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Muhammad ShahrursCargo Cult

A meditation on his underlying

conceptual framework

kar im l ahham

t a b a h p a p e r s s e r i e s

no.4|2012

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Muhammad ShahrursCargo Cult

A meditation on his underlying

conceptual framework

kar im l ahham

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Tabah Papers Series | Number 4 | 2012ISSN: 2077-8457

d go lt: dtton on ndlyng conctl wokISBN: 978-9948-16-639-9

2012 K L Fondton.O. ox 107442 D, U..E.www.tondton.og

ll gt vd. o t o t ook y odcd o dttd n ny nnwtot t x wttn connt o t to, xct n t c o qotton

wt ll nd cct ctton n ctcl tcl o vw.

ov g 2012 otoly.co.

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Summary o o t to nt n ntgl ctq ttxlo t ndlyng conctl tct o t wok od . t o contnton tt vy tnk ndwt n nto o cn o d o n ntllctl yttt ncly nt n wtng, concoly o ncon-

coly. no c tng, n ot wod, n on do n d wtot conctl gnlogy. n tt tnolty o ondn o ny d nowly dndnt on tdg o t gnlogy o silsila. vl o togt to nvtly lnkd to t vl o t ogn o d,wc w v fy td to tc nd vlt n t .

t od tt t odl o ctq y co n ctvtool n ndtndng t cnc o t vyng nd yddconctl yt tt o, o on old y ntllctl

dvnt, v cntly ntodcd nto t lc wold.

About the AuthorK L, MA (RCA), MA (.), Ph (Caab.), -t-t-Lw o t nn l. H t to oThe RomanCatholic Churchs Position on Islam Ater Vatican IInd ctcldton o t Tanazzult al-Mawiliyya o yddn n ,

otcong.

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Muhammad Shahrurs Cargo Cult

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1

n on low lvl o ndtndng, wn

ogt nto contct wt non o god, ntd o kng ot to ndtndt, to tlv to t ont o vwo wc ty t look t t jct, jdgt o t low tndont, nd t l tyndtnd wt ty tlkng ot, t ocondntly nd nttngly ty jdgnton t.

Lo oltoy1

yo dont know w yo gong, ny odwll tk yo t.

Lw oll

1. The Kingdom o God, tn. y ontnc Gntt, London, 1894, . 128.

d go ltA meditation on his underlying

conceptual ramework

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riiue be eeie t v cton, ncl towc t d.n ocng ny tttd ctq o nly o ody

o d, c to o t l-ocld o o ln t nt t, t otnt to l nd to dnty tntllctl cnt tt qckn t og ty o gto ot on t t o t tn, nd wt wc ty o tolc t ognc nd l nt o t lc ntt-tv tdton. Wt dtly co nt to t d ot ctq t ggv tnc to vnt nto w ngl, o on cold y vn t loo o ntq-

ty, d to td. onct tt w dcd y octo n lcd t t gt o t ow ndd ondwt nodnt cln nd ntllctl cln. n o Gzl, onnt o n gn n ny g, dd o coctd wt nd colt lck o nton., n o n, n odnt o t Zeitgeisttt nowovtkn c o t l wold t, doxclly, ognto t ntllctl tg.

vlng wnd o t gn o dco volv ond

t d o t tonoy o t ndvdl, nd o ton tot noton o oltcl nd tcl ndvdl.2 contn-

2. wod ndvdl w cvd dctly o t Fnc, individualisme,n t 1840. lx d ocqvll cond t wod n De la Dmocratieen Amrique ( Vol 3, k , . 11): ndvdl novl x-on, to wc novl d gvn t. O t w only cqntdwt gotndvdl t nd cl lng, wc doc o t conty to v l o t o llow

ct; o t t od lttl ccl o own, wllnglylv octy t lg to tlndvdl o doctc ogn nd tttn to d n t to t qlty o condton. td nto Engl wn Hny v tnltd t ook. D . D. Lndycontd on t wod n t Encyclopaedia o Social Sciences ollow: y nng o t wod tn tt o tttd o nd wc ntlly odcd n ctn knd o octy. t octy ot lydcd n ngtv t. t on n wc lttl ct d to tdtonnd toty. n t Dictionnaire Apologtique de la Foi Catholique, tq d l o d n wot o t t: ndvdl condton onol ntlty, ltog gowng o nd o n nfnc, wc

cctd y t yttc gnong o ocl ond nd dt, nd yt clt o t l o t go (le culte du moi). condton

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ton tt n no long n t tg o ttlg nd tt tt o ntllcton wll t ondtonl tct o tlvng tdton o l on to nqy on t tt cn

vd t jctvly. n t tnoton o t Kntn dlo t nlgtnnt,3 n t ltt dnd col-lctv ojct o l-dlvy o t ol tlv y dnt ot oton o ctn d, t ulam td tonooltc clgy tt no long ndd, nd t ntt-tv tdton o l t l-vng tcng o t c.n t no-Kntn Valhalla, no ooton toltd, o t onwo jct t oton, o on old y olton,

glty o tngng dvn gt.

4

n ot wod, t g toco nlgtnd n olgton on t ndvdl, nd wnnot oyd to condd nt-ocl nd tono.

nol nd nntl, c t nt o n ntlly ocl; cn lv only n ocl condton. n c clld n octy,nty. t oldty not only n t t lo n tnty. t x-on o ndvdl codd n toy w tt o n: y otk? t ot qnt nd t lt tt o t gngt, w to lvy own l o lv own l lwy to lv o l t t xno ot doctn o ndvdl nd n ncy n vy o

n conoy lgo octy, dotc octy, cvl octy, nd olt-cl octy oly o-clld. Fo t ov qotton t nl tdyo . . Dvn, The Failure o Individualism, own & oln, Dln,1948, . 16. col dyv ddd n The End o Our Time, d &Wd, London 1933, . 8687: tng w cn gd ndvdlonly n tt cton, tog t tll ftt tl tt t t ono lty, lgt nd og. Ll, lnt, contttonl,jdcl ol, tonl, nd cl looy, o ny t ot ndvdlt t nd o nt l-ton, ll ctony;ty v d t dy nd t ognl gncnc lyd ot. ll t

o lo t n o t otln n t twlgt o odn toy.3. Enlgtnnt n gnc o l-od tty. -tty t nlty to on ndtndng wtot gdnc onot. tty l-od wn t c l not n lck ondtndng, t n lck o olv nd cog to t wtot gd-nc o not. Sapere Aude! [d to know] Hv cog to yoown ndtndng! tt t otto o nlgtnnt. nl Knt,What is Enlightenment, n Vncnt G. ott (d.), Readings in Epistemology,Fod Unvty , 1993, .221.

4. n y t o nlgtnnt wt gd to wt ogt to know,tog only o ot t nd o own on; t to nonc t o

l, o, vn o, o qnt gnton, to volt nd tln dvn gt ndoot. d., . 225.

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On t on nd, Knt don t ndvdl to tnk ol nd to t t cll o odnc ddd to ylgo toty,5 wlt t t t t own

tv wn l lvl o odnc to t condo tonoy tl xctd o t ndvdl. n t tggl ondvdl tonoy, t ndvdl ntlly dvoctd to tnko l gd lgo tt n xon o n-dntl do. nnd oowy onc kd, tl to tnk o onl n ct to ly tnk o onl.6

Etcl tono tt o nd tt cknowldg nototy ot tn tt o t ndvdl wll n t ol .

o on n c tt co, nd ntlly o, lglydld d to t nt nl ntnct tt lt to do-nt t n onlty wtot cck o lnc. Fo Knt,c tono n ctgocl tv, w nco lw nto l lvng n ccodnc wt dl tt t o l, nd tt l-wlld. n c c, llxtnl ntvnton, o gdnc, to xcldd n voo, o otw cnnlld y, ndvdl dtnton.7 Jonn

5. gdn wo v o nvolntly tkn ov t von o nv clly n to t tt t gtt t o t (ncldng t nt x) gd tkng t t to tty vy dngo, not to ntondclt. Hvng t d t dotc lvtock d, nd vng c-lly d tt t docl ct wll not tk ngl t wtott go-ct to wc ty nd, t gdn tn ow t tdng tt ttn t, old ty ttt to wlk lon. ow tdng not ctlly o gt, o t llng w t ty wold n tnd ctnly ln to wlk; t n xl o t knd k n td ndlly gtn t ot o ll t ttt. d., . 221.

6. o n, condd o-nd-o, cn be gn: t ll n have gn,

to vd o doyd t t own l. cn no oty nd, c t gt o t t, nd not to cond wt tlnt:d nv d, t cn only nvntd, tt ond, nd nt-tnd. o tt ow ny t ty y ldy v n ld yot, wov cono l to n d nd o k t own, wll wokng ognlly, t not o xng only own dl o on-on. o tnk o onl lwy to tnk o onl; wt clld togt to t ntl xon o ntc looy. W t t cy o o togt nd coondng d. F togt on; t c t t togt tn olv tt . nnd

K. oowy, tn nd Ontl, o , looy o t.n Christian and Oriental Philosophy o Art, Dov, 1956, . 38.7. c xtnl ntvnton d to tonoc y Knt. H. J.

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Fct,8 cco o Knt, ocdd to olv t ntttwn nd nd tt/xtnl lty y dntyng ll ltywt t go. n ot wod, togt co t only nd ltt

lty. logcl nd o t dvlont l wt n xtgo, not nlk tt o x tn, wo ld tt on d todol t cd o t cold condd on own.9

Fo t o o t , o ndlyng looy owc w tk o cton wll lgly t totln-o-t tdton o looy, ltog not xclvly o, nc tdvton o odnt togt t dctly o t dcdnc.

Shahrur in context gn lty dvnt y ctng n dng oyo wlkng n Dc wt t, nd ng kd, -toclly, wt cold ddc t c o t 1967 dt. pre tn lodtclly ont to t to o-l o yddn n ,10 t ndln ytc wo ddn 1240, nd ly t l o lty dt on t nt nd

ton, The Moral Law or Kants Groundwork o the Metaphysic o Morals,Htcnon, London, 1948, , .100, . 74.

8. 17621814.9. Wnn D d Hlg vzt, t D z Egnn gct. x

tn, Der Einzige und Sein Eigenthum, Lzg, 1845, . 128. tnlton o t ltt wok y . . yngton wc v not conltd,ttld The Ego and His Own, Fld, London, 1912. lo x tn, TheEgo and His Own, lctd nd ntodcd y Jon oll, Jontn ,London, 1971. togt o x tn (18061856) nt Kntnndvdl tkn to t ltt conclon. t g 491 o t ctd txt

tt: Evy ng o to , t God o n, wkn t lngo y nqn [o tn] nd l only n t lgt o y l on o t. (Jd o Wn , Gott, d nc,cwct d Gl n Enzgkt nd lct t vo d onn dwtn). Fc n l vn tt: ...o t vwont odl, t tng n tl, God (nc God t l tng n tl), onlyt go n tl, tt , t go tt dtnct o t ndvdl nd -cl go. Otd t go, t no God. Ldwg Fc, Principles o thePhilosophy o the Future, Hcktt, ndnol, , 1986, . 28.

10. nttngly nog g wdly condd t l o nt nd,

inter alia, t ot oond tycn n lc ntllctl toy. ld dd, Quest or the Red Sulphur: The Lie oIbn Arab, tn. tKngly, lc xt octy, dg, 1993.

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d. ont ng, ccodng to t ntv, tt l-gon d co octd y t tyc nd cltvtogt o c nt, ldng to t tdtv lnt n

octy. cto d, n tn, ld to t 1967 toncng tt nd o to tt d ngd to ty cl o c nt-tcl nfnc. oltclly gtc vwont ggt tdl o wol wt o ntllctl toy on t otno lnk.

ntllctl tnc ltnoly long to tc wn lgon nd odn cnc tlly nvolvdn l-vltoy g.11 otvt cnc v lgon, nd

lgon t to ovd t qd vncl nod to cn-tc toy. cnc ncltd n t co ot tlt xt vty, wt n lfly nd olylong o t ttnt o nty wtot t nd-c o concvd o jctv l. Fo , t wold l nd n-dnonl, nd oonnt c t oc-ntt ulam otcl, n o tw, ovwogt lt ttologcl onooly xod.12 n vw, lgon , ovll l, ot ow nd t l-vng nlton o xtnllty. lgon lo n dology,13 tool o ocl concod.

11. W dn wt nlogy (qiys) oc o lw conqnc oo qt o nvlty n lc lglton. dtonl jdnc ntd y t tod wc lockd gnton o jt ly ndt lgl nd ntllctl ozon o vnt-cnty . toy olt ncton ctly wll wtot nlog, wc llow mujtahids to ly ootd n t contoy contxt nd to ttt co-on to ly l wt nc to t ltt lt o cntc c. lo llow t to colt lc lglton wt t tologcl

og n t cnc. nd tnn (d. nd tnl.), The Quran,Morality and Critical Reason: The Essential Muhammad Shahrur, ll,Ldn, 2009, . 215 (ncot QMC).

12. dtonl jdnc ccdnvlty n vo o vynow cltl nd ntonlt gnd tt fct tcl oltcl nt-t o tn ty do t nvl tcl g othe Book. W ooto dntngl lc lglton o t now cltl ctv wcllow cltl dvty yond t cc lgl t on t ncntn nnl. QMC, . 215.

13. l to ly, n lt-onttd on, n dqttoy o octy. y toy, n dology. ndtood o

tt ol nd conct ot octy, o tt n n lnc ndnot n Dc w kd qton, ty old gv t nwnd tk t tnd. wt w cll dology o clt now. n

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tycl dnon ntly nd ntlly nt oc tlt c. on tt tnn gllntlyd tologcl ctc n t ntodcton to

ntl wok cly c t ctq ondd on tycl ndtndng o lty.

d n odctv to nc t ook n 1990, al-Kitb wal-Qurn.14 Fo t oo t , v ld on ntl wok dtd ndtnltd y nd tnn,15 wn t ttd ttt vol n ttt to nt nt v n ngl ook, covng lot two dcd o lcton

nd (lot) t nt ct o togt.

