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CC oo nn v v ee nn t t ii oo nn a a ll GG ee nn ee rr a a ll SS t t uu dd ii ee ss --44 33 En vironment Issues -1
vil Services Examination 2013
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GKToday’s Reader Supported Email Assistance Programme for General Studies Papers of Civil Services Examinations | [email protected] | © 2011-13 Suresh Soni | All Rights Reserv
1Land Degradation & Land Use Basics in India
Causes and Outcomes of Land Degradation
Soil acidification
Soil alkalinisation
Soil salination
Soil waterlogging
The extent of net sown area, forest cover and fallow land in India
net sown area
forests which cover 23% fallow land
What is Fallow LandFallow land is Undeveloped but potentially usefulland. If a land is generally cultivated but is notseeded in current growing season, it is calledCurrent Fallow Land.
Land rehabilitation is the process of returning the land
to some degree of its former state, after some process(industry, natural disasters, etc.) has resulted in itsdamage.Land rehabilitation has been a major priority sinceIndependence, and several policies and governmentagencies address desertification and degradation.These include various programmes such as D esertDevelopment Programme ; Integrated WastelandDevelopment ; N ational Watershed DevelopmentProject for Rainfed Areas ; Soil Conservation in theCatchment of River Valley Projects; NationalAfforestation Programme; Arid Zone Research;Mahatma Gandhi National Rural EmploymentGuarantee Scheme; National Rural Drinking WaterProgramme etc.
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2 The most prominent reason of land degradation
the
prominent reason of degradation,
Water Erosion is the most prominent
reason of land degradation
Soil acidity
The driver of Land Degradation
The net sown area versus the net irrigated area
This implies that less than half of net sown area in India is net irrigated
The environmental impact of land use patterns
intensive farming activities
Leaching due to extensive
use of pesticides and fertilizers intensification and
extensification also leads to salination, alkalization and water logging in irrigated areas, along with eutrophication
of water bodies and ill health of oceans, leading to loss of biodiversity
The Impact of Shifting Cultivation
The earlier 15–20 years cycle of shifting cultivation on a particular land
has reduced to two or three years now.
India’s largest area under shifting cultivation is in the state of OdishaDiscrimination in Chemical fertilizers usage
Because nitrogenous fertilizers are subsidised
more than potassic and phosphatic fertilizers
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Environmental Impact of Burning StrawBurning of wheat and rice straw has also contributed to loss of soil fertility
in order to ensure early preparation of fields for the next crop
loss of about 0.824 million tonnes of NPK from the soil
Impact of Mining
Impact of Floods
Aridity and Deserts
semi-arid (123.4 Mha.)
Soil Pollution
Soil Pollution
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Pollution in soil is associated with__:
Indiscriminate use of fertilizers:
The Arsenic , Lead and Cadmium present in traces in rock phosphate mineral get
transferred to super phosphate fertilizer
reduces the protein content of wheat, maize, grams
Indiscriminate use of pesticides
Dumping of Soil Waste
The First Insecticides and Biomagnification The first widespread insecticide use began at the end of World War IIand included DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) andgammaxene. Insects soon became resistant to DDT and as thechemical did not decompose readily, it persisted in the environment.Since it was soluble in fat rather than water, it biomagnified up thefood chain and disrupted calcium metabolism in birds, causingeggshells to be thin and fragile. As a result, large birds of prey such asthe brown pelican, ospreys, falcons and eagles became endangered.DDT has been now been banned in most western countries. Ironicallymany of them including USA, still produce DDT for export to otherdeveloping nations whose needs outweigh the problems caused by i t.
What are Soil sedimentsSoil sediments refer to the depositions of trace elements or metals suchas Hg,As, Sb, Cd, Ni, Co, Mo, Cu and Cr.The process of sedimentation is a comprehensive naturalgeomorphologic process, which operates through the chain of erosionof soils, transportation of sediments (eroded material) and deposition
of thee eroded material in different paths of water bodies.Sediments thus consist of soil and mineral particles washed away fromland by storms and floodwaters, from geological process ofdenudation, which is both inevitable and universal. Eroded soilbecomes a serious pollutant because of the absorbed chemicals that itcarries to the articles surface.
