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Sewage and Its Treatment : Experience from setting up Sewage Treatment Plants
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ABSTRACT
Growing population has resulted in a steep increase in demand for fresh water coupled with increased contamination from untreated waste water. Along with steps taken to clean our polluted rivers and streams, laws for disposal of waste water are becoming stricter, resulting in an urgent need for setting up facilities for treatment of sewage. There are several treatment options, each with its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Drawing from our experience in setting up and running sewage treatment plants across various locations involving multiple technologies, this paper discusses the major technologies for sewage treatment.
Key Words
Activated Sludge Aerobic and Anaerobic BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) / COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) Decomposition Dozing Pathogens Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Treatment Sewage Suspended Solids Water Pollution
Sewage and Its Treatment : Experience from setting up Sewage Treatment Plants
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ARTICLE BODY
Introduction
Sewage, also known as domestic or municipal waste-water, comprises of grey-water (from sinks,
tubs, showers, dishwashers, and clothes washers), black-water (the water used to flush toilets,
combined with the human waste that it flushes away) along with soaps and detergents and
substances that get disposed of in the sewage system, like toilet paper. Sanitary sewers serving
industrial areas also carry industrial waste water. Depending on the design of the sewer system,
sewage may also include surface run-off water, increasing its volume.
Typical Components of Raw Sewage
Water ~99.5%
Solids ~0.5%
Organics 70%
Inorganics 30%
Proteins
65% Carbohydrates
25% Fats 10%
Grits Salts Metallic
Fig – 1: Typical Components of Raw Sewage
Sewage is characterized by its volume or rate of flow, its physical condition, and its chemical, toxic &
bacteriological content. Sewage is mainly bio-degradable and most of it is broken down in the
environment. However, the process is slow, and un-treated sewage may contaminate the
environment and cause diseases. Sewage may also contain chemical and pharmaceutical
substances. Untreated sewage is suspected to be one of the causes of increase in antibiotic
resistance in many germs (“super-bugs”).
In urban areas as per CPHEEO standards, a single person typically generates around 80 to 120 litres
of sewage a day, with a dry sludge component of 50 to 60 g. With increasing population and
increasing urbanization, sewage disposal is fast becoming a major sanitary problem. In India, cities
and towns generate 38,255 kl of waste water daily of which only ~30% (about 11,788 kl) is treated
and the rest is left untreated. Apart from having limited sewage treatment facilities, many of
treatment facilities that do exist are not functioning properly.
Sewage and Its Treatment : Experience from setting up Sewage Treatment Plants
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Issues with Untreated Sewage
While untreated sewage contains over 99.5% water, its other contents, namely nutrients (nitrogen
and phosphorus), solids (organic and inorganic matter), pathogens (bacteria, viruses and protozoa),
helminthes (intestinal worms and worm-like parasites), oils and greases, heavy metals (including
mercury, cadmium, lead, chromium and copper) and toxic chemicals (including PCBs
(polychlorinated biphenyls), PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), dioxins, furans, pesticides,
phenols and chlorinated organics used in bathroom cleaners etc. are responsible for contaminating
the environment and spread of disease.
Human exposure to the organisms in sewage-contaminated water takes place usually orally through
the mixing of untreated sewage with fresh water, or by skin exposure to contaminated water while
swimming, bathing etc. Oral exposure causes gastro-intestinal disorders (diseases such as diarrhoea,
e-coli infections, hepatitis-A, giardiasis, amoebic dysentery, cholera etc.), while skin problems could
occur from dermal exposure.
Also, discharges of untreated sewage leads to depletion of oxygen in water bodies which results in
death of aquatic organisms including fish.
The Need to Treat Sewage
The safe treatment of sewage is crucial to the health of any community and to maintain the life of
aquatic organisms. With increasing population, the improper disposal of domestic sewage and
human excreta has posed serious problems of health, environment and bio-degradation. Untreated
sewage often contaminates water bodies (lakes, rivers, and the sea). Sewage contamination
increases the concentration of nitrates, phosphates, and organic matter (found in human waste),
which serves as a food for algae and bacteria. This causes these organisms to overpopulate to the
point where they use up most of the dissolved oxygen that is naturally found in water, making it
difficult for the natural fauna of the aquatic environment to live. These bacteria can also lead to
spread of water-borne diseases in humans and animals that come in contact with the water. It has
been estimated that almost 70% of India’s fresh water sources have been contaminated by sewage,
leading to calls for urgent action (e.g. the Ganga Action Plan for Ganga-Yamuna rivers which are
among the most polluted in the world).