16

t t-o onl to gd t wok dntv ttnt o t, not only ddd to t Wt, t lo co-ng conv y o c to. n tlty nd no-ll ocl tt, tnn vy ct con to t dtnt . dto ntodc-ton nt l y o togt wt vyngnltc ttt to tt t wt wtn od td-ton.17 t y contndd, owv, tt tnn do not

clld t toy. lt tt w w ll n gnt nd o toy. d d o ook on ow to olt toy. lo lt tt toywtot tngt nd og n notng. QMC, . 505506.

t t k- (infl) o t non twn y nd Egyt n 1961, lzd tt w ndd toy o octy o t n- ovnt.QMC, . 508.

lzdtt t ncl o kng toy d to co o nd clt n od to cng togt. l nd t Qn t t o ow clt od. QMC, . 509.

14. d , al-Kitb wal-Qurn: Qira muira [The Book andthe Qurn], D l-l ll- wl-wz, Dc, 1990.

15. ootnot 11 ov.16. QMC, . xv.17. tnn ( QMC, . xxx, n. 40) l tt gt n

nto to t lngtc td on t Qn ndtkn y okozt n t ly 1960. l o t t w ct o t lt-t God and Man in the Koran, okyo, 1964, nog to dl t cl.zt y oc cold dcd tctlt, nd lglyood to t dlctcl ctc od y . zt to

nv qton t ntc ntnc o t ntttv tdton, to o concnd wt dcovng colntt to fctltonl ntc.

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l tt gon nog n dttcng l otdtonl nttton.18

oc o ntodcton on t oco-ntllctl contxt

o nd t nt risson od to v dlv-d lc octy, y dnt o d.19 gn lntltog, tnn ltt t txt wt tonng ootnotwnv otdo l n yol o n wy wtn ad hominem gnt.20 gnl nt o t d ot otgont , owv, dlyd wt tot lgnc ndcndo n t ntvw wt Eckln tt ttcd to t ot-w wll-ckgd ll vol. t sans-tnn,

nd v good contt to t t o t ook.

21

t not t ntnton o t to cont t to t gd nw dng o lc toy nd ndtnd-ng o t dot o t (turth) tnttd nd ndtoody t jdntl cool. Ot v ly tkn t ltttk.22 O to xn o o t ndlyng lo-ocl n t lgt o t ov xoton tt tc t to ntd n t t lc, t tn t togt ont y ont.23 ny coy l o wok

wold yld condl vdnc o t nfnc o otoo ot-nlgtnnt wtn loocl conct, not nlk

18. QMC, . xlvxlv: nd nc t not y to dl n dtl wt lclw o ly loocl ont o vw, nd nc loo-cl vw ll otlnd n Qnc vocly, on occonlly gt tlng tt l to nvl tc, lgon, nd lw tll donntlylc t tn ly loocl o cntc ctv. onclly,n ot to t t God o t Qn o o shara lw nto t

old o no-Wtdn yt, t o t ltt tly nd nco-od nvlty to v n lot.

19. t ntodcton to QMC.20. o xl: QMC, . 46, n. 41; 147, n. 33; 205, n. 23. lo t

cond ntvw o t ook wt tnn w t ltt ldng q-ton qly t woolly conct ntd n t t ntvw wt DlEckln. lo tnn qton gdng toy nd dology,QMC, . 527.

21. QMC, . 501535.22. tnn ntodcton o vw o wok wttn ctq o

n QMC, . xxxxv.23. ot o ton d jctvly, nd, t contndd, d

wtot cnt on.

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t nfnc o wt td cgo-clt l n ntoolog-cl td.24 conctl cgo clt o dgn loo,to, t ojct o t tdy, tt , to xn t wy

n wc ty wldd no-ojctv tndd o tlc tdton nd t concotnt ntllctl cnc.

tnoton tt k to ngnd ov llon o dnton, wt t o n l o tt o t dn. ool co coon on n t lt oty ywt vyng ntnty dndnt on t oltcl cdy lc oct. H ctq d on two-old oco cllng to t toty o t tntt nd ntt-

o t tdton, n n t turth onooly, nd tt ot otd dnton o t n condton tl. noton ocng t dco n tl o ll o co-ooltn to dwn otly o ol cnc.25 Hy tt t knowldg tct o t lc t-dton q nttton tog xt tool c dlctcl ctc26 nvtly ll nto t t o jctvty, oloqntly xondd y Knt, w t ojctv no o tt jctd n vo o tlng t knowng jct t ol

nd jdg o knowldg.n t ntton o t tdy, t ont conctl

t n wok wll xnd, nly ol o no-ntlt l n odn cnc, to xlct t ovnncnd otln t lcton. oton o -ctonl

24. tnn to t ndly n QMC, . xx: ynttwn Wtd cltv looy, Gn tonlt dl,

nd t tctl o ttcl-ngnng nd gvn wok t dtnctv cct ong t wok o ot loocl tnk.On cgo clt Hn oc, The Social Psychology o Social Movements,tn, London, 1966, . 3843.

25. c n ont QMC, . 178.26. gdng x nd dlctcl ctc, to wc w wll tn low,

tt: tod, tt , dlctcl ctc, lv t wotwl tdyng x, t not n dology. wnt to xlo tcl conncton twn t o nd t contnt (nd nttton) od t gvn tocl ont, nd t conoc, ocl, nd dologclcto tt v d nd dtnd t contnt nd o. wydlctcl ctc o otnt n y toy o knowldg. t to tt dont tk nytng o x. QMC, . 531.

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t c t d tt t nttton o t tdtonnctt n ndonnt o ll vo cvd onon nd gnnng nw. ncld t conng o t d o

tcnq o tod t ot otnt ct n t vl-ton o knowldg, nly, t noton o t otnco l tt cn cnclly ld nd ld nvlly. cond -t xn t d o odn cnc vis--vis t dcnton d on tocl clcton ontl looy, ldng to t nctcl oton o tnntnt-cnty toy o ncy og nd t nfnc on dvd dnton o n tt o cong t

tn ng. ov -t v n con inter alia to otyt co nt o oc to t tdy o ln t lnc on clt-cc wtn loocl conct. wol dvton o t naturalistllcy27 ldng to dtnctvw o ycl nt, nd t o odn otvt cnc tndd o cttd, o t dlt ndonnt olt coltc looy n t vntnt cnty. c o-, , v d t lnton o t ncl y

t ntllctl ovnt n vo o t ncl o yco-ttcl cnc. t o contnton tt t conct nt o nvl lcton no lvnc, nd conqntlycnnot dvocd o tcl lgo nd cltl dvl-ont o wc ty g on tt not d y l. ttt to gt t onto t lc tdton, concolyo not, lltt two-old ndtndng: t to nd-tnd l nd t coologcl tg; nd to ndtnd

t ot-tn Wt. t o contnton tt t ndonttd n wok y ndvtnt o wtnconct ncntton tt ct t lnlly-d dy t ttnc o olton t tn ny ondndtndng o t. nfnc cn dcd cl-tl Ddot ct,28 vng ycologcl ond wc

27. t d n t ltl n , t llcy o t doctn ontl, t tn n t looc n cd to t y jdnt

ood to ntl lw.28. Ddot ct wll-known to ktng nd dvtng conltnt.

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t ntllctl lc lndc y nttd lcc to t n cll. conct to lookd tn t contxt o t ovdng wok o t noton o t

tonoy o olty. t t ol ndvdl, xndlow, wc t to ononc on t tdton ndl l qld to do o.

Quran, Morality and Critical Reason dont-ng nd cl ook tt o vy lttl to t d. dontnt l n t ntllctl nvt, t jdc d-lyd n vy ct, nd t nntllgl ontcton. t tyl ncnt o t ony ontlt o t ly twntt

cnty, t wt l tt nd lgnc. ctc o

29

onv n t dcton o lc octy to tt o c-ct not nlk t l dcton ond n t ol tlodjonl o notn Eo, ndnnng vy toty o oct. otyd ncot, ntllctlly cl-lngd nd cld-lk n t nccty to ow nttv n tocl nd lgo l olonl l vw o t ognntv.30 l clt o y, t tn oltc cvl-ton, dcton tt dolnt o x own dctont vw

ct co o t notoo xl t ot y Dn Ddot n Regrets on Parting with My Old Dressing Gown, wo notcd tt tlty o onc olc tdy d cngd dtclly ollowng c nd cqton o nw dng gown. ct o t cw to ct t nconco nd to tdy n c nn to fct contnty twn xnv gnt nd t ondng. d to v contnty o conc fxv n n nt, o ttonc ncl o n ojct tkn ; ot t o on l gd to cono to t. J . wtcll, Lead us into Temptation: TheTriumph o American Materialism, ol Unvty , w Yok,1999, . 198200.

29. ndg o td o onol otn cd ctc dt t ulam, ggtng tt t ttl d o o t ocky. Foxl QMC, . 7172.

30. o xl QMC, . 462: Ov long od o t, cqcnc co cond nt o -l, nd ntlty o (oltcl) -nd co xd n t nd. ng-n-l wo tynn own ol y t logc o nd co t to o ntonl o. coolly o t lv ntlty t n o no-

ty -l v wn cd wt t own tg, t tdton,nd t ol wo nt t t. lo . 463, 506, 528.

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o lgon ocng olly on t ot gt o lgo nwlt dgdng ny nn tl lty.31 tkng to wtng t y dl o t ntllctl nt-

nc o lc togt nd t nt contnty. H oct lgon t tdtonl tdy o lc tology, cool-ogy, tyc, lngg nd looy dd not xt, nd ttt only nng tocl otgont t con-oqocntt nd t cdlo tl nd -tl ttng o t noldng o g o dlvnc.32

oton cotno wt vo gol tt l o xlctly dvoct. ccodng to , t ulam o

1400 y v nltd ol y t tnc to t tcontol ov t.33 y v don t c o t tdtynd t lv ttcnt to t otc .34 n tn

31. QMC, . 464: o-clld lc wknng g wndl. ntdo n wknd olty w v gnd clt ll o yocy, don-ty, nd nllty. nd t o ol oc olly on t y ndtl, nd t o won dcd to co muajjibt(vld), t ow wll ov dcln n od nd lc olty. lo QMC, . 465:O onol col dng ntlty o cono wcd t to do wt ty told y t lgo ld. y

do not wnt to ctcl qton o t ollow nd tn to coltly wtcd o.

32. Wn ny nd nton d o col o toy, t d n xl to t d o t ndqt ntllgnc ly ont o t oc ty nd to v lvd n. tycl nd n-ond xl ond n QMC, . 343: Lt xgt c l-znd l-Zk w vct o colly to tt, ) gdd tonon nlll nd ) took t ccont conct, lt-ng n doctn tt ttd tocl l nto lc toy, oo von tog wc ly tocl ntv tn nto nctd

tg, nd tg nto lglton. y t t l-z nd l-Zkwot t cont, ty cold not t cct t c vl t txto t tdton wc d cqd n toty tt ty dd not d tocllng.

33. y ulam, n lgly uqah (jt), ood to t dnk o ntllctl nd tl c o t lc ntllctl cnc.

34. o xl QMC, . 150: Qn nd to tkn wy o oonol col c t tttd lk tt o ndctd ol:ty nd t n nctclly n clod o ty. y do not kqton tt ty t odn, tonl nd, no do ty ndtnd tloocl qt o t tt. y t Qn ly toolo oltc nd tltc xotton to ng t n ln wtt vw. Qn nd to tdd y n nlgtnd, dctd, nd

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ld to gdty wo nl xon to. oltcl ndocl ol cd y l tody dct conqnco t oon wt tlty. w w to look clo t t

Qn, owv, w old nd tt ll doccy, conoccc, cntc dvncnt, nd n qtl xl olty jt ond t con nd cn d nto t txt. o n twy o t cltl conco t ulam nd t ctdsunnah , wc nt ll l. wy owd to dn wt t n vo o cvl nd cnl codlooly d on t wlt tnng nog cltl tt to ovdn lnt o cognl l dntty.35 o t ot ,w old contn to v , vn ondly, n t wy o Jon o Gog Wngton, t notng o.36

tll d, owt nvly, to t toy o nc-y og, t toy o tnot volton, t to ttcl xcttd xon o tologcl cttdnd vl ot cnd nclctd nto -n n Eo ndc o to t otk o t cond Wold W. to t txt n t ntty, nd nv qtond,cly c ty won tcl o t tt dd

ntllctlly on d. ly tycl o o. t nttng to not tt t n ov nd ov gn tt o tulam lton wt tdton ng on o ow. dcton tycl o con noton o knowldg ly nttv o owt tn wdo.

35. o xl QMC, . 497: W v ood togot t voltt lc lw old ld n nd cvl lglton wtn tlt tt ll t. t q t ncl o anfyya wc llowcng nd llty o onon. t q t nttton o cvl octy

nd t xtnc o lgltv l, lctol yt, doctclcton, nd t olty o coctng nd vng lgo atw.Fo, anfyya t cvt o t v-cngng n ntt-ton o t lw dndng on t ltt cntc dvnc.

36. QMC, . 1819: t wold tl to nt tt oct old lwy odlld ccodng to d () tt on t n nnl1,400 y go. t wold n dt nd tgnton wod nd ddn t gt dl o n vo, o ll-cng tt tycov ll o l ntl t cong o t Lt Ho. o do o woldgv d () wod nd dd, ncldng t wy t, t wy dd, nd t wy d tootck, t nctty t njnc-ton othe Book. lo notodox vw on t ot , QMC,. 80101.

