4.8 percent), Thoraipakkam (7 percent), Parry’s

(6.6 percent), Saidapet (1.3 percent), K.K. Nagar (0.9 percent), T. Nagar

(0.9 percent), Porur (1.3 percent), Aynavaram (1.3 percent), Adayar

(4.8 percent), Mandaveli (1.8 percent) , Taramani (3.1 percent), Besant

Nagar (8.8 percent) and Velachery (2.6 percent) .

Among respondents, 89 percent shared they did not want to move to

Kannagi Nagar for reasons including the previous place of stay was their

place of birth(42 percent), Kannagi Nagar was ‘too far ’(33 percent) , was a

‘bad place’(38 percent) and had no facilities(11 percent).

Table No. 5

Age When Displaced

S.No Age Frequency Percent

1. 5-6years 21 9.2

2. 7-8years 76 33.3

3. 9-10years 69 29.8

4. 11-12years 47 20.6

5. 13-14years 13 5.7

6. 15-16years 2 0.8

Total 228 100

Mean Age-9.83 years

162 Chapter IV

Displacement is characterized by change from a fairly stable living situation

to a much less stable one; where those affected are trying to make ends meet

in a community where they do not have strong social networks or resources

they can draw on to find jobs. For children, this decline in standard of living

may be keenly felt when traditional foods are no longer available, when daily

routines are drastically altered, or when they have to spend time working in

or outside the home to compensate for the changed living conditions

(Brookings, 2011).

Data in Table No. 5 shows that 9.2 percent of the respondents experienced

internal displacement in the age 5-6 years, 33.3 percent in the age 7-8 years,

29.8 percent in the age 9-10 years, 20.6 percent in the 11-12 years, 5.7

percent in the age 13-14 years, 0.8 percent in the age 15-16 years. Mean age

when they were internally displaced is 9.83 years.

Internal displacement affects individuals in different ways, depending on

their age. Children have often witnessed violence against family members or

friends during the eviction drives. Children are often at risk of neglect, abuse

or exploitation, deprivation and lack of access to food, shelter, education and

health care, and other violations of their rights. Such factors seriously

threaten their well-being and undermine their cognitive, emotional and

social development. Children respond to trauma in ways that reflect the

particular tasks and challenges they are attempting to master (Cox and

Pawar, 2006). Children, adolescents and older persons are often excluded

from formal decision-making structures and, consequently, the specific risks

that they face are often not taken into account.


Figure No. 7

Cause for Internal Displacement

Disaster induced displacement was reported as the reason for moving to the

area of resettlement by 37.7 percent of respondents while 47.4 percent of

respondents had moved due to development related causes. Among others,

11 percent were forced to move as there had been threats of eviction and

demolition of their home. It was discouraging to note that 3.9 percent of the

respondents experienced the agony of losing their homes to calamity like fire

(which they attribute was state sponsored) and watching the remains being

bulldozed and razed down (Figure No.7).

Review indicates, internal displacement can have severe adverse effects

on the physical, social, emotional and spiritual well-being of a person.

Exposure to violence or disaster, loss of or separation from family members

and friends, deterioration in living conditions, the inability to provide for

one’s self and family, and lack of access to services, can all have immediate

Cause for Internal Displacement

164 Chapter IV

and long-term consequences for individuals, families and communities,

including post-traumatic stress disorders, psychosomatic illness, depression,

anxiety and even violence.

Table No. 6

Years of Stay in Area of Relocation

S. No Years of Stay Frequency Percent

1. Less than one year 4 1.7

2. 1-2 years 43 18.9

3. 3-4 years 32 14.1

4. 5-6 years 149 65.3

Total 228 100

Mean years of stay=4.5 years

Respondents who were internally displaced and lived at Kannagi Nagar for a

time period not more than six years were included in the sample.

Insight into number of years of stay in the area of relocation indicates that

1.7 percent of the respondents reported living at Kannagi Nagar for less than

a year, 18.9 percent between 1-2 years, 14 .1 percent for 2 -3 years and 65.3

percent between 5- 6 years (Table No.6). Mean years of stay is 4.5 years.

(These were approximations provided by the respondents which were

checked against the backdrop of the cause of displacement).

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