Environmental Risk of Using Untreated Sewage & Industrial Waste Water
Irrigation with sewage or sewage mixed with industrial effluents results in a saving of 25 to 50% of N
and P fertilizer and leads to 15-27 % higher crop productivity. Thus, a significant portion of sewage
bypasses any treatment and is used for irrigation or, worse, joins water bodies
Sewage and Its Treatment : Experience from setting up Sewage Treatment Plants
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Fig – 2: Untreated Sewage flowing into the Mithi River in Mumbai
However, there are a number of limitations with regard to waste water treatment and reuse in
agriculture, such as the production of waste water when the crops do not require irrigation water,
the location of the plants compared to the land requiring irrigation, the match between the waste
water fertilizer content and the crop requirements, the risk of over-application, vigorous incidence
of weeds and insect pests due to, in general, low uses of pesticides in agro-forestry systems and
early dropping and softening of fruits, etc. Intensive land application leads to accumulation of salts
and heavy metals in the soil, odour problems, salt and colour leaching affecting groundwater and
downstream water quality, etc.
This leads to a decline in the land productivity along with a build-up of toxic pollutants, which
encourages the overgrowth of weeds, algae, and cyanobacteria and causes groundwater and
downstream water quality to deteriorate.(Table – 2).
Sl No Area Agriculture Use Risk
1
Dhapa Untreated sewage from Kolkata and waste from Tanneries
Sewage fisheries, Vegetables
Pollutants from sewage and tanneries, heavy metal pollution – Cr+6, Pb Zn, etc.
2 Musi River Untreated sewage & industrial waste water
Paddy, Jasmine, fodder crops, spinach, amaranths,
mint, coriander
Industrial pollutants, increased salinity, weeds
3
Keshevpur and Okhla Untreated sewage from NCR region, industrial waste
Vegetables: eggplant, okra, coriander in summer;
Spinach, mustard, cauliflower in winter
Industrial pollutants, increased salinity, weeds, choking of river by excess duckweed growth
Table - 2 Some Examples of Detrimental Effect of Using Untreated Sewage for Agriculture
Sewage and Its Treatment : Experience from setting up Sewage Treatment Plants
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Benefits of Treating Waste Water
Effective sewage management is essential for nutrient recycling and for maintaining ecosystem
integrity. Effective sewage treatment results in separation of sludge and treated water which results
in:
1. Improving the environment through proper drainage and disposal of wastewater
2. Preventing floods through removal of rainwater
3. Preserving receiving water quality.
The sludge is a natural organic fertilizer and can be used to restore soil fertility. Treatment and
recirculation of treated water from sewage is needed to tackle the growing crisis of a lack of
adequate fresh water (Fig – 3).
Fig - 3: Projected Water Demand in India
Sewage and Its Treatment : Experience from setting up Sewage Treatment Plants
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Water Guidelines – Legal Requirements
There has been a rapid increase in water pollution, caused by rapid urbanization and population
growth. The Central Pollution Control Board, CPCB, has published discharge limits for various
pollutants and the maximum BOD, COD, TSS of discharged water. A snapshot of the General
Discharge Limits provided in the CPCB website is shown in Table –1.