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nqtonl nd de rigueur. H toy o ll doccy ogndt nd nond. H ntton nd ol o tocl contct doctn tocl nd cl.37

gt dclty n ovdng ccnct ctq d tot cl nt o txt, nd wt oong:nly l-xon qdng looy.

ollowng n xnton o ont llc,conct tt ny d old w o n t lctonollowng t ovdng nc tt t Kntn nto ngly clttd o o to. t ttng, to, to otlnn t olty tt Knt ogt to tl y wy o

ctq.

A survey o Kantian moralityand its implications

o o l ll cctd y d tocy-ck loocl contnton nd ly t n d-contxtld o wtot ny ond ndtndng o tnoton tt t contnton ncy t o lg con-ctl tct tt nl o t. d o

ol tonoy tog ncton o lgo toty, dvoct, cnnot dvocd o t wd ot ot ct gvn t Kntn nto o t Enlgtnnt.

Hnknd wol gtly dvncd, oc o tt w no long nd not ot onot vlton w cn ly on on nd otd xnc o t wold. cntc nt-

tton o t odn v ntd ocnd otood, nd t nw lgltv lnd lnt v ntd ncnt ng ndt ngood. n ot wod, wt t l ot ot ndd too t od o xtnl, olntvnton nd conqntly lo t ol o lgoxt.38

37. Fo toy o doccy nd doctn o t ocl contct, QMC,

. 337338, 393, 464, 528529.38. QMC, . 75. ct 2 o ty nvnton o t nng o

ngood nd otood.

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contnton long to nd nt coologcl onto vw tt dtly co otv onc t contnton otd. y o t nt o t tonoy, nd

wnc t c, o t tot otnc o tt on y tt nonon c nd cond wy l ql-d to k do.

ol tonoy conct cd Knt ttnt o t,nly n t wok o Jn-Jcq o, nd lt tnWol, wo ot ood olty d on odnc. odntd n vl n ntnt t tn ntllct, vtod y ll n. H cll o n to tn to nt w

cll to lv n o vy ocl ond tt td nd tnd lty.39 gnt otlnng t tnc y ctd nt wy:40 God, wo Jt, wll jdg n on t o dnc to t dnd o olty. t wold njt o God,to, to jdg n n t wy, d n not n gvn ta priori knowldg nd ccty to dtn t nt o to

39. ccodng to o, ll on good nd ny tnt n nng-nt o lty. ny lw od y octy o wtot ctlnt o

lty cly c ll n w on . tn to tvtt o nt, owv, w toclly nconcvl, t nw ly wtt toy o t ocl ontct oowd o Got. n mile, ook ,. 232, o tt: t gtt good o ll not ow t lty. tly n only wnt wt cl o, nd do l.t y ndntl ncl, nd t . 267: Lt ly down n ndnl t ncl tt t t ovnt o (n) nt lwy gt. n Rveries dun promeneur solitaire, Vt ond, tt: no long v ny ot l o condct tn n vytng to ollowy onty wtot tnt. Reveries o a Solitary Walker, tn. y

l E. ttwot, Hcktt, ndnol, , 1992, . 89. vy n lw nto l, ow cn t tt d to ot? Wo t gtto k t lw nl t ll t ol, nd ow cn ty do t? o- ttd tt t cold don y jctng onl to t Gnl Wll,w vy n cold n ot nd ond y t lw. owold y tt no lw cold gnt t l good, nc n nd-ntlly good, nd know y ntnct wt o t own good. Fdo,to, t cctnc o t Gnl Wll gdl o t onl-n, o tt n doxclly dd to vn do not dwt olgtd to o.

40. tcl gnt, ollowd y ny qnt loo,

ctd lcdly y Ht o y (15811648), t ond o wt now td ntton. J. . cnwnd, The Invention o Autonomy,dg Unvty , 1998, . 513.

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dnd l. t to y, n cn dtn y l wt nd to do nd n no nd o n xtnl toty to gd.

loo, Knt t ot to jct t n nd to colt ctcl oc o to olv t confct twntonl nd c y dvng tcl ty o -nonl. Entlly Knt w tttng to gd l n Ltn t. tonl d y tn dcnddto nt, w t dnt cold not cclly t-l t tncndnc o God ov nt. Ec n tn ddcndd nto ctc, nd cold not olv t o t

ton o nd o nt. ot cool o togt ld ttn w nl to know tng dctly, t t zd ton non. tonlt xnd t ond y tng on t tonl clty. Ect xnd n tnt on d on t n clt.41 ot cool ogtto nd todology to xn wt t knowng jctcold v ctn o t ojct o knowldg. Dct o-td ttcl ddcton to nw t qton, wltFnc con otd t ndctv todology.42

Knt n n t Critique o Pure Reason w to c

41. vw o t toy o looy owt ndtd to Knt ownvw o t dcton o odn looy o cnc y t dnt-cton o t co o -Kntn looy wt tology, n nct ondton o t cnc nd to dtnct. ccodng to oty, ttndd von o t toy o odn looy tggl twntonl, wc ogt to dc nton to conct, nd -c, wc ogt n nv dcton, w olton t dvncd

y Knt. H gt v ltntvly ttd t dnc twn t twoc n t o t lton twn ooton nd t concotntdg o ctnty qd o t t tn t od lnt. noty vw, t wold v ltd t wy tt t oltc o -looy wold v n toclly cvd nd ndtood. cdoty, Philosophy and the Mirror o Nature, l lckwll, Oxod, 1980,. 148149. Fo l logy on t toogy o looyo nd t Knt d. . 132133, n. 2.

42. nttngly nog, ccodng to ld oy, wn Gllo dcld dcovy gdng t t, t odly od-ndd con, tnvnto n 1600 o t t tlco n Eo, w dnt tt t tl-

co d t v n lty to v gvn c lt. ld oy,The Unknown God, d & Wd, London, 1934.

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ondton n tyc o wtonn ntl cnc.43 Hojctv w to c tong dnc o t, nd n -tcl l n God, do nd otlty (o t ol).44

n wntd to tl tyc on t o -cl ovton t tn tct dnton. W Dctogt to dontt tyc tog ttcl nc-l, Knt d ctvly td down to dontton don yc.

n Critique o Pure Reason, wttn n 1781, Knt t ot toxlo n on nd t ccty, nd wt t w clo cntc cttd. Dct d ttd t ton tt

t n nd d nnt d

45

tt gv cc to knowldgtt w nvl n nt, nc ll nd w ndowd wtt nnt d. lnt o ncty w lo ovdd ont tt ny cntc knowldg d lo to ncy wll nvl, qd y ndctv onng. olly, owv, wt t ton twn wt w known, clo ng known, nd t ntl od o tng.

ndntl cogntv dl Knt ogt to xlnw t nt o t ojctv ddton to n knowldg.

Dct d voly tld n yt tt t ndo n cold only know t own ntnl tt nd w nlto ccd to nytng otd t lt o concon. tn dl tt Dct ntodcd, to, w tcton o nd nd ody. n ot, t nd (res cogitans) wonl o ntllcton, n cton, nd ll volnttctvty. wold o t ody (res extensa), on t ot nd, wt nconco wold o xtnon n lngt, dt, nd dt.46

nd w only ntd to t ody y wy o t nl glnd,

43. t tod o tyc ndntlly t tt wcwton ntodcd nto ntl cnc, nd wc t ylddc tl lt. Knt, Inquiry Concerning the Clearness o Principles inNatural Theology and in Ethics, 1763, qotd n Etnn Glon, The Unityo Philosophical Experience, d & Wd, London, 1938, . 231232.

44. on K t (d.), Immanuel Kants Critique o Pure Reason, c-lln, London, 1933, . 29 (Bxxx).

45. t td dtton n n Dct, Discourse on the Method and the

Meditations, tn. F. E. tcl, ngn, London, 1968, . 116.46. t cond nd xt dtton n d. . 102 & 150 ctvly.

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ltog w not told ow t co ot. t otnt tonot tt t non w not cogntv on, t nc o ttng xtnon nd t nc o nd o ol, togt. Dct

v t t jnct y jctng t tdtonl coltc ndl dtncton twn tnc nd ccdnt. H ntltk w to dcn only logcl t tn l dtnctontwn tnc nd t ttt y wc w know t. Honng ntlly ld to tl tnc cong dcd to xtnon, togt c ndtngl o tltnc.47 t not dclt to ow on tn v t Knt

apriorism.48 wold yond t nd y xt o Knt, t w

cn know notng o t xct t non ctd y o ownnd to xln t. W n n, to, t cto o oown lty. ln twn tn dl nd dlt -nnt t coltd. n t Critique o Pure Reason, Kntx t noton o tnc ynttc a priori jdgnt.49Fo Knt, tnc, to, no ontologcl vl nd cnnottll nytng o t nt o lty, t nc o tng ttt n nknown.

dnc o Knt twn ojctv nd jctv not

t l on, t on o dg t tn on o oot.Extnt dd ojctv ty dtnd y lyycl c, nd jctv wn dndnt on yologclnd ycologcl condton.50

Fo Knt, ojct o two cl:phenomena, t jctvon o nc o tng, nd noumena, tng ty n tlv. Knt, tn, tlt t cogntv ol-t on to cltv togt: n, ntllct, nd on. On

c o t ot t tn n oot. n ndowd wt a priori lnt o t nd c. Wn no-n nvok t cton o t n clty, t clty contt t

47. Les Principes de la Philosophie, 1 t, . 601, . 63, n D-ct, Oeuvres et Lettres, lotq d l ld, Glld, , 1953.

48. A priori cognton n knowldg tt on wtot t ngnod y n xnc.

49. t (d.), d., . 483484 (A565/B593A566/B594).

50. on K t, A Commentary to Kants Critique o Pure Reason,2nd d., clln, London, 1923, . 279.

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lnt o t nd c to t ct o cogntv ntcton. lnt v to old t cton o non.51 Onc t tkn lc, t co n cl ntton, wc n tn

v to nvok t ntllct to ct on t nd old t n ccod-nc wt t own a priori ctgo, o wc t twlv.52

Onc n cl ntton n oldd o ognd ndotd n t wy, t td jdgnt. ctgo nt o o o t ctgo, wt c o t o vngt nc. o t ctgo qntty, qlty,lton, nd odlty. Jdgnt n tn nvok on wt t

a priori o, wc dctd t t d: t d

o t go o t l, tt wc n ll ntnl non;t d o ot tn t l o t wold, tt wc n llxtnl non; nd t d o t yond t l o God,tt wc n ll non. Wn jdgnt oldd yt t d, wc long to t noumenalwold, ty tn condd ond knowldg.

Followng on t, jdgnt o two ty: nlytc ndynttc. n a priori nlytc jdgnt wt t tonltdd to, t t ctc o Knt tt c jdgnt

ncl o dvncng cnc t ttc nd non-xnv.Ect loy ynttc jdgnt t ty xl oa posteriori jdgnt, w t dct ct o xnctt cnnot to nvl o ncy. ynttc a

priori jdgnt dvd y Knt xnv nd xtntl, c t ttnt all bodies are heavy. conct o vn, dct, cnnot nd nlytclly o t concto od. c jdgnt, Knt tt, q two lnt,

nly o nd tt. Fo ovdd a priori y t ntl-lct, t nn, ncton nd lw o knowng. tt tcl cton n gn o t nonl wold. Foovd nvlty nd ncty, nd tt ovd clknowldg.

51. t nttng to not tt wton ttd tt yc ncly qdt xtnc o n olt c nd n olt t. Etnn Glon,The Unity o Philosophical Experience, . 234.

52. t dclt to wy t only twlv, o ond o only c n.

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ynttc a priori jdgnt Knt tologcl co-nton. yt o conct contttng a priori knowldg,.. knowldg not dndnt on xnc, td y Knt

tncndntl nd ood to t cl od wn t con-cn od o knowldg.

dclty tt t cn no lton o lty c t only n lton o contcton o lty. yn-ttc a priori jdgnt n lloy ctgoy tt cn, n t nlnly, nv vod ng nlytc.53 lty t dcd to tct o non on n cton lon. yond t tgt wol o lty dcd to t wold o t nd. non

ly onl o ctlyng t n cton to nc-ton, nd t noumena, tng ty n tlv o nc,cnnot known t ll. cn no ojctvty n knowldg,to, nd t nvtl jctvty cn only ld to o-ond nd noll ctc. t jctv, tn t y kd n wt wy Knt wok cn condd ctcl ttn dogtc. t ctc n nd lt, tn n wtwy cn on k o ol olgton? t cn no ctnty,n wt wy cn t ny ctv tyc?

ccl cto to wn dng Knt tt ly long to t Gn ontc ovnt, wn n-tntlty ogt to c gd tonl ldng to tntton nd nnt octd wt Lng nd Got.Wt Knt otlt, oncn volton n looy,

53. W y y tt gnl ooton, c tt 2 + 2 = 4 cn t nt o two wy t a posteriori o a priori. t not t o ojct nt ot wold nl t cono to ctn condton. condtoncnnot vn ttd, tll l ld, wtot o knowldg o t ot

wold, o tt wn t ooton ld to l ojct, t ovoly -nt a posteriori knowldg; w t tt wt t ooton t ot cl o ojct nd condton, nd t ooton tn ly gvck to t knowldg w v voly t nto t. t t ootoncn lo ld to cl o ojct w gn n o nd n c wy tt ty ty t condton ncy o t ooton to t.Wn d n t wy, t ooton contn a priori knowldg, tt cn nv tll nytng ot t ot wold only ot t gn-ng o o own nd.