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Deforestation & Soil Erosion binding material
increased run-off of rainwater and diminished storage in the soil
Destruction of pastures and overgrazing
Sources of Solid WasteAgriculture as source of Solid Waste
The lignocellulosic biomass generated by agricultural activities is a primary source of solid waste.In addition, the use of fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural practices can limit the ability of soil organisms toprocess waste, which he turn makes the soil less productive or in the worst-case scenario, useless or everypoisonous.Some pesticides can remain in the environment for many year and pass from one organism to another. Whenpesticides are present in a stream, small fish and other organisms build up even larger amounts of pesticides in theirflesh and will eventually pass them on to us through the food chain. There are many other human activities, whichcan damage soil. The irrigation of soil in dry areas with poor drainage can leave fields flooded. When this standingwater evaporates, it leave salt deposits behind, making the soil too salty for growing crops.
Industries as source of wastesDisposal of industrial waste is the major problem responsible for soil pollution. These industrial pollutants aremainly discharged from pulp and paper mills chemical industries, oil refineries, sugar factories, tanneries, textiles,steel, metal processing industries, drugs, glass, cement, petroleum and engineering industries.
Mining as source of wastes
Mining operations can leave soil polluted with toxic heavy metals. Many scientists believe acid rain can also reducesoil fertility. In surface mining and strip mining top soil and sub-soil is removed. This leaves deep salt in the earth.The uncontrolled mine fires may also destroy the productivity of certain land areas permanently. Soil damage andenvironmental degradation during surface mining is inevitable as vegetation has to he removed and hugequantities of top soil and waste rocks are to be shifted to a new location, mining leads to loss of grazing and fertileland, soil erosion from waste dumps, sedimentation or silting, danger to aquatic life, flora and fauna as well aswater and soil pollution.
Municipal and urban wasteThis waste comprises both commercial and domestic wastes consisting of dried sludge of sewage. All the urbansolid wastes are commonly referred to as refuse.Solid wastes and refuse, particularly in urban area contribute to soil pollution. This refuse contains garbage andrubbish materials like plastics, glasses, metallic cans, fibres, rubbles, trash from the streets, fuel residues, leavescontainers, abandoned vehicles and other discarded manufactured products.Municipal waste is largely categorized into three type; waste that can be incinerated (generally called “combustible
waste”) waste that is treated by non-incineration intermediate treatment measures (generally called“incombustibles”) and materials that directly go to recycling or re-use procedures through separate collection orvoluntary group collection.The waste generated from agriculture, municipal and commercial activities are putrid solid waste and is known asgarbage. There are four broad categories of garbage.
Organic wasteKitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves and fruits .
Toxic wasteOld medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide containers, batteries and so on.
Recyclable Wastepaper, glass, metals and plastics.
Resistant objectslarge resistant objects such as cans, plastic, tyres, polythenes, metallic junk, glasses or even old cars, refrigerators,washing machines destroys the beauty of landscape. In India, most of this is purchased by hawkers and resold. Inindustrialized countries, used vehicles are creating a serious threat to environment.
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6Shifting cultivation
Effect of Soil Pollution
Vermicompost
Benefits for Soil
Benefits for Plant growth
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7Economic Benefits:
Environmental Benefits:
Disadvantages / Issues
Air Pollution and Air Quality ControlReasons of Air Pollution
Primary & Secondary level Air pollutants
primary pollutants are "directly" emitted
primary pollutants
secondary pollutants are not emitted directly
secondary
level Air Pollutants Ground Level Ozone, Smog and POPsPrimary Air Pollutants
Sulphur Oxides
Indian Coal is though low in sulphur content
Nitrogen Oxides
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8Carbon Monoxide
Dioxide is associated with the Ocean Acidification
Volatile Organic Compounds or VOCs
non-methane (NMVOCs).