Sl No
Parameter Standards
Inland Surface Public Sewer Land for Irrigation Marine Coastal Areas
1 Colour & Odour Colour& Odoursmall as practical - * *
2 Suspended Solids 100 600 200 Waste water - 100
4 pH Value 5.5 to 9 5.5 to 9 5.5 to 9 5.5 to 9
6 Oil & Grease mg/l (max) 10 20 10 20
7 Total Residual Chlorine mg/l (max)
1.0 - - 1.0
8 Ammoniacal Nitrogen (as N) mg/l (max)
50 50 - 50
11 Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (5 days at 200C) mg/l (max)
30 350 100 100
12 Chemical Oxygen Demand mg/l (max)
250 - - 250
17 Hexavalent Chromium (as Cr+6) mg/l (max)
0.1 2.0 - 1.0
25 Dissolved Phosphorus (P) mg/l (max)
5 - - -
29 Bio-assay Test 90% survival of fish after 96 hours in 100% effluent
31 Iron (as Fe) mg/l 3 3 - 3
Table – 1 Extract from General Standards for Discharge of Environment Pollutants
In recent times, CPCB, MoEF(Ministry of Environment and Forests) and permitting authorities are
requiring more strict discharge limits. Many industrial facilities are now required to meet zero-liquid
discharge. This means no wastewater discharge is permitted and the industries have to recycle and
reuse the treated wastewater.
Notification issued by MoEF requires that municipal discharges must meet the stricter standards of
BOD < 10ppm, COD < 50ppm, TSS < 10ppm Total Nitrogen < 10ppm and Total Phosphorus < 2 ppm
and an effluent coliform limit of 230 MPN/100mL for urban areas. This implies new technologies
need to be installed to achieve new standards.
This paper discusses biological treatment technologies for STPs to achieve effluent BOD/TSS of
30/30 mg/L - which meets the limits prescribed under General Standards by CPCB as shown in
Table-1. Additional technologies need to be installed to meet the new limits.
Sewage and Its Treatment : Experience from setting up Sewage Treatment Plants
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Treatment of Sewage – main technologies*
The most basic treatment of sewage is by collection in a soak-pit and allowing water to soak into
the soil. This is usually adopted for independent toilets. As polluting of ground water is a possibility,
this treatment is inadequate and currently unacceptable.
Treatment of sewage is based on a method provided by nature, i.e. by using microbial action. When
a steady consistent supply of air is pumped into a tank containing sewage which has been screened
to remove all floating debris and non-soluble contents, microbes which are present in it get
activated. These microbes are present in the sludge which makes up a substantial part of sewage,
and they consume the pollutants in the sewage while the air supply brings them to life and keeps
them alive and multiplying. Most aerobic processes for treatment of sewage are variations of the
above, “Activated Sludge Process (ASP)”. A sewage treatment plant (STP) based on this aerobic
process will consist of the following major stages of treatment:
• Primary Treatment (Screening): In this stage, raw sewage is screened to remove floating
debris/ insoluble impurities such as plastic bags, leaves, twigs, paper etc.
• Secondary Treatment (De-composition): In this stage, oxygen (air) is mixed into the sewage to
activate the microbes which decompose organics in the sewage and cause them to settle as
insoluble sludge (biomass). Water and sludge are separated, the sludge is removed and dried
for disposal and the water free from sludge is sent to a clarified water tank.
• Tertiary Treatment (Treatment of Clarified Water): Clarified water is filtered through a
pressure sand filter and an activated sand filter to remove any remaining suspended impurities
and a substantial portion of the BOD & COD present in it. Finally it is disinfected to kill all the
bacteria present in it by either chlorination or ozonisation or with ultraviolet light. This tertiary
treated water can be used to flush toilets, wash roads and yards, and for gardening.
Smaller STPs use variations of the more modern membrane bio reactor system (MBR). MBR is a
very compact waste treatment system that combines biological decomposition with membrane
separation of the sludge (biomass). The membrane compacts & concentrates the sludge, making for
a far more compact design than the ASP system described above: it combines the secondary and
tertiary treatment into one single step. Further, it produces far less sludge. It is also not so sensitive
to input load fluctuations unlike the ASP system.
The simplest treatment of sewage is the duckweed pond. In this extremely eco-friendly system,
sewage is allowed into a constructed water body where certain kinds of aquatic plants are planted
which absorb atmospheric oxygen and let this out through their roots thereby providing the oxygen
to feed the microbes which clean up the sewage. This treated water however can only be used for
gardening, due to the low pathogen removal of this system. Its major drawbacks are that it requires
a lot of land and can breed mosquitoes; the major advantage is that it requires no electricity to
operate if the flow of raw and treated sewage is by gravity.