W tt wn ttcl ooton ld to ojct n ta posteriori nn, ty cn ly no knowldg ot t ot woldyond tt w v voly t nto t, wl wn ty ldn t a priori nn, ty cn gv no knowldg t ll ot t otwold ex nihilo nihil ft. J Jn, Physics and Philosophy, -dg, 1942, . 4748.

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tt t qton o ow to ct cd ny dvlont otycl ncl to dtn t dcton nd nt ot cton. how to ovdd y ctcl on, tt to

y, ncton o t wll. ojctv lty o t ol lw, otlt, cnnot ond tog cltv on o y wyo ddcton, nt cn t ovd a posteriori y xnc,nd yt t ly tld o tl.54

n Critique o Practical Reason, wttn n 1788, Kntogt to tl tt t ol lw, ctgocl tv,o n olt olgton tt nvlly lcl. yctgocl tv, Knt nt t o n wc t ol

lw condd; tt n t cond cton o tt,Groundwork o theMetaphysic o Morals, ctgocl tv cond tt not condtonl on ny o. n on n,t not wy o yng lw o concnc. n Groundwork,55Knt tt tt t ol o t ook to k ot nd tlt ncl o olty.56 H dd t:

v dotd n t wok t tod wc tnkot tl, ocdng nlytclly o coon

knowldg to t dtnton o t ltt ncl,nd gn dcndng ynttclly o t xn-ton o t ncl nd t oc to t coonknowldg n wc w nd t loyd.57

tcl dl n t ttnt Knt l to t o coon knowldg wtot ocdng to dn wtt knowldg nd t nt o t coonlty. Ft on n

54. The Analytic o Pure Practical Reason n . K. ott (tnl.), KantsCritique o Practical Reason and other works on The Theory o Ethics, Long-n, 3d dton, London, 1883, . 120, 136. ll tnlton wll ot ott dton nl otw ttd.

55. The Moral Law or Kants Groundwork o the Metaphysic o Morals, nwtnlton wt nly & not y H. J. ton, Htcnon, 1947. lo Fundamental Principles o the Metaphysic o Morals n ott, KantsCritique.

56. ton, The Moral Law, . 60, . v; Fundamental Principles n ott,Kants Critique, . 7.

57. ton, The Moral Law, . 60, . xv; Fundamental Principles n ott,Kants Critique, . 7.

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t t cton o t tt,58 gn to t coonndtndng wtot ny dnton. t nt coonn od o knowldg, n wc c t t w tl

o looy nd no to t, o coon n n ojct oknowldg, n wc c t ynonyo wt t ncl? ndntl oon, Knt dct yt on tnvlty o c noton, tt to y, tt t t to ll t llt. t dclt to ow jctv noton c t cn lvtd to nvlty y stroke o t loo n.

It could be said that Kant is merely attempting to establish moral-ty on t o on t tn n o oton. oton

jctv nd vy o on to on, Knt ltntvlyond olty on on, wc tk to nvl. laws of reason being the same as those of logic, he considers them to olt o tt t onng oc vld o on n not. nvl on t , tn t cn no vlty nolty, nd d on on, tn ty lo t to ll n.To act immorally, therefore, is to act illogically, as he correctly positsfurther that the law of contradiction is the highest law of reason. Wewll tn to t contnton t low.

n t t cton oGroundwork, Knt ocd to otlntt good wll dnd c not c o wt t do ong ot, t ly d to t volton,59 t ct o wllng.ol vlton t dndnt on t ntnton o t wll. vytng n nt ncton ccodng to lw, tn onlyt tonl ng cn v concton o d o lw, nd onlytonl ng o t clty o ctng ccodng to t con-cton o lw, o ncl. t t ccty wc Knt t

t wll. t dlntng t cy o wll ov on, noton wc xt ldy n t ond ntl ndtndng,Knt ocd to t ot conct o dty.

Dty t lcton o t good wll wn t oo ncl-nton. vlton o n ct good, t ol wot, wnt od o dty t tn nclnton.60 t t

58. ton, The Moral Law, . 72, . 21, ton odny nd; Funda-mental Principles, n ott, Kants Critique, . 21.

59. ton, The Moral Law, . 62, . 3; Fundamental Principles, n ott,Kants Critique, . 10.60. ton, The Moral Law, . 65, . 89; Fundamental Principles, n ott,

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ooton. nclnton nd dty concd, t condd goodonly dty w t otvtng cto ctd on. o-wt ov-ctv nd t ncl wt wgt Knt lc on

t nt n wc t ct od, t o c to d tt ndnc not n oltc ovdd ttt ovdng dty od. Knt l to t ctlnjncton o lovng on ngo n xl to lltt conct o dty.61 cond to lov on ngo dty,owv, lov cton cnnot condd t t n-cnc (.. ctcl o ctv kndn) cn , n t o t cttt t y gnt on nclnton. cll ctcl lov

ood to tologcl lov. t lov tt ootd n t wllnd n t ncl o cton, t tn tt o tnd yty. t ooton, to, tt t ol wot ttc-ng to n ct o long t od ot o dty. Wt t cvd y t ct ccl o not notnt o tol vlton.

n cond ooton, Knt tt tt n cton dono dty dv t ol wot not o t o t wct d (.g. d t oo62), tt to y tt t wot

not dndnt on t lton o t ojct o t cton tly on t ncl o volton y wc t ct tkn lc,wtot ny gd to wy t ct w ndtkn. t owtdclt to ndtnd t ooton logclly t to no conncton wt t t ooton. nw oln tt dty cnnot dnd y wt t olg, t y t ct tt t dty.

n td ooton, Knt tt tt dty t ncty

o ctng o ct o t lw. t t ooton xcldnclnton, nd t cond xcld lt, t td ot ct o t lw. Wt lw, tn, t y kd? lw tt wc w o on olv nd cogn ncy ntl. t od on y o wll. Knt tt:

Kants Critique, . 14.61. ton, The Moral Law, . 67, . 13; Fundamental Principles, n ott,

Kants Critique, . 15.

62. t l to conto totl o notv xl o t oln t n wo gv to t oo c lov t oo nd not oto ct o t lw. Nicomachean Ethics, ., 8, 12.

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v dvd t wll o vy l wc cold to t o odnc to ny lw, t nnotng t t nvl conoty o t cton to

lw n gnl, wc lon to v t wll ncl63

y ncl n t ctgocl tv, wc to n wc t cond o t ol lw xd. Kntprovides several differing formulations of the categorical imperative:ct only on tt x64 (.. ol ncl) wc yo cn wllto co nvl lw. H t ot td ctcl ncl

o t wll t d o t wll o vy tonl ng wllwc k nvl lw.65 ccodng to t ctcl ncl:

ll x dtd wc cnnot ccod wtt wll own nctnt o nvl lw. wll to not ly jct to t lw, t o jcttt t t condd lo kng t lw otl nd cly on t ccont t o ll jctto t lw (o wc t cn gd tl t to).66

t o Knt tonoy. n jct only to tlw wc d y nd wc nvl. H tonly ond to ct n ccodnc wt wll wc own ndwo o to k nvl lw. o t tv cn d ctng lwy on tt x wo nvlty on

63. ton, The Moral Law, . 70, . 17; Fundamental Principles, n ott,Kants Critique, . 18.

64. x t jctv ncl o volton. ojctv ncl (..,tt wc wold lo v jctvly ctcl ncl to ll tonlng on d ll ow ov t clty o d) t ctcllw. Fundamental Principles, n ott, Kants Critique, . 17, n. 1. Knt lodd not dnton t . 38, n. 1: x jctv ncl octon, nd t dtngd o t objective principle, nly ct-cl lw. o contn t ctcl l t y on ccodng to tcondton o t jct (otn t gnonc o t nclnton), o tt t t ncl on wc t jct ct; t t lw t ojctv nclvld o vy tonl ng, nd t ncl on wc t ought to acttt

n tv.65. ton, The Moral Law, . 9899, . 71.66. ton, The Moral Law, . 9899, . 71.

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cn lwy wll. Wt dv n to do t ctcl on,wo otvtonl dl to k ctn tt on dot on ntt n odnc d on vnt ct o t ol

lw on cnt ncntv o ctng n conoty wt tlglty qnt o t lw.67 q o loton.The rst practical function of pure reason is to make us aware of thecategorical imperative as a practical and concrete standard, vis--vist lglty qnt, o jdgng o tl x. Wt t lglty qnt to? lglty qnt o tctgocl tv tt o cton c tt w wold wntt to d to t tt o nvl lw o nt.68 t

to y tt t x o o cton, onc nvld, wold contnt wt t ntl wold n wc t ct od.69

Knt njon to tt ot ng tonl ng long-ng to t kngdo o nd, tt to y non o t tonlng ond y yt o coon lw. n t kngdo lltonl ng t tt c ot nd t tn n ton nd. How do w nt nto t kngdo? W co o t kngdo wn w, y olgtng nvl lw n t, lo jct to t. W long to t n t ccty o ndvdl

ovgn, c wn gvng lw w not jct to t wllo ny ot tonl ng.70

otnly two n to t noton o tonoyo ol. t lt to t d tt tonoy, o-ty o t wll, cn convyd o o l-dtnton,w t tonl ng dtn o l ow to ct on t o tcl x wc cn wlld nvl lw.t t ccty tt k t cto onl nd ccont-

l, nd to nntly ong t ccty to ol.n t cond n, tonoy to t tonoy o t wll ol ncl, wc olly onl o olgtng t

67. l Dtcon, Wt do Knt n y ctng o Dty?, n otl Wol, Kant: A Collection o Critical Essays, ot D Unvty, 1968, . 324325.

68. t cond o o t ctgocl tv. Fundamental Prin-ciples, n ott, Kants Critique, cton , . 39, 56.

69. t nttton ccodd y cd on, TheMoral Philoso-phers, lndon , Oxod, 1983, . 102.70. Fundamental Principles, n ott, Kants Critique, cton , . 54.

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tonl ng dnc to t lw, nd, to, t o ny ct y do n tnc o t lgl olgton.71 Hcnnot olgtd y ny ot ncl o nd. lw,

Knt tt,72

t tod y t wll o t tonl ng,wc l-lgltv. t t do tt t t wll tov ol olgton. n t c, ny ol lw tt t oyd t d n on own wll nd not on n xtnl ol-gtng toty c God73 o vlton. Htonoc lw, ncontt, olgt t tonl ng on t oeudaimonia ocoon good ncl. ctgocl tv t-o o t dct: tt t tonoy o t wll t ol

ol ncl.n xl o dty gvn y Knt n lltton o tlcton o t ctgocl tv t dty to n okng l o.74 o k o to do otng wtn ntnton o kng t wold to conft two ncl ttcontdct c ot.75 two x o ncl wold tnctvly people ought to believe such promises when theyare made nd, t t t, tt it is right that no one shouldever believe such promises.76 t ltt x nvld,owv, o wold co wotl. Logcl oltyto dctt tt n ct old not contdct tl; nct dty to k o n od to ty t ncl ocontdcton.

t otnt to gt tt Knt qt logcl cont-ncy o cton wt ol goodn. Logcl contncy, o ctngn ccodnc wt ol logcl ncl, owv, cnnotovd n tl/tlv dnton o t olly good o t.

71. J. E. twll, Ends and Principles in Kants Moral Thought, tnjo, td, 1986, . 147.

72. Fundamental Principles, n ott, Kants Critique, cton , . 9873. o , tn, ctcl on t gt to v o gd, w ll

not look on cton olgtoy c ty t cond o God,t ll gd t dvn cond c w v n nwd olg-ton to t. t (d.), Immanuel Kants Critique o Pure Reason, . 644(A819/847).

74. Fundamental Principles, n ott, Kants Critique, cton , . 40.75. Vz. t ncl o contdcton.

76. Fo y o logcl contncy qtng ol vl W. . tc,The Concept o Morals, clln, London, 1937, . 3235.

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dnton o t t t lwy t on n gncy tt -logcl, c logc cn vy wt t t ooton only o ollowng on o ooton tt tkn to t

tl. cnc, t cnnot ovd gnt o t tt, t l long oly to tyc, t cnc o t n-cl. ll tt t logclly contnt t t do not ollowtt vytng tt logclly contnt lo t. wckd cty logclly contnt, n octy w cnnl cctl olly, nd yt ovoly olly ncctl to tonl ng. wold tll condd, owv, ol cty Knt on t lcton o ol. n ndqt

ccty to to dcn t ol o t ol on ottn ltv gond, wc Knt ndntl llcy.n lton to tonoy, Knt l tt conngly n t

Groundwork nd Analytic tt n n nd dd yt tonl ng, nd tt ncl o cng t d-lcton.77 t conng cly c t tt t do n t lntd otv o n ct to con-dd ol, wc ctclly kng n ol noton.n t Analytic,78 lot on t y xlnng tt o ntnt o t ol o d on , nd tt t cond-ton ltd to t dnd o t tcton o o jctvlng o n nd l. t tl ncl odtnton tt y only known clly nd tojctv t tn nvl. o, vy tonl ngjctv n nd l dtn n wt lc -n. tl contngnt ctcl ncl wc dnt o tt wc qd to co lw c o

77. two g tt lltt t tton o totln doctn,t t ng: one nd, owv, wc y d to ct-lly c to ll tonl ng (o tv ly to t, vz. dndnt ng), nd, to, on o wc ty not ly mayv, t wc w y wt ctnty tt ty ll ctlly have y ntl ncty, nd t happiness. Fundamental Principles, n ott,Kants Critique, cton , . 32.

cond: o y ncly t w o vy nt tonlng, nd t, to, nvtly dtnng ncl o t cltyo d. The Analytic o Pure Practical Reason, n ott, Kants Critique,

. 112.78. d., . 112113.