Secondary Air Pollutant – Ground Level Ozone
Smog
In the last 100 years, the emission of M eth ne (a Volatile Organic Compound) has increaseddramatically and it has contributed to theincreased concentration of Ground Level Ozone.
Formation of Ground Level OzoneThe formation of the Ground Level Ozone involves a long complex series of the reactions in which carbon monoxide and VOCs areoxidized to water vapour and carbon dioxide. The series of the reactions begins with the Hydroxyl OH radicals, which is one of themain chemical species controlling the oxidizing capacity of the global Earth atmosphere. They are produced by many pathways butmost notably they are formed from the decomposition of hydro peroxides (ROOH) and by reaction of excited atomic oxygen with water. The reaction involves the following steps:
1. The Carbon Monoxide reacts with the Hydroxyl Radical, producing a Hydrogen atom.OH + CO H + CO22. The hydrogen atom formed by this reacts rapidly with oxygen to give a peroxy radical HO 2
H + O2 HO 23. Peroxy radical then reacts with the NO and gives NO2 which, in presence of Sunlight is photolysed to give atomic oxygen
and through reaction with oxygen a molecule of ozone.HO2 + NO OH + NO 2
NO2 + h NO + OO + O2 O 3
4. In total, the reaction is as follows:CO + 2O 2 CO2 + O3
The above reaction is simple demosntration. The Chemical processes that involve the VOCs are the complex ones. But the result ofthese reactions is the Ozone.
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Deaths due to Air Pollution
Bhopal Disaster
Great Smog of 1952
Top CO2 emitting countries
Country CO 2 emissions Emission per capitaWorld 33,376,327 4.9China 9,700,000 7.2United States 5,420,000 17.3India 1,970,000 1.6Russia 1,830,000 12.8
Japan 1,240,000 9.8Germany 810,000 9.9South Korea 610,000 12.6Canada 560,000 16.2
Qatar tops the list of the nations with Highest per capita CO2 emission
in the world
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) natural as well as anthropogenic gaseous
Forcing GHGs
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10GHG Emmission by sectors
Green House Effect
Process of Green House Effect
Green House Effect versus Planetary lbedo If Earth was an ideal black body which absorbs all the radiation from the Sun andemit the radiation due to this heating, its temperature would have beenapproximately 5.3 °C. The Earth and other planets are not perfect black bodies, asthey do not absorb all the incoming solar radiation but reflected part of it back tospace. The ratio between the reflected and the incoming energies is termed theplanetary albedo. Earth reflects 36-37% of this incoming light and it correspondsto the Earth Albedo 0.367. So, Earth's mean temperature is 14 °C. If there were noatmosphere and no radiation was lost due to reflection, its mean temperaturewould have been
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Anti-greenhouse effect
Mars and Venus show the Green
House Effect, but Titan, the largest planet of Saturn and Pluto
Indoor Air Pollution
71 per cent of India's urban households and 91 per cent of rural households use solid fuels for cooking
purposes.
There is a great deal of variation in the prevalence of TB according to the type of cooking fuel the household
uses. It ranges from a low of 217 per 100,000 residents, (among households using electricity, liquid
petroleum gas, natural gas, or biogas), to a high of 924 per 100,000 (among households using straw, shrubs,
or grass for cooking).
High TB prevalence is also seen amongst households using agricultural crop residue or other.
Ozone Depletion
Much less stable
Paramagnetic
low concentration in atmosphere harmful effects
Creates Ozonosphere
Is Ozone hole over only Antarctica? Ozone depletion has been seen everywhere beyond
tropics and there is a severe depletion in the Polar Regions
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How does Ozone Hole get created?
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depletion of ozone and atomic oxygen.