There are many other specialized technologies, including process variations of the above, which
are not yet very popular.
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Our Experience in setting up/upgrading/running STPs
RUDIMENTARY TREATMENT METHODS
Constructed Duckweed Pond System
Fig-4: Constructed Duckweed Pond at a Semi-Rural Area for Sewage Treatment
We constructed a Duckweed Pond System to tackle the problem of untreated sewage from settlements in a semi-rural setup. The shallow pond, with a depth of ~1.5 m has a retention period of between 7 & 14 days. BOD and SS removal of up to 30 mg/l is achievable in such systems. The duckweed pond has a high mineral and nutrient removal rate due to the uptake of duckweeds.
Anaerobic Pond System
Sewage Water
from Septic Tank
(filtered)
Treated Water
Sludge
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Fig – 5: Duckweed Pond System
The principal advantages are very low cost of construction and low sensitivity to varying flow rates
and other seasonal fluctuations. Duckweed is a very hardy plant with simultaneous and significant
nutrient removal and yields vegetative matter with a high protein content (40%) which is a good
animal feed.
Fish farming in the pond is possible but has not been encouraged for other reasons. Low pathogen
removal due to reduced light penetration and high land requirement are the principal
disadvantages why the system is only suitable for rural and semi-urban settlements with easy land
availability.
We chose to make a duckweed pond to treat raw sewage as the location is outside our lease area
and hence the construction of anything with significant time, capital or maintenance requirements
was not possible. The overflow of the duckweed pond is further treated in an Effluent Treatment
Plant.
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Soak Pits
For unconnected toilets in areas with low population, an older technology of soak pits is popular.
Initially, individual septic tanks with soak pits were thought to be the right choice. The principal
advantage of such a system is ease of construction (especially for widespread colonies with low
population). The principal disadvantages are low rate of pathogen removal, risk of polluting ground
water and inefficient soaking due to unfavourable soil conditions, i.e. impervious rock layer, leading
to the overflowing of sewage. The soak pits also need to be cleaned (de-sludged) at regular
intervals. Nowadays, soak pits are not allowed due to the risk of polluting ground water, and over
time most sewage lines have been/are being connected to the Sewage Treatment Plant.
Fig-6: Waste Water Overflowing from a Soak Pit possibly due to the impervious lateritic soil.
TECHNOLOGY FOR SMALL STAND ALONE STPs
Packaged STPs
Small-sized Sewage Treatment Plants made of a combination of FRP & Steel are popular options for
stand-alone STPs. Such STPs are usually in the form of a compact FRP tank which can be used in a
decentralized manner for aerobic treatment of sewage water and is ideal for residential and
commercial complexes, hospitals etc.
The STPs incorporate membrane technologies with low operation and maintenance costs and
reportedly give a high (90%) reduction in BOD consistently. However, the sludge needs to be
handled periodically along with replacement of the (costly) membrane. The initial capital cost is also
quite high.
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This technology is most suitable where connection to the sewage system is difficult or not possible,
and for wastes (like hospital waste) where there is an increased risk of contamination. We had
evaluated a project for setting up a packaged STP for a hospital; however the project is yet to
fructify.
Fig-7: Packaged STP in the form of a compact FRP tank for decentralized treatment of sewage
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STP TECHNOLOGIES ADOPTED FOR MID-SIZED STPs
STPs Based on Membrane Bio-Reactor Technology
Membrane Based Bio-Reactor Systems (MBR Technology) set up at various locations
In this process, sewage decomposition takes place in bio-reactors, i.e. MBR chambers. The bio-
reactor comprises of a tank fitted with an aeration grid. The bacterial activity needs dissolved
oxygen to synthesize the organic matter. This is supplied by passing air in the form of small bubbles
from the bottom of the tank, which increases the contact period and also facilitates mixing, thereby
increasing the efficiency of oxygen absorption.
The bacterial population grows on specially designed carrier media (MBR media) which form an
integral part of the reactor system. The media are made of small polypropylene elements with a
very large surface area for the bacterial population to grow.