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t contngncy. Knt dnton, owv, tk n nd l nl lt, nc t jxtoton, w eudaimonia not ltd to t ly nl o t coon ndtndng

o n. Eudaimonia o olyn t ctvty o tol n ccodnc wt colt vt,79 nd ccodng to to-tl, not to ng o ftng tt o n, to coctly n ontologcl tt.

contngncy not vodd, ccodng to Knt, vn tw nno gnt ongt collctv to wt cont-tt n o l, nc w nl to c o tclnclnton. Howv, n t ng good nw o lng

God n o cton cnnot locld to t o t ody, ttk o o wol ng. ol n, to, cn nvl, c t on o ntl ng. On cnov t n t onc o t ct o conl y, ncndnc o t ol to t ojctv nd tncndnt l,dtnng t wll nd onng t ojct o t wll.

n conclon, w cn tt tt Knt ntnc tt totv o n ct ol condton ncnt to gond olty tt o nvl gncnc. t on o t

ol goodn o n ct tt t cn d nto nvl lw,tn t xcld lg gnt o ol ct. ctc nwo ndtk ctc ct ndotdly ndtkng ollygood ct; owv, ctc ct not o vyon nd cnnot d nto nvl lw. lly, t n wo ndtk ogtoy ct ndotdly ong olly goodct, t gn t ct cnnot d nto nvl lw. n tltt xl, Knt yt do not ovd o gdton o

t olly good nt o qlty no qntty.n gd to tonoy, Knt ntlly ndtnd God

ontologcl gt ov . ctd ng tonoo n onn, t t tonoy cold d to dvd o t cto cton tl. , owv, ntl tt t ct dnd-nt on God, o ng, t ndntl o condton. not wod, d to o dndnt nt ontologclly, o ton-oy jct to t Dvn Wll nd not o own. God xt o

79. W. F. . Hd, Aristotles Ethical Theory, Oxod Unvty , 1968, . 20.

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Knt n dctont n, wy o jtyng o olty toolv n, ol otlt; c, H ld n cto ctcl t t tn lvd n conqnc o -

ond convcton.80

gnt o convnnc, ttd o, ontologclly ntnl.

n t nltt t o t Critique o Pure Reason,81 Knttn ttnton to t tdtonl oo o God nd ctct on t o tologcl ont oton. ly,ny co to t ncl o clty y o cltv onto tl oo wold ov oltc t ncl cnnv o tn jctv lw o t nd nd wtot ny

ontologcl vldty.

82

gnt o t contngncy otng lo tl nd o t on. Fo Knt, God cton o on n t c o n ncondtond ntyo ll dct.83 t o n d o God, otltndd o n to condct l on nngl nd ol . concon o t ol lw, Knt tlt, ct ttcnnot ddcd o nytng o ltt tn tl.84 concnd, t only vld, owv, wn on xn-ton, t own to noumenally gondd, n tt t oltyo t concon only d to t tonoo ctvty o noumenalng, God.

Knt n ndc l to llow tycl n-cl ny donon yond t nonl wold, nd tn only jctv vldty n t ltt. y dnyng t ontologcl g-nt, lo dot t ontologcl vldty o y d ndt ncl. ncy lton twn t ntllct ndt ntllgl t vd y t dnl, nd conqntly t

ntllct lo dnd y t lck o coondng ntllgl. t ntllct y nd ol ojct ntllgl ng,85t lton twn t two dnd n Knt yt y t

80. t (d.), d., . 29 (Bxxx).81. ook . 3, d., . 485531.82. dcon o t n . Ggo-Lgng O. ., The One God: a Com-

mentary on the First Part o St.Thomas Theological Summa, tnltd yDo d o O. . ., Hd, London, 1943, . 108 seq.

83. t (d.), d., . 366 (A403A405).

84. The Analytic o Pure Practical Reason, n ott, Kants Critique, . 120.85. totl, Metaphysics, ook V, c. v nd v.

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ttton o tonl ncl wt tonl ynttc a priorincl. n, to, tt t cn no knowldg ong nd, totl vd, on cn no long tn ny-

tng t ot ng o t xtnc o onl o on togt. t ontologcl vldty o t ntllct dnd tn t cnno long known ojct, t only t d o n ojct. t t c, t cn tn no dtncton twn t d o tojct nd t n y wc t ntllct cqd knowldg ot. clty o ndtndng conqntly co n-l o t dct ct o ndtndng.

God xt tn w jct to H lw, not o. w

jct only to o, tn t tonoy fwd nd cnnotct l olgton. w l-lglto o lw, tn wt cl, lk ny ot lglto, to l ny lw ttw olgt. ccodng to Knt, w lglto wtot tow, to to wo, t y kd, w oldn to ot toty? W , tn, o tonoy, o do? w, on t ot nd, l to l o own lw, ow cn t ny l olgton? t ctgocl tv nvodld to o nt, tn wo dtnd o nt?

vy n , t not t to ntntonto dlv nto tton o Kntn tton. O ntk, t, n to tl cdnt to contxtl todn lc dco tt cng o ncton olgo toty on doctnl lvl. Knt, toclly, wvotl o onng t doo to c tnk clc,86wo ol o lgo tonoy nd jcton o tdtonllgo toty ld t wy to vnglcl tnty nd ot

otonl o o ottnt. tjctoy tt Knt t-ld w n ttt wtn t ottnt tdton to gd,onc gn, o o Ltn t. H ntlly tlt oton o ll ndvdl wn qton o

86. k o t, tt no n o, owv ctly ndtndt ncl nd concton [.. tologcl], owv c lv o t n clt concon, wo cnnot ow tt ty vogntd n l nd, ng t otco o own lng, cl

to l. On Religion, dtd & tnltd y Jon On, Kgn, l,nc, n nd o., London, 1893, . 47.

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ct to ttld ndndntly o nyon w, n conttto qton o vl, wc jct to ndvdl coong nccodnc wt ctn ct.87 oc t nld owv

w to v cton yond t tn wold. t onctt o c dvoct o o l on t o otd cton o t t o t toclccton,88 on t o looy tt tl no o tnn ccton o t ottnt tn tdton.

The allacy o the tl

y t llcy, n t d tt t lc tdton cn nttd nw y dvtng onl o tocl dvlont,n ccton y t o, n od to v t t,ojctv nd njdcd vw. W o ntl nowv dd to tn to tcl jnct n t wc -cvd od o ty, v t ollow o dn d l-W n , otnly w to nt-tt Y Zo. H ln to ntt t lgon on t o t vlton ntly occng, xcldng ov on tond

o ndd y o lc toy. dty o c noton to v cd , t nvtl lc n qndy. H d o c tk t t d on ntoty o dnton wc do not, no cn , o, oon cntly ond gnt tt cn t, wc l to odc y jctvly tng nng nd dntontogot txt.89 xlctly ttng tt t to-

87. ld cnty, Against the Sel-Images o the Age, Dckwot,London, 1971.88. vgly ndtood n 196465 tt ny dology tt dont ncld

toy o knowldg not lly colt. t tt t lzd tt tt t w to olt toy o n knowldg nd concon,t lton twn tng otd yol nd tng n yo nd. lton t n n looy, nd ow to ov ondtndng o t wll n t n ntl t Ht. notcly d wt t Kntn olton o lty, wn cqcwt t noton tt t ndntl ol o looy to dltt ov tc ntllctl . cndd 1996 ntvw wt

Dl Eckln n QMC, . 508.89. cl xl o t dnton o t t al-islm nd

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cl lgon o l n ndtood, nttd, ndnllld o o tn 1400 y, ntl xoton w tlgt o dy.90 dlon only d ol y l n

t tton o ncy og; tton tt llown to cond tlv w tn t ot nd nto old y dnt o t tcnologcl otcton o t woldtt ty ntly nt t otcton n tl lto gnt vyn n ntllctl nd ol oty.91

t n to nt l lgon tt ntd doctnlly y tlly ov ulam wo v -ndtood t co o t Qn d to t ttcnt to

n nttton ootd to t l o t ot ; l tt lgly ngncnt, tnk, t ltdto tv od o t. n vw, t contcton o tll o t t on t o t ot l tddld t lgon wt n ntnc tt do not v tt o xlotton o t otntlt o t Qn, wct nttd wtot t dnt o tt t ccodo lly wt t dnd o odnty.92 wold t

al-mn t QMC, . 5455: ndntl dnc twn t twoknd o t tt al-islm t nnt (ntl) doton o ll ol nt wold, wl al-mn o o tl wo tt contdct nnnt doton.

90. QMC, . 179: W tody n c tt oton to ndtnd tlgltv v o t dvn g c o t dvnc tt nnd ntl cnc v cvd. nd w cn condntly y tt wv d t ot conon n dong o, wt t xcton, oco, o t o tl.

91. dty loqntly d y tnn n vldctoy

ntodcton t QMC, . xxxv: t ovnt cont o oc-ng t Qn wt cogntv ndtndng o lty tt dly ootdn t ot dvncd dco on nt, coo, nd n octy. Oncocd n t wy, t ollow tt ny dng o ny v n t txtt nv contdct t n on ( d y cntc dt o tnt, ocl nd ntl cnc) o cl lty (tt , glollyvll to n cton). l tt t tdy o cl dtdvd o ojctv lty t lwyprecede t tdy o conct -g o t Qnc txt. t lo l tt xtng cont on tQn wc lck t contoy t nd l to cond t otcnt dcov (nd t y dlt ncld t tasr wok o dvl

col) to d o ny conltton.92. o xl QMC, . 494.

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c-ndd ncton o t lgo tot tt l-vng, nd to n ncton o ty tt t odd wt t cocl, conoc nd oltcl good ogt

y t dvlod nton. t t contndd tt t ltt nd tt ogt to d y l.

modus operandi gn y tly dnngl wod wt own nng nd nnc tt ttlydvocd o t tdtonl ndnnng, ocdng tnto ly t wod n ngly fnt nn wt tnw ndtndng.93 t to lot on twtot o ny ctv ctc, jctv tt-

ton o nng wold ln to ny col. otono tdtonl nd l ctgo nd conct t wt d-contxtld nd nvtd nng n ctv tool o tdontton o t tdtonl ctc. t lo ctv n lyngto t cl nd nnod d tt t to knowldg-l o t tdcng wt d. H dl y ttdtonl col ll t o lkly to nttd fc-ton o t ltt ltton, nd vn ndcty, n tc o o nd t nttton o t dn.

t wold ncl to to gn wt xn-ton o t d tt lgo tdton cn nttd ab initiot tcl jnct o t. d o t ndonnt oll cvd onon n ocng tdton ntllctlly wd-d togot t ot-nnc od n Eo. tto to ot t d Fnc con n Novum Organumld n 1620.94 con wntd to ntgt gnton o

93. ot notooly llttd y nw nng o t tal-muslimn nd al-muminn; t t dng to al-islm nd t cond toal-mn. t dn l-nt, wc co to ttv gnl l n t xtnc o God vn tog ty y long tonot lgon o no lgon. cond dn t l-lv,wc co to wo ollow t ot n t tl nd t vll o l. QMC, . 5560. nttngly nog, Knt, gon, ndWtd o lly-ndd dnton o l t, ctngn o otcton ond t d. olxty, owv, not nc-ly ynonyo wt ntllctl dt n t contxt.

94. o-on yt n ond o o nd nd o oltly to

col l to w wy ll to nd coon noton, nd to lyt ndtndng, t d nd vn, to xnton o tc-

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t totcl nd ctcl cnc y ctng nw ctod95 y wc ogt to tl g twnon nd t cl clty, o t dvoc town nto

conon ll t o t n ly.96

con t nw tod ollow:

nd cn only two wy o cng ntond dcovng tt. on f o t n ndtcl o t ot gnl xo, nd o tncl, t tt o wc t tk o ttld ndovl, ocd to jdgnt nd to t dcov-

y o ddl xo. nd t wy now n on. ot dv xo o t n nd tc-l, ng y gdl nd nokn cnt, o tt tv t t ot gnl xo lt o ll. tt wy, t yt ntd.97

ny o t ov-ttd tod ld n t nnd cvd doctn. dvncnt o cnc not,to, to d on t superinducing or engratingo nwtng on old.

W t gn nw o t vy ondton, nlw wold volv ov n ccl wt n nd con-ttl og.98

l. t n tt n knowldg, w v t, dly

nd ll-dgtd , d o c cdlty nd c ccdnt, nd loo t cld noton wc w t t dt no o xct n nw t o cnc; tt , n ng t glly o xnc ndldng t ; wc no on ( tnk) wll y yt n don o togto. o XCII o t Novum Organum, n The Works o FrancisBacon, d. J ddng, ot Ll Ell, Dogl Dnon Ht, vol. v,London, 1858, . 93.

95. t c to The Great Instauration, n ddng t l., The Works oFrancis Bacon, . 1819.

96. d., . 19.97. Novum Organum, n ddng t l., The Works o Francis Bacon, o

XIX, . 50.98. d., o XXXI, . 52. lo o XXXIIXXXI.

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con k cllngly o d o doctn to enterquietly nto d nd.99 t wc tnd n t wy o cdn o cl o dol. t cll Idols o the

Tribe, wc ondd on n nt t . n nott o tng, o cton n ccodnc wtt o t ndvdl nd not t nv. n otwod n nt ntl n ncl jctvty.100 cond cll Idols o the Cave, wc t o o jc-tv doton;101 n vn low ng o jctvty t tt on nt. td n Idols o the Market-place orPublic Space, wc t o o lc onon nd lngg.102

ot t Idols o the Theatre, wc nt t oogtd y yt o looy.103 cvd yt not nlk tg-ly tt nt ctto nd nl wold. ld to t coton o looy y t dxt otton nd tologcl oton.

o con tod to ovd n wt tyo t ntl wold tog noton o o. y knowngo, con ntnd nc o ol c. o know o to c t nty o nt n tnc tt y totlly

dl. n t c, t connnt o knowldg to -cnt nd tl c y con ntlly to ononl n t wold o t n. Hvng cld t tl ot dol dntd ov, con ocd to ld own ytd on t ndctv tod, nly tog dwng o tl.104 H yt o xclon nd jcton od y

99. d., o XXX, . 53.