Important Observations: Antarctic Ozone hole
Coriolis effect
As per a 2013 study, a hole in the Antarctic ozone layer haschanged the way waters in the southern oceans mix, whichresearchers say could impact global climate change. As perscientists this phenomenon has the potential to alter theamount of CO2 in the atmosphere . It has been found thatsubtropical intermediate waters in the southern oceans havebecome "younger" as the upwelling, circumpolar waters have
gotten "older" - changes that are consistent with the fact thatsurface winds have strengthened as the ozone layer hasthinned. This is significant as southern oceans play a crucial rolein the absorption of heat and carbon dioxide, so any
alterations in southern ocean circulation have the potential tochange the global climate.
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°
Earth's magnetic field
Dobson units in context with Ozone Depletion
Dobson units
The base unit for an ozone hole was fixed 220 DU
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 1985
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15Montreal Protocol 1989
Theme of Montreal Protocol:
Montreal Protocol: HCFC versus HFC
India and Montreal Protocol
The Montreal Protocol opened for signature on
Ozone Day every year.
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16Acid Rain
But these natural phenomena did not contribute the
acidic rains as compared to the anthropogenic activities.
Chemistry of Acid Rains Oxides of Sulphur, Oxides of Nitrogen and Oxides of
Hydrogen viz. water and Hydroxyl Radicals.
Impacts of Acid Rain
Impact on Biota and Human Life
This is because, Calcium and
Magnesium are leached away by the Hydronium ion of the acids
Impact on Buildings:
Normal pH of Rainwater
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17Major sources of stratospheric chlorine
How to control Acid Rain?
Acid Rain Program
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP)
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Sulphur Emissions Reduction
Protocol Gothenburg protocolSulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol
Gothenburg protocol
Combating Air Pollution – Legislative and Policy Interventions Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
Central Pollution Control Board
air pollutant
(including noise)
What are Air pollution control areas? State Government may, after consultation with the State Board, by notification
declare any area or areas within the State as air pollution control areas.
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National Air Quality Monitoring Programme
four air-pollutants viz., SO x , NOx , Suspended Particulate Material (SPM) and
Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM)
Understanding Bharat Stage Emission Standards Background of Indian Emission Standards
Idle emission limits
Cold Start Norms
Standard ReferenceIndia 2000 Bharat Stage II Bharat Stage III Bharat Stage IV
How it works?
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Norms CO( g/km) HC+ NOx)(g/km)India stage 2000 norms 2.72 0.97Bharat stage-II 2.2 0.5Bharat Stage-III 2.3 0.35(combined)Bharat Stage-IV 1.0 0.18(combined)
Emission norms for Heavy diesel vehicles
Norms CO (g/ kwhr) HC(g/kwhr) NOx(g/ kwhr) PM (g/kwhr)
India stage 2000 norms 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36Bharat stage-II 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15Bharat Stage-III 2.1 1.6 5.0 0.10Bharat Stage-IV 1.5 0.96 3.5 0.02
Norms CO ( g/km) HC+ NOx (g/km)
India stage 2000 norms 2.0 2.0
Bharat stage-II 1.6 1.5Bharat Stage-III 1.0 1.0
How Bharat Emission norms are different from Euro Norms? in terms of stringency or emission limits, the Bharat Stage and Euro norms are equivalent
only one modification lower maximum speed
conditions of the road and general climate of India must have been taken into account while fixing this.
Water Resources & Water PollutionWater Availability - River Basins & Ground water
43 per cent of the
catchment area of all the major rivers in the country.
Impacts of Water Pollution
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Faecal Coliform
Water Demand
Per CapitaWater Availability (2001) incubic metres is 1820 Cubic meter.
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21 Agriculture receives the greatest share of the annual water allocation.
Water Pollution
Driver of water pollution
Fertilizers
bio-accumulate
eutrophication
High levels of fertilizer use has been associated with increased incidence of eutrophication in rivers
Industrial Sector
Domestic Sector
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22Water Pollution: Policy Intervention
National Water Quality Monitoring Programme (NWMP)
National Water Policy 2012
The first notable observation in National Water Policy 2012 is that
this policy treats water as economic good.