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The technology allows for rapid treatment and is suitable for small to mid-sized plants with small
variations in input sewage load. Maintenance of the membranes and the bacterial growth are very
important and thus these plants need to be run with skilled/trained manpower.
Modular STPs based on MBR technology
Fig - 12: 10 KLD modular type STP with MBR technology
TECHNOLOGY ADOPTED FOR MEDIUM TO LARGE SIZE STPs
The Submerged Aerobic Fixed Film Reactor Process (SAFF)
The Submerged Aerobic Fixed Film Reactor Process (SAFF) has a small footprint and effectively
treats dilute domestic waste water. The low and stabilized sludge produced eliminates the need for
sludge digestion.
The treated water can be used for agriculture and gardening or used to recharge ground water
aquifers, while the dry sludge is a good fertilizer in the rural community surrounding our colony.
However, the disadvantage is the need for primary settling to avoid clogging (the process being very
sensitive to the quantity of sludge, it can only accept relatively diluted sewage). Another
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disadvantage could be the relatively costly, proprietary Aerobic Fixed Film which needs proper
maintenance and thus skilled manpower.
This technology was chosen for the said location, as it is suited for congested, sensitive locations:
there is no smell and the technology is compact and has lower capital cost than competing
technologies.
Fig - 13:150 kld STP at a mining colony based on SAFF Technology
Filter Press
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TECHNOLOGY ADOPTED FOR LARGE SCALE SEWAGE TREATMENT
The Sequencing Batch Reactor Technology
Fig 14: 200 kld STP based on Sequencing Batch Reactor - ASP
The Sequencing Batch Reactor is a variation of the Activated Sludge process which is a proven and tested sewage treatment process all over the world for the last seven or eight decades. The process requires uninterrupted power supply for constant aeration and sludge recirculation. Reactor sludge levels also need to be carefully monitored and excess sludge needs to be withdrawn from the system periodically. Hence, due to its high level of automation, the capital costs of such plants are on the higher side and skilled manpower is required for operation. However, the process is highly efficient and can remove >90% of the pathogens (bacteria, viruses, faecal coliforms etc.) and BOD. This activated sludge process is operated in batches through auto-control, with aeration and settling in one tank leading to a lower plant foot print. Suspended solid removal is also high.
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This process is ideal for larger sewage treatment plants in congested and sensitive locations as there is virtually no smell. This sewage treatment plant was chosen for a colony of 2000 people as the plant needed to be located inside the colony. Other Technologies
Trickling Filter One of the oldest methods of treating sewage, this technology is over 100 years old. Being rugged and simple, the process requires very little monitoring. However, the limitations of the technology, i.e. the need for consistent effluent/sewage input quality, low rate of pathogen removal (from 20% up to 70%), and the risks of blockage of port and bio-filter due to excess biomass growth and the risk of odour and filter fly, rule out the adoption of this process in today’s environment. If adopted at all, it is usually adopted nowadays only for pre-treatment and is followed by Activated Sludge Treatment using any of the technologies described earlier. High Rate Trickling Filters are sometimes adopted when the treated water can be prevented from contaminating drinking water sources and used internally for gardening etc. The sludge needs to be separately treated in a digester and used as manure.
Fig 15: Principle of the trickling filter for treating sewage waste water
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Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) The Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket process (USAB) uses anaerobic reactions (in contrast to most of the processes described earlier, which depend on aerobic reactions) to decompose the sludge. UASB reactors are typically suited to dilute waste water streams (3% TSS with particle size >0.75 mm). Biogas with a high concentration of methane is produced as a by-product, and this may be captured and used as an energy source, whilst forming a blanket of granular sludge which is suspended in the tank. Waste water flows upwards through the blanket and is processed (degraded) by the anaerobic micro-organisms. The upward flow combined with the settling action of gravity suspends the blanket with the aid of flocculants. Since the process handles diluted sewage, sludge handling is minimized. Similarly, power supply interruptions have minimal effect on plant performance and the process can absorb hydraulic and organic shock loading. However, the USAB process cannot meet the desired effluent discharge standards (as the output effluent is anoxic and invariably exerts a substantial and instantaneous oxygen demand on receiving inland water bodies or when used for irrigation) unless proper post- treatment is adopted (usually through an Activated Sludge based treatment process). Hence this process is not used today except for pre-treatment.