100. d., o XI, . 54.101. d., o XII, . 54.102. d., o XIII, . 5455.103. d., o XI, . 55.104. l o nc; o dvton o nc-n-oxty; o coon; o

nc o jcton. on wntd to dnty t nt o otng, onwold t t tl to t ot lt o ojct o oton w tojct o tdy xt tl; t nxt tl wold lt o ojct o o-ton w t nt t wn t w no ooton to t; t tdtl wold lt w t dg cod; t ot tl wold lt o ojct o oton wc ncotl wt t ojct tt

ng tdd. Ot o collton o t lt on wold v t t co t ojct nd to t n ndtndng o t nt. con ctlly

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tl105 owv nwokl tod, t olto ct t otd qd lt to olt n ndvdl cot o yd n to xln n ct. tod y l-

nton, to, w nv d o tld toclly, ndnot vn y con l. Howv, t d o t tabula rasaw d toclly nd nfncd qnt loocltogt.

ndntl fw n con yt onc gn jcton o tyc, wc jct ot o nd o tk o jctvly ldn looy tt cn nv tncndt ltton o t on tt old t. nto

wtn looy tog t cll to g t nd o cvddoctn. ncy g tkn y Dct n Dis-course to llnt t ncty o ttng ot tod o nqyto ctn wt cn ld ctn.106 Fo t two tnk-, t noton o tod107 o tcnq co t donntt o t loo, ltog t n o ql-d n Dct.108 Wt ovlookd y ot, owv, tt dtncton t lwy d twn doctn nd tod.tod t wy tt on y v t doctn, n od

to ovd n o cton o t ttnnt o tc-

t nt o t n xl. d., . 127158.105. lly l ndcton old t nt y o jcton nd

xclon. d., ., . 105. y nt, con ng to c.106. Dct dv o lny ct o ovnc: t w

nv to cct nytng t tt dd not know to vdntly o: tt to y, clly to vod ctncy (la prcipitation) nd jdc, ndto ncld n y jdgnt notng o tn wt ntd tl o cllynd o dtnctly to y nd tt gt v no occon to lc t n

dot. Dco n Discourse on the Method and the Meditations, tn-ltd y F. E. tcl, ngn ook, London, 1968, . 41. lo: ll t onon d cctd tto w concnd, cold not do tttn ndtk onc nd o ll to d o t n od to lc ttwd t y tt on, o vn y t , onc d djtdt y t l-ln o on. Dco , n d., . 37. lo: vlwy nd n t olton dnot to cct nytng wcdd not to o cl nd ctn tn d voly t dont-ton o t got. Dco V, n d., . 61.

107. y method gnd t od o oc wc old d n t to ctnty o tt. odn cnc, t old d, t tod

no oc.108. Dco V, n d., . 77.

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l o. tod cn n ctv (.. good) o nctv(.. d) tod, t on cnnot k o tod ng t ol. tn oc on tod t t xn o doctn,

nd cnnot d to dtn t tt o lood o doctn,nc tod ot on vl .109

coltc wc Dct ogt to ovtn w vyovnt o t ncl tt t ntllct cn tncnd t wold,t wold o nc. t cl o knowng tnc, tnt, o n ojct o cognton, nd to t gnt ttnd non ntllgl. Dct o w to tttto tl gond o ctnty n tologcl nd loocl

ld kn to tt ond n t ttcl cnc. H lo wt gond ng nyng tologcl ncl. lvnt to c oton conttt ltton onntllctl do d on t l tt t og o knowl-dg ovd tdtonl tology to otdtd. ltogt ltton, wn ld, wold ncly ov dto,t nvtl convcton d on t lt o conclontt d on loocl , on tt w contnd wong.110 o Dct, t not o c conclon tt

o otnc c t tod dvd o d-cnng l knowldg. tod lt lgcy tt tntc o contoy nd o-clld ogv togt.111

109. Gvn on tng, not ollow.110. Fo tologclly nntllgl ndtndng o do n t

wold, QMC, . 59, n. 50: ot tt n ng wo oGod (al-ubbd), not H lv (al-abd). Wo o God njoy doo coc, on onl wll oltcl lvl, w lv o God

do not njoy c do. Wo o God cl o lnt-ng jtc n octy, w lv do not v c ow. Wt lldnd o vy n ng wo (al-ibda), not lvy. o w H wo (al-ubbd) n t wold (t w to cootwn odnc nd dodnc), wl n t t-l w wll coH lv (al-abd), nc no coc wll tn lt to n.

111. Wn kd wt d dot, ld: Y. Wn w n, wn gn to d t Qn, knw d to lnt y dot.How? wntd to t Qn cdlty. l d dotnd o dot c to ctnty. d ot toy o dot nn Dct On the Method o Seeking Truth in the Sciences (arqat

al-wul ill-aqqa). t good to v dot c yo c tttog t. QMC, . 509.

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ntlly t lnt to Dct tod.112 t lnt dcl tt ny knowldg tt cn dotdt jctd l.113 ooton tt Dct

lvt to n ontologcl ncl, tt to y, t n o dtnng t t ooton o t l. nyooton, to, tt o ny gond o dot to jctd l. l o t tt tt t not dcn-ng nog. Wt, tn, o t t ooton? t only t t cn ovd t otw t l. ctn oo-ton jctd l tn logclly kng t t tt contdctoy o tt ooton. ot w cvd y

ng o -o lnd tt on ntndd w, Lyl, wtl, t t nw, d to t xgnc o t conc-ton ln, cold dotd o o on, tn otdty wold condd l. Ft, t contdctoy o-oton wold logclly now t, nly, tt Lyl w gly, ooton tt logclly nd ncly ld. n-dntl llcy on o qtng tt wc cnnot ovdt wt tt wc l, t tn concldng ly tt t ooton cnnot ovd t, t do not ollow tt t

ooton l ly on t tt t cold not ovdt. no ddl gond o nctnty ttd. y cl-ng wt ly nctn l, Dct on t wy tot cctnc o ooton tt ntly novd, oxl Lyl ng gly, nd t nd tod l gnto o t ooton.

cond lnt dcl tt only tt ooton wccn ovd wt ctnty nd clty,114 lk tt o t-

112. On Dct tod, ntony ttng, How Firm a Foundation,d & Wd, w Yok, 1939; Jcq tn, The Dream o Descartes,Edton oty, London, 1946; nd Hn Go, La Pense Religieuse deDescartes, Vn, , 1924.

113. d long go notcd tt, n tt ltng to condct, on nd o-t to ollow, jt ty w oltly ndtl, onon on knowto vy n, n d ov; t wntd to concnttolly on t c o tt, togt ogt to do jt t oot, ndjct ng oltly l vytng n wc cold o t lgt-t on o dot, n od to t dd not n t tt nytngn y l wc w ntly ndtl. Dco V, n Dct, Dis-

course, . 53.114. O to d tt dtnct nd cl. Dco V, n d., . 61.

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tc, cn condd to yond dot nd to t. lnt ql t t lnt y gvng cton o ttndd o oo qd o t t ooton, o tt t y

dd o dot. ttcl ooton, owv, nlytclly ddcd o -gd logcl dnton. nvl l o t knd o ctnty n t o nlytcjdgnt. ooton 2 + 2 = 4 dctd on t gddnton o 2 contttng two nt, t ddton nd ql gndcng tcl ncton, o tt t ncy, n-ll nd logcl lcton o t otco. oldt n goty, wt gd to wt conttt tngl o c-

tngl. t t cttd wc Dct w to ot tto wt ooton n ny nc o knowldg ld to t o l. llcy, owv, l n tnong ttclctnty onto ot loocl cnc. ly, tt-c only dl wt qntt o tng tctd o conctojct, t jct ng oxt c. tctonnd t ojct o ttc to l nd ntlly co-od o ntllctl contct tt xt only n t nd. ccdnt, owv, y wy o t nc o nt, cl

o ng known n t lln n wy tt t odny nccold nv . ltog n knowldg cn cond n-l od, t cnnot nco vytng t to know ott. cly wt cold td t y colxo odn yc.

td lnt o tod t ondton, nly tol cogito ergo sum. w w ov, t ct o t tto n d tt t nt tl to t nd cl nd d-

tnct. cogito ol, ccodng to Dct, tt tt ndtl nd to cl nd dtnct. td lnt,n nc, ot t wy tt t two lnt ov ld.d o t ontologcl dty o cdng ng y t cto tnkng,115 Dct nvl dot cnnot vdd y tcogito. tod o nvl dot do wy wt ll n-cl o togt, c , o xl, t logcl ncl o

115. dty l n t noton tt tnkng dd to vldt ng, ncy t nt o tng t cn no tnkng o togt o to ng.

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contdcton. c t c, t dclt to ow t cogitocnnot dotd, nc t logcl ntgty cn only vldtdy ncl tt cctd o to t tlnt.116

Dct nl ol. cnt tt vntlly c to ton n t nntnt

cnty took tn to t logcl conclon, not only ydcng knowldg to wt cold not dotd, Dctd don y tod, t to lo dny ll knowldg tt coldnot ndtood y t nd. nt-ntllctl, wc wtd ny o, cly t t oot t confton ontllct wt on, confton ng o lcton o

lt coltc togt.

The Aristotelian-Boethian classifcation tdtonl oton o coltc otnt to co-nd n od to cv t tn tjctoy, clly wtnt contxt o t clcton o t cltv cnc.117 wll tt tt t dvton cnt ogt to tl, -clly dtd y gt ot xt nonl.

qn ovd cl dtncton nd dnton n DeVeritate118 twn t ntllct nd on. nd, cltyo tocnton, clld on (ratio) ood to t nd t clty o ncl, wc known ntllct (intellectus).y ot nt dnc o ncton, owv, dng on ow n n. ntllgnc (intelligentia) t ct o t ntl-lct, wc t ow nd to dtnct o t t tnynonyo. ct o t ntllct, tt to y ntllgnc,

understanding.119 On d to ndtnd (intelligere), ccodng116. y o t lcton o t t ot n J. G. Vnc, Reality and

Truth, Longn, London, 1917, . 86114.117. y cltv o totcl cnc nt to wo nd t con-

tlton o tt, cnc tt concnd wt tt o t k ott t tn o ny ctcl o; o xl tyc. nd Wlln . J., Dictionary o Scholastic Philosophy, c, lw-k, 1956, . 112.

118. De Veritate, q. 15, 1 d. 2; tnltd nto Engl n t. o qn,The Disputed Questions on Truth, tn. J cGlynn . J., Vol. ,. 272275.

119. Summa Theologiae, . q. 79. 10c; tnltd nto Engl n St ThomasAquinas, Summa Theologica: Complete Edition n Vol, tn.Doncn Ft, n & Ot, London, 1947.

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to qn, c n o n on d (legit) t tt wtn(intus) t vy nc o t tng.120 on, on t ot nd,dnot tnton o on tng to not y wc t n

ol c o v t knowldg o otng l.121

ojct o t ntllct dnd on wc ct o t ntl-lct n oton. cltv ntllct ot wn tntllct nd knowldg wtot nc to tng otdt. ctcl ntllct ot wn t ntllct ndknowldg wt nc to ctvty o tng n gnl. d-tncton twn t two ct o t on ow n t ojct. ojct o t o t true, nd o t ltt, tgood.

wold t t to con t ojct o t ctcl ntllctwt tt o t wll, tgood. goodo t ctcl ntllct,owv, wt nc to ntllgl tt, w t goodo t wll n nc to t goodtt dd, .. t wlldctd to goodn to n nd.122 ntllct lo dvddnto t gnt ntllct nd ol ntllct, d on t d-ng ojct. ctlly ntllgl t ojct o ol ntllct,wc ct on t, .. t ol ntllct, ocdng o otncyto ct. t nt ow o t ol to cv ntllgl o,

nd t to ogt nto t ct o ndtndng.123 otn-tlly ntllgl t ojct o t gnt ntllct tog wc tco ctlly ntllgl.124

Fo qn, t ntllct nd knowldg y wy otcton, wc n tt t dtl tng ntd tot y t n nd tl t y ndng t o. Ft t xtnl n cv t ojct125 nd nd t

120. n otnt t vy tl dtncton to k n nd twnnc nd tnc. n on n ty ntcngl, n not, ty not. nc ly wt ng is. t t ng ntllglgond, t eidos o ratio wc dn tt ng. tnc wt ng is,vis--vis t own l-tnc, t ng n t dntctonlndvdlty; t quod estt tn t quod quid esto nc. W wlltn to t dtncton nd t lcton low. Jn-Hv colO. ., Enc t tnc, n Revue Thomiste, 1947, , . 517524.