Objectives:
Important Observations:
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Legislation on water
River Boards Act
Inter-State Water Disputes (ISWD) Act, 1956
Scope of the Act:
only to interstate rivers river valleys
Water and Constitution of India Water is a state subject via Entry 17 of State List, thus states are empowered to enactlegislation on subject of water. But this entry is subject to the provisions of Entry 56 ofUnion List. The specific provisions in this regard are as under:
Entry 56. Regulation and development of inter-State rivers and river valleysto the extent to which such regulation and development under the control ofthe Union is declared by Parliament by law to be expedient in the public
interest.Entry 17. Water that is to say, water supplies, irrigation and canals, drainageand embankments, water storage and water power subject to the provisionsof Entry 56 of List - I.
At the same time, the Articles 131 and 136 of the Constitution have been used by theStates frequently for bringing the matters related to inter-State rivers before theSupreme Court via the Special Leave Petitions. Further, Article 143(1) of theConstitution has been used by the Central Government (via President) for seekingopinion of the Supreme Court on the matters related to inter-State rivers, under theadvisory jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
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Creation of the Tribunal:
power of a Civil Court verdict is equivalent to Supreme Court verdict
But at the same time, you must note that the verdict of the tribunal
can be challenged in Supreme court via civil suits
can not be altered by new tribunals
can be altered by new tribunals.
Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal (April 1969)
Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal (April 1969)
Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal (October 1969)
Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (June 1990)
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that, to a varying degree, resist photolytic, biological
and chemical degradation.
bioaccumulation
biomagnification
Common Characters of the POPs
Dirty Dozen
Governing Council (GC) started investigations on the POPs.The process began with 12 POPs which were most commonat that time. They were called "Dirty Dozen".The Dirty Dozen are:Aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor,hexachlorobenzene, mirex, polychlorinated biphenyls,polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinateddibenzofurans, and toxaphene.The list enlarged later with inclusion of some morechemicals.
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25Low Water solubility
High lipid solubility This property leads them to bioaccumulation in animal tissues.
Semi volatile:
o
o Bio-accumulation, Bio-concentration and Bio-magnification
Bio-accumulation
Bioconcentration
Bioaccumulation Bioconcentration
Both Bioaccumulation and Bioconcentration occur in the same organism But
Biomagnification occurs across various trophic levels in a food chain.
Biomagnification
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
limit the use of DDT to malaria control
o o o
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India and Stockholm Convention:
Stockholm Convention and Endusulphan:
organochlorine group of pesticides
Toxicity Classification
acaricide (killing tickes and mites).
Cashew Plantations in Kerala
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27International Programme on Chemical Safety
three UN bodies viz
Rotterdam Convention on Hazardous Substances
The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed
Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade
shared
responsibilities
not a legally Binding
convention
Marine Pollution, Oil Spills and Marine Protected Areas
London Convention on Marine Pollution
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by
Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter
non-legally binding convention
Hazardous su bstancesThe Hazardous material or Hazmats are the solids,liquids and gases which can harm people,organisms, property and environment. TheHazardous Materials are often subject to variouslegislations. The Hazmats may be radioactive,flammable, explosive, corrosive, oxidizing,asphyxiating, biohazardous, toxic, pathogenic, orallergenic.
What is Cultural Eutrophication When the process of Eutrophication is increased by thehuman activities, it is called cultural Eutrophication.This is because the human activities (mainlydevelopment in nature) increase the surface run offand the nutrients such as Phosphates, Nitrates aresupplied to the Ocean water. They may be supplied
by Constriction works, treatment plants, golf courses,fertilizers, and farms.
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Mercury Poisoning in Fishes
Minimata Disease
Oil Spills
Impacts on Marine Life:
Plumage:
Ingestion:
Furs:
Photosynthesis:
Recovery
Bioremediation of Oil Spills
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29Oil Zapper
five different bacterial strains
converts them into harmless CO2 and water
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
Law of the Sea treaty
Internal waters:
no interference of the foreign countries
Territorial waters : 12 Nautical Miles
foreign vessels are
NOT given all rights to passage through except "Innocent Passage".