Fig 16: Principle of the Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket process for treating sewage
Sewage and Its Treatment : Experience from setting up Sewage Treatment Plants
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Phyto Remediation and related technologies
Natural Uptake of Nutrients
Fig 17: Principle of Phyto Remediation and
Phyto remediation is considered to be a possible method for the removal of pollutants present in waste water and is recognized as a better green remediation technology than many other technologies. Plants like water hyacinth which grow very rapidly in water bodies are extremely efficient in absorbing nutrients. The quest of such plants for nutrient absorption provides a way for phyto remediation of waste water along with the combination of herbicidal control, integrated biological control and watershed management controlling nutrient supply to control plant growth. Moreover, as a part of solving wastewater treatment problems in urban or industrial areas using this plant, a large number of useful by-products can be developed like animal and fish feed, power plant energy (briquette), ethanol, biogas, composting and fibre-board making. However, large scale adoption of this relatively cheap and efficient technology is hindered by the risk of the uncontrolled growth of water hyacinth choking up all nearby water bodies.
Soil Bio Technology
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Soil Bio Technology developed at IIT Bombay is another recent technology used to treat sewage. The VEC patented CAMUS-SBT system produces results of >95% COD reduction using a soil like media in the presence of terrestrial ecology with plants as bioindicators.
Electro-Flocculation
Electro-Coagulation is a system in which contaminants are flocculated by an electrical process
into a size which can then be filtered, pressed and disposed of. This flocculation process is
based on electrolysis, and so called electro flocculation.
When the installation is switched on, air is blown through the water in the reactor vessel. This
is to keep the water in motion and to prevent solids sinking to the bottom. Every thirty
seconds an extra boost of “cleaning-air” is blown through the water. In a typical system, the
reactor contains Iron (Fe+2) and Aluminium (Al+3) electrodes connected to the cathode,
although other types of electrodes can be used. The voltage varies between 9 and 11 volts.
The electrodes connected to the anode are slowly converted into Fe203 and Al2(0H)3. The
resulting roughly formed flocks provide a place to which any contaminant in the water can
attach. The dissolved contamination is connected to the flocks and is transformed into non-
dissolvable particles. These particles can easily be separated from the treated water by
filtration.
While the electro-flocculation process can rapidly treat large amounts of waste water, the
cost of treatment is prohibitive, mainly due to the cost of the consumable electrodes and
electricity. Thus there are no large commercial plants using this technology for treating
sewage waste anywhere as on date.
Conclusions
Increasing population and rapid urbanization is increasing the stress on our scarce water resources.
Compounding the problem multi-fold is the fact that most sources of fresh water – rivers, lakes and
ground water are rapidly getting polluted by untreated sewage and industrial waste.
Sewage treatment has thus become of paramount importance and laws on waste water
management are becoming increasingly stricter. However, sewage treatment is complicated and
has capital and operational costs. In addition, while the basic science of treatment in most
treatment philosophies is more or less the same, the requirements of space, capital and recurring
costs vary across technologies. Also sewage characteristics and uniformity of load vary as do the
acceptable level of treatment, rendering some technologies more suitable than others.
Sewage and Its Treatment : Experience from setting up Sewage Treatment Plants
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Proper selection of the sewage treatment technology is thus very important. This article has
described most of the popular technologies adopted for sewage treatment and the possible reasons
for their selection.
Acknowledgements
I would like to place on record my gratitude to my colleagues without whose help, the construction
of sewage treatment plants described would not have been possible. I would also like to thank my
company for help and support during the construction as well as for the kind permission to put my
thoughts based on the experience in the form of this paper. I would also like to thank Mr
Chandrashekar Shankar for inputs on SBT and thank Mr Indra N Mitra for reviewing this article and
providing immensely valuable inputs.
All thoughts and opinions are my own and do not necessarily represent company policy.
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