121. De Veritate, q. 15, 1 d. 2; t. o qn, The Disputed Questions onTruth, tn. J cGlynn . J., Vol. , . 272.

122. De Veritate, q. 5, d. 1; qn, Disputed Questions, Vol. , . 201.

123. d., Vol. , . 459.124. De Veritate, q. 15, II d.; qn, Disputed Questions, Vol. , . 282.125. t wll to not tt t n cv t datum t t not ntllgl

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g to t gnton, wc ct too o g.126 ctv ntllct ntct t g n t gnton ndnd t nc o t ojct ntllgl. Onc t llnt

t nc o t ojct, t oton t n nd, wn tol ntllct cv t, t tcton o t o o nto t ojct tn tkn y t nd co t ctvtd. ntllct, ccodng to t od, cv nd condton otlty nd olty tl nd ol od, tcvd n t cv ccodng to t od o t cv. ol, to, tog t ntllct know od y knowldgwc tl, nvl nd ncy.127

cntc volton o t vntnt cnty kdy vy tkng dvlont n gd to t clcton o c-nc, lgly dvn y t d to cq tcl o ocogntv ctnty. tdtonl totln-otn clc-ton o t totcl cnc tt w ont t tt tcontd o t t dcln o ntl looy, tt-c, nd tyc o cnc o t ncl lo d to t t dg o tcton wc coond to t dgo tlty o tlton o t ojct.128 t

dg cly t gnc ty o knowldg dtngd -cly y t dg to wc t nd dt o t tltyo tng. cnc n t c cn ndtood t to nclnton o t nd towd n ojct o tt wt vw tocogntv lton. dnton o cnc, to, t dnton on t o t ol ojct, o t ojct nt ntllgl ccty o o.129 Fol ojct, ttd l,

to ntl t ntllct od t tcton. n to c cnnot d to t oc o o knowldg.

126. Summa Theologiae, . q. 78. 4c.127. t o qn, Summa Theologica, tn. Doncn Ft, n &

Ot, London, 1947, Vol. 1, . 422; Summa Theologiae, . q. 84. IC.128. Jcq tn, Philosophy o Nature, loocl Ly, w Yok,

1951, . 13.129. nc vy cnc n t ntllct, t old ndtood tt otng

ndd ntllgl n ct no t n o wy tctd ott. nd nc tng dntly ltd to tt ty tnto dnt cnc. Fto, nc vy cnc tld tog

dontton, nd nc t dnton t ddl t n dontton,t ncy tt cnc dtngd ccodng to t dv od o

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to ctgod o dtngd n ooton to t dgo tlty, nc t o tl t ojct, t ontllgl.

t dg, ntl looy, tt o t knowldgo nl nt, w ojct cnnot xt wtot tt; ..yc, wc dndnt on nl tt o t xtnc nddnton. jct o ntl looy ol ng (ensmobile), nc vytng tt contn tt ol, wc toy jct to cng.130 cond dg tt o t knowldgo tng tt dndnt on tt o t ng t wotl concton cn od y t nd; .. tt-

c, wc dndnt on nl tt o t xtnc t noto t dnton. td dg, nd t gt, tt o tknowldg o t ncl tt tl, nd olyt tdy o ng ng (ens inquantum ens), t ol ojcto t cnc o tyc.

lton twn t t cnc t contono ndtndng t tnoton wogt y Dct nd,qntly, t dlt. tdtonl nd o ndtnd-ng o t cnc t ot ov tt c cnc ltntd

to t on ov t. o ntl looy o yc lt-ntd to ttc, wc ot n tn ltntd to tcnc o tyc.131

n ot wod, ty ot dndnt on tyc ot t ncl. odn ttc, o xl, do not

dnton. ook 1, Lct 1, no. 1 n t. o qn, Commentaryon Aristotles Physics, tnltd y cd lckwll, cd t ndEdnd lkl, otldg & Kgn l, 1963, . 3.

130. t old notd tt ng qua ng not cngl nl t tl. ol ojct to o ntl looy olty. ook 1,Lct 1, n. 3 n qn, Commentary on Aristotles Physics, . 34.

131. lton twn t t cltv cnc nd t clctonnd ltnton oltd y n n n Rislah aqsm al-ulmal-aqliyya, n Tis rasil al-ikma wal abiyyt, tnl, 1298 A,. 105106. qn n tn otd t clcton o dvltndo, olgtng t n conty on De Trinitate o ot,nly qton 5 nd 6. Wt w to tyc, totl dto tology o t ncl. t ndonc o od wo nd to totln tt, t tyc, ltlly nng t t

yc. t old lo notd tt t coltc ctgod cd tol-ogy ot cltv nd ctcl cnc.

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ocd o t o oy ncl tt t n,t o t o dt wc nt t no l t v-l. ct tt ctn conclon y cd o t

dt tt y condd t nd l do not cng t. o t t ncl t l lw. odnyc, n t ddctv ct, tl t ncl oltdy ttc to ovd t wt t ncl. n t ndctvccty (.. xntl tl), t ocd o t own dvdncl. cltv cnc dnd y t dg o -tlty tog ntllctl tcton tn odn yc n ct cnc, n tt n t ndctv ccty, t concl-

on ol t tn ctn. n t ddctv ccty, t too lnt on ttc o t ncl, nd conqntly,ct.

nng o ltnton to t doctn tt nno cnc dndnt on o cnc n t nt-ton o tt.132 n tt n no cnc dndnton o cnc o t ncl on t o wc tocd. yc to ltntd to ttc, wcdo not n tt yc oow t ncl o ttc

cnc, t lnt on t conclon o ttc cnc. yc to lnt on ttc nd t ntd to t cnc qua cnc, ltog tnng t dtnc-ton t t t, n od o t to ctd, t cnnotn t own . yc nd ttc lt-ntd n tn to tyc, o t ltt t ncl to o tyc. Wtot tyc, ty n dc-tv t cn nv xlntoy vis--vis t tt o wt ty

dnty.133 w tn to Dct, w cn tt looy c-

tvly k to ltnt tyc to ttc. H dot c oct tyc wt t yt o tolcyc o totl, tn dd y ot nw odl. H

132. Vera subalternatio scientiarum defnitur: dependentia unius scientiaeinerioris ab aliqua scientia superiore in maniestatione veritatis. HncoGn, Cursus Philosophiae: Volumen Primum, L Unvt

Lvl, Qc, 1961, . 211.133. d., . 213.

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o w to lnk t two cnc togt o tt t yco coltc cold d to no long ctclly t, ttyc to wc t w ltntd w, n vw, nc-

ly lo tntd. o olv t tt, Dct took t odo t t tcton nd vtd t od to ccoodt ncl o vdnc (nly, tt notng cn t tt cn dotd), nd ndd t t tcton tyc, tcond ttc, nd t td yc. tyc t ttcton c, c Dct tod gn wt td tt clear and distinct, nly ttng o t ntllg-l nd dcndng down to t nl.

totln od n n onng d ntl tt ontlwy gn wt t nl cndng to t ntllgl o -tl n t jony. Dct tod ogt to y t tlwold ntly n qt to tl nw tologcl .ccodng to tn,134 t von w Dct ttt to t ntllct o t dtnton o t nl, y not t-ng t nl oc o t ogn o o d. y yngt conct, Dct gn t dlt ngt o nnt,w t nd co ndndnt o nt. cogito ol,owv, cold nv ont to t ncl, t qnctwn t cogito nd t sum not dontl y t ol.

n ttt to jon tyc nd yc Dctogt to nvnt nvl cnc to old t dn. n c to nd n dqt vcl ondd t cnc o nv-l ttc, wn loy lgc qton to xgotc lton nd g. t t nvl ttc towc, cnc, ll ot cnc ltntd.135

Wt o yc n t c, on y k? tncoology ttd y ttc, n tt t ondd on ttcl ndtndng o xtnon, o wc ll t-l ot to ddcd. n Principles o Philosophy,Dct dnt noton o yc wt goty;136 nd

134. Jcq tn, Three Reormers, d & Wd, London, 1932, . 7879.135. n Dct, Rgles pour la direction de lesprit n Oeuvres et Lettres,

lotq d l ld, Glld, , 1953, . 5051, gl 4.

136. n Dct, Les Principes de la Philosophie n d., Dx tn. 64, . 652. lo t dcon n Etnn Glon, The Unity o Philo-

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gvn tt t o goty to ocd o t l to tcolx ooton, dnt t lt ttt o od xtnon. d t o t o-clld Uno tod

o cnc, tlng yco-ttc t no nd t o ll cnc. Followng t, t cogito y od-d to tt cogito ergo res sunt,137 wn Dct dnot tnl od y d o t t tn llowng nlod to d o t.138

wold o xtnon, t l o t ody, co tt o wll-odd cn n t tn yt, only t lo t nd conco. nl conqntly lo dcd

to tot, wt t conqnt o cocl ndcntc vw o nt. W n t dvl totlnwold vw, t tntl o nd t ntlcy dnd t ntl-lctl t o cd ntoology, t nw vw o ntd dcd t od o clty to t ngl cnt c,dnyng ny nl nd n t wold. dnl o nl c dn-nc o o t ognc ncton o cton. t dly o cnt c lon. nw cnc tt ot oton qlly dgng o tlology n tt t k to

tdy cnt c lon, nc t tycl ndqcy, nt co ly ntntl. Knt ctvly contn ttjctoy o xng ol nd n tlv nd ll otojct n. n t Fundamental Principles o the Meta-

physics o Morals, dntly tt:

ow y: n nd gnlly ny tonl ng xt n nd n l, not ly n to -

tly d y t o tt wll, t n ll cton,wt ty concn l o ot tonl ng,t lwy gdd t t t n nd

sophical Experience, . 139.137. tnk to tng . Etnn Glon y, L l to-

dq, n Philosophia perennis, vol 2, J. Hl, gng, 1930,. 743.

138. t ntlly yond t co o t to dlv too dly nto t -cton nd dtl o Dct own oncn volton. v cd

to otln n t od tok ow t tt w v vd t ttonw otvt cnc co t t o ll knowldg.

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ng wo xtnc dnd not on o wll t ont, v ty non-tonl ng, only ltv vl n, nd to clld tng;

tonl ng, on t conty, clld on,c t vy nt ont t ot nd ntlv, tt , otng wc t not d ly n, nd o to tctdo o cton (nd n ojct o ct).139

ov vwont t t c o t nvonntldtcton tt n o c t o t wtn wy o l

n t ltt l o t gtnt cnty down to o own. dlcnt o ny vl o wot n t nvonntl wold tt jctvly nltd to o ootd n t looy w vtttd to dlnt.140 lc vwont ntly oodto t wold vw, cly lc ntllctl toy nolooy o cnton o cocl. clty octon nv toclly n cllngd ntllctlly n tlc wold, o tt t ol o cnt nd t nvtlconclon y o c not ly ncont

logclly t, o otntly, cn only ndtood n ot-tn ntllctl nc. lc looy nv vdt tn ngt o od Kntn ont n t ongongtoy, c t ocology o knowldg o t d nvxtd no w ty v ndd n t l wold.141 Et-ology w nv td o tyc n lc togt,nd conqntly ng w nv td o knowldg. t

139. g 56 n ott, Fundamental Principles o the Metaphysic oMorals, . 46.140. Knt contn, concnng nl, o xl: ...o nl con-

cnd, w v no dct dt. nl not l-conco nd tly n to n nd. t nd n. Lectures on Ethics,tnltd y Lo nld, H & ow, 1963, . 239.

141. Fo t toy o t dcdnc o coltc ldng to odn loo-y, l d, The Rape o Man and Nature, Golgonooz, wc,1987; Etnn Glon, The Unity o Philosophical Experience. Fo t nto lc coolog nd t lton to t l vw o lty, yyd Hon , Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines,

Hvd, 1958; lo , The Encounter o Man and Nature, Gog lln &Unwn, London, 1968.

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o t on tt nttv nd n nto o wtn o o ntllctl dcdnc ng tog Dctnd Knt nd cong to t n t tzcn nd ontl

nl o t Ft Wold W. F o dotng nw todo n vnt-gd oc n contoy togt, d v ly clotd tlv n otwon nd ctdgnt to olv n lloy ntllctl nd ocl colx tt nltd to t lc dntty.

The allacy o scientism

Followng o t ov dcon, l n wtngon coon cton tt tcnology not only vl-t lo nntly ldn wt nt o nknd.142 H -ntl ndtndng o t contoy wold d on tdvncnt d n t ntl cnc, w tcnology gd ng o wlt to octy. O ntt n tcton to t ot o ntllctl dclt tt t vwontovlook. oty dvnc l dnton o cnt tt ony conc wt o t o o t tdy, nly:

cnt...wold ntl cotnt to on o oo t ollowng tnt: cnc dl wt ct gvnndndntly o t c; t cl-nlytctod t only vld od o knowldg-cq-ton; tt t tod old xtndd to ll o cogntv ctvty; tt t lt t only to o knowldg.143

142. loo Lw od ontd ot, tcnology cont o otn cn. t ncld t tcnq o oton nd t ocl ogn-zton tt k tcl cn wokl. n nc, tcnologyfct woldvw. Wc tcl o o tcnology cn, tc-nq, nd ocl ognzton wnd y tcl woldvwdnd on t cton o l, dt, n otntl, nd t ltono n to on not nd to nt. ll Glndnnng, ottowd o-Lddt nto, n ot . c nd Vl Dk,Philosophy o Technology: The Technological Condition, An Anthology,

lckwll, Oxod, 2003, . 604.143. cd oty, The Hermeneutical Imagination: Outline o a Positive Cri-

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tl vdnc ntly gnt tcnoctc t-l gvn t cologcl dt wogt on t nvonnt. dtnct l, owv, vn n t ot tngnt c-

tq gnt t ont o vw, tt t c o lvton wll onlyco o t o o tcnologcl dvnc y wc tolltv oo o t cncl wold wll ntld. not wod, og vn gn ngly nvtl.144

t contnton tt q loton t on tttt tt t ntl cnc tndd o l xct-td. otnt c d togot to not only nc to odn cnc tndd o

cton o ntllctl cy, t t ol cton. cond contnton tt t tton o cnt ntl l, d y , tt cntc dvnc, o ctono t cntc tod, ld to o coltv wt n nncdo o cvl do nd ol wlt.

tnc, on vn ongt t nw cl otcnoct n octy, d on n otdtd ol o wtonn yc nd t otd cy.145 ntlcnc, owv, no long ntntd y dvlont n

qnt yc. noton o nt, nc t -nc o t cond lw o todync nd Hngncl, d t ojctvty ct owt lgl. cll on t ulam nd mujtahid to ndon tdtonlqiys n vo o cntt, ttcn, nd xt,146 nd

tique o Scientism and Sociology, otldg Kgn & l, London, 1982,. 14.