Archipelagic waters :
Contiguous zone : 12 Nautical Miles beyond the Territorial
waters This means that it is 24 Nautical Miles from the baseline limit
enforce laws only in 4 areas viz. pollution, taxation, customs, and immigration
Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs):
200 nautical miles
Marine Protected Area
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30 Any defined area within or adjacent to the marine environment, together with its overlying water and associated
flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation or other effective means,
including custom, with the effect with the effect that its marine and/or coastal biodiversity enjoys a higher level of
protection then its surroundings.
India’s Marine Protected Areas 5 designated Marine Protected Area
International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling
International Whaling Commission (IWC)
Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary surrounding
Only two such sanctuaries have been designated by IWC till date. is Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary
Wadden Sea Agreement
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31 Netherlands, Germany and Denmark
ACCOBAMS
MARPOL 73/78
Climate Change Concepts & Questions – Compendium-1The below compendium continues in next module and covers some potential questions for UPSC Examinations
What is Climate?
What are Forcings in context with Climate?
What is Radiation Balance of Earth?
Effective Radiation
Effective Radiation:
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Implications of Radiation Balance
What are Climate Feedback mechanisms?
What is Ice-albedo feedback?
How Climate can be predicted but Weather can not?
What is Polar amplification? warming in polar regions due to climate feedbacks
The amount of energy reaching the top of Earth’satmosphere each second on a surface area of one squaremeter facing the Sun during daytime is about 1,370
Watts, and the amount of energy per square metre persecond averaged over the entire planet is one-quarter ofthis. About 30% of the sunlight that reaches the top ofthe atmosphere is reflected back to space. Roughly two-thirds of this reflectivity is due to clouds and smallparticles in the atmosphere known as ‘aerosols’. Light-coloured areas of Earth’s surface – mainly snow, ice anddeserts – reflect the remaining one-third of the sunlight.
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34What is Carbon Footprint?
carbon footprint stands for a certain amount of gaseous emissions that are
relevant to climate change and associated with human production or consumption activities
'Carbon Footprint’ total greenhouse gas emissions
release of which among the above would be counted in the Carbon Footprint
Carbon footprint considers all six of the Kyoto Protocol greenhouse gases
these emissions are expressed in
terms of CO2 equivalent
tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO 2e).
Organizational :
Product :
How I can reduce my carbon footprint?
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35
What is Carbon Offsetting?
What is Carbon sequestration?
process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and depositing it in a
reservoir
Sequestration encompasses all forms of carbon storage.
Terrestrial Carbon Sequestration
Geologic Carbon Sequestration
Ocean Carbon Sequestration
Soil Carbon and Carbon sequestration?
Soil carbon is the largest terrestrial
pool of carbon (2,200 Gigatonnes).
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Can Organic Farming help in Carbon Sequestration?
What are Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ) and Dead Zones?
shadow zone
Ocean deoxygenation.
Dead Zones
What is Global dimming?
What is Eutrophication?
increase in the primary productivity of the water body or "bloom" of phytoplankton
Nomurai Jellyfish
Some Observations
eutrophos
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Control of Eutrophication
What is Green GDP?
does not mean
does not mean
it accounts the monetized loss of biodiversity, costs caused by climatechange.
conventional gross domestic product figures adjusted for the environmental costs of
economic activities.
first
published its green GDP data for the year 2004
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39What is Impact of Population on Biocapacity?
Thumb rule:
What is Water Footprint?
the total volume of freshwater used to produce
consumed by
Blue Water Footprint evaporated
lakes, rivers, ponds, reservoirs and wells
Green Water Footprint evaporated
moist lands, wetlands, soil, farms
Grey Water Footprint was polluted
What is Ecological Deficit?
was 0.9 Global hectares per person Ecological Deficit
ecological debtor country
ecological creditor
Global Footprint Network
. Guyana had the largest biocapacity in the word. largest Ecological Footprint
highest in the world.
Ecological Debt Day
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