144. no nd to ct cton to t ont o vw t wll

ly t d to xl o t t . 178179, 219220, 331 oQMC, llttng nqtonng l n xct cnc nd t og. ntllctl ckgond o t llcy n dlt wt ov.

145. QMC, . 219220: n dnc o dvl col w gt y ttt ndtndng oudd Allh w ond to t tv nd ttt col cold not gncntly ov o t ntodcton oc wton voltony to, wc gv ll lt old t-tcl ndnnng. t w only t t ntodcton o wton toyo lt tt otcong gnton o cntt w l to tdy -non n nt nd lnk t to t lt tt ll t o n

oct. Howv, cnt l col cnnot ot to t xc.146. QMC, . 492: ct oqiys, o dwng nlog twn two o o

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tt tt qiys old lo coltd wt odn cnct tn ny tdtonl lgo oc.147 coonndtndng o t ol o t ntl cnc vis--vis t

cnc o t ncl, t ot ov. On ntv, cng n t cnc o yc o ttc t ct olt t lcton o t ncl. H ol o t vwn tt not ndtood t clcton o t cnc,nd nt tkn t tol to xn t oton o tlc loo nd tologn on t ont. Onc gn ononly ncont ton nd onon.

On t o odn c n odn cnc, t old

td tt t no tly dct ovton, c t lwy ntdt o xly ntnt twn t ovnd t ovd. Evn wtot t o cncl ntnt,t y ct xly ntnt. ntodc ltv ndjctv condton nto ny xnt tt ng ovd. ncly ct lo on t lt otnd, tntng nyndng wt jctv nton. ltvty, owv, cnnot dctd o ltd c t y dnt o vy occ-on, clly n -cococ xnton. y

o oo, tog, o tgtng t n cococ ov-ton, n tt t vlt cn nowd down condly tollow nt-jctv gnt.

t cn d tt qnt toy long go dlcdt cvd con o t ntl cnc wtonn

lgl c, t don on t o cl vdnc nd cntcoo ovdd y ocologt, conot, ttcn, nd ntl

cntt. col ncton l dv o tt tot ndoltcl lglto. old not don y t ulam nd t jto atw . y tk o t xt to gv dvc onwt old otd nd ttd n tt o tl wo. yold not conltd n tt tt oltly oddn o oltlyllowd (wc God ogtv).

On g 65 et al. t to ctc t ulam o dcng t dn to tl on t tt t ot gt t tk ncvl octy to concn t. H don t ulam o tyngyond t t, .. yond t t o tl cccy o ol.t dclt to tk t ctc oly n t c o c ncontncy. t

co lo vy dclt to ctq t to cng nd o otn.147. QMC, . 149.

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cnc. n 1925, Wn Hng Unctnty nclntodcd n nontl ltton, dt Entn con-ctd ot to ndn t, ov cntt contnton o xct

knowldg. ncl ttd tt ctn o ycl o-t o ovl c oton nd ont nd tnd ngy cnnot ot known to gt dg o cccy. n tt t o con tt ttnd n ngo knowng on , t l c nd nknowl t otco. n t tton t cn no ltno con oot t o ovl.

ndntl ol o nw yc tt t gn-

cnt otntl to lo t nt-ltonl ccty o knowldg, t lw o ntl non oltd o ncl , t tologcl o tycl. ntt own y ycto tology lt on t nc, t noton o cl-ty, t t t o nonl xtnc, cn only ndtoodlttly tog t qton o wll nd dtnton. c t no c tng olt nt ncnc. cnt c cnnot xln t nl c. nd t no c tng, tn wt t t t o t cl l-

ton o non nd t raison dtre? Wt dtnotng to do otng l t, o otntly, wy dot do t? ologt y xln t oc on t o c-ton nd ot, t cnt c, t cnnot nw ttlologcl qton wtn dcln, t qton o t nlnd, wtot otng to looy, o o xctly tology. cntc , n ot wod, cn only olvd togtology, c t lon cn olv t y qton t t

t o ll xloton o non. cond contnton, ollowng t ov, tt n dvnc

n cntc tod ld to tcl nlgtnnt nd nncdcltl tndd. llcy o t l toclly vdntn t c o z Gny dng t 1930, wc tn cont-ttd t ot dvncd octy n cnc gon n t ocntc tod, nd wdly ltd y t Wt n t ot-wod. w no nncd do n Gny, owv, no

cold on cdly tt tt t cltl tndd o tt t wnytng t dvd. gnl tnc towd lgon w on

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o otlty, t tt nd ty clng ll llgnc, o tt oncold not y tt lgo o w ntntl n oldng tnton ck. tton w lo l to tt o Jn dng

t od. t ndnl to tt cntc dvncnt not ncly ynonyo wt ol o cltl dvncnt.

ltl dgdton cn lo yto o t ttono ltvty tt nct t ody oltc wn tt nd o, ogt nd wong, dtngd only on t o onon tty cng o t to t o on to on. t contnddtt t cntc tod onl o t wn t nvd tl o tc o t ncl, t ly contctd to

ctcl tod ld to non ovdng oltonto tcl ol ty . ctclty, owv,cn nttt o o ntllctl gnfcton o t lwn on k to ly t to tc. t lct vlty cont-dct t conct o tlty tt t ncl o vn tcdnd. o ol yt cn k t ntgty o toty ndyt d y n v-cngng tndd o tt nd o.

cond yto o cltl dgdton tl,wc lo lnkd to t ovc o t cntc tod. t-

l tl t l tt oty, wlt nd tty t nd o n wt no ot nl nd.148 cntc tod not ntlly qd to xn nytng yond t tll, nd to ny ld o knowldg yond t tl condd to wtot cogntv vl. lgon, tncndng ttl l, co vl-l n t c nl t v

148. ng tl vy clly tld gol to dd

n on ol o lgon. Fo two xl, QMC, . 68: Unot-ntly, gnton o ulam v ld to tn al-islm nto nvllylcl nd ctcl lgon. ntd, ty v ootd t vl olv tl nd ntlty o fgt o t wold to t xt, tt, o o c tt lt t nl to gv coon ol gd-nc on ow to ll t ton n t wold. nd, QMC, . 69: o tlkot cntly ongong lc vvl nonn. w tk t xlo Egyt nd look t wt nd n t conty twn 1970 ndtody, w tt al-islm lot ntly dd. W ovng d l, not n wknng! n contt, n ot o-clld non-lccont w cogn tt al-islm vyw c n to cont

wlt nd wl v gowng, yng t o-clld lc conty ndd l.

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dlcto lco o t cvnt o ocl wl. clgton lwy ot-t on t od to t, own y t cont xnt o t ly twntt

cnty. t ot gnyng lnt o lcton o

cnt ton tt t xg o t Qn cn only vd t tog n ndtndng o odn cntc dcov-, tt to y non.

d to yl, t Qn o God, t wold ol to nlyz t y t ot odn tod

vll. t cnnot nlyzd y odn tod,t not o God.149

l gn lck o wn o t tdtonl -tonl o tycl ndtndng o vlton. ov ll,t ltd to tc oc to t noton o vlton ng ly contoy o t tl o knowldg,wc ctgo n tn cqd tog cl dt ywy o n cton. dnc, contnd, twn t

two tt n cton gv knowldg o o xtntlovton, w vlton gv knowldg o ovtontt o tolly nd ntclly dctd.150 On cndtly ov n t t no-Kntn cl-d-c dotd n oc, nng tt ny tc vn ncl o cng t tol l.

The allacy o the ideology o progress:ot oc, go l oc151

n t ntodcton to QMC, t ot loocncl ndlyng dng o t Qn. H xln

149. QMC, . 531.150. QMC, . 487.151. t t, tt o t wll co. Lo W cood t ol

ly on t ct,post hoc, ergo propter hoc (t t, to c

o t). Le Rythme du Progrs: tude Sociologique, Flx lcn, ,1913, . 2224.

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tt t two oc n toy: t t ng t od

o otc gdnc; nd t cond, wc gn t t

ot ng nd, n wc w ntly n, toc o t t n wo no long n nd o Godng o H vlton. cond oc t t, o

wt t, t ot-otc wy o lglton, cong

n gt, olton o lvy nd t ncton o

won. y t ncl, t ot t o

ncy og t o t l tt ndl ojct.

cond tt o t t , , , lvl o nocty nd tt d c to nty t tclo dg lvl. Hnty now go t lon.W dcov t nv y olv. W cn now,c w v gdtd.152

n t dt c, nd tt ov, t Qn txt o t vnt cnty tt t nttd nw nccodnc wt t otcton o twnty-t cnty n,

nd cvd lgly lntl txt to ovd coln-ty nt to wt n vd t o own ccod togt dvnc o t ntl cnc. oncton wt God cn d to t n nd nc w v gdtd.

ny nly o t dology o og wll ncly nncolt gvn t dng od vll o t tdy, wccnnot ncod wtn t g o t . Howv,t otnt nd ll to contxtl t dology n t

contoy olton o t oco-oltcl lnnng. t n lgly t n t lt two dcd to ov do-log tng tcl ty o conctl gony ov tdon o t t to t xclon o ny tncndnt notonot tn to tt ll o ocl contol. gony oltd on t tt ly cl to t t on t odolog tt condd ynonyo wt t clntono nknd ntllctl cvnt. ny nton tt k to

152. QMC, . 518519.

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ody o ngt t ton tcld y t old nt-n, nt-og, nd nt-oty. Fo t ot t, tocl gol tt v n cctd t ldng d o

dnng t ctct o t t nt t dtt o tEon ot-tn conctl tdton. d, contndd ov, on notng g tn t colton, colltonnd ydton o ld loo tt ncngly vt ntt o n ltt noty clly ng t gt to nty o t own nt.153

tdtonl lc von o t t dtcllyood to t conctl g tt n vtd on t

ntllctl ttoy, c von ng dnd y t ltlology. ntl xctncy o tncndnt l ngt txdnt nd ot-t l-vng o oct gol. n o ocl jtc tt ootd n nd dnd y t ql- o dvn jtc t tn t dlton o n dnt wol lc ocl od. ocl od dctd onvng t good, oldng t t, nd vng t oltn ccodnc wt t ct o t lc vlton. o ng n xtnl o olt ctvty, t llnt o nl

nd o n vd tog c ctvty, n ctvty wn nov vtclly o tt o cton to on o cton. n llcy o og tt t k to ttt t vt-cl jony o ozontl on. c o gol tt nto dctd on t d to ov t lc woldo t oong o ondton to on tt v t dtoyoc o t contoy wold.154 H d ntlly tonct l, clly to tngd, o t oto-

dox lgo dntty n od to ttt yd tt clttt lgton nto oco-conoc od cd y tl- not d to ov. H todology o t d wt xt gol nd ton, lgtd wtnoton o Wtd nd tog t ltt gon.

153. Ec Gll, Money and Morals, 2nd d., F, London, 1937; Jy k,The Modern Idolatry, tto & Wnd, London, 1934; Fdck oddy,The Role o Money, Gog otldg & on, London, 1934; nd . H.Dogl, The Monopoly o Credit, n & Hll, London, 1931.

154. Fo n loton on ow oco-cltl oc cltt t ctvty, Jonkn, Conessions o an Economic Hit Man, Ey , London, 2006.

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cton oo to xn t fwd o doctn o ncy og nd t gonn d o n ng n tl tt o cong. t o contnton

tt ynctc dng ld to ctnno-Hcltn contnton t ot y gon, ltog otoly dtd y dng o Wtd.155 lc-ton o otng t toy o dlctcl ctc ox wll lo xnd.

tnn tt n ntodcton tt w nf-ncd y Wtd no-Kntn dl. Wtd coologydd c to ltt t tdtonl oton o t lgo

otlook t w o to t gn o otv. H cc nt cnc, notntly, ld to ttt l t nt don o tology,156 nly n t ondng o wt cto known oc tology.157 lty, owv,twn cly conct o cong nd t gon-Wtd ndtndng o t . ltt two w n cttttng t contcton o lgon wtot God. Wtdl tt lgon d to cng to tk nto condton td o wtonn cnc d to t dvnc o t toy o

ltvty co n .lty o gon nd Wtd t fx ndlyng ll

tng. Fo gon, t lty t v-fowng t, n wctng tk t lc. n ook, Creative Evolution, tttt l n volton. ody cngng o t ll t o, tt, no o t ll, nc t noton o o ol,nd lty ovnt. lty cly t contnl cng o

155. -octc loo, Hclt nownd n toy t o-ond o t d tt vytng n t wold cngng t ll t, ttll n fx. On Hclt ntl looy Jontn n, The Pre-Socratic Philosophers: Volume 1 Thales to Zeno, otldg & Kgn l,London, 1979, . 5781.

156. clly Religion in the Making, clln, w Yok, 1926.157. Fo n ntodcton to oc tology, Jon . o, J. nd Dvd y

Gn, Process Theology: An Introductory Exposition, Wtnt JonKnox , Lovll, 1976. Fo yttc t l ctq, otng vll, Creativity and God: A Challenge to Process Theology,tt Unvty o w Yok, lny, 1995. Fo n cct tdy o

Wtd tyc, vo Lclc, Whiteheads Metaphysics, Goglln & Unwn, London, 1958.

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o, nd not t o not o tnton o tt l-ty.158 Followng t ln, to t nytng l, ncldng God, to t tt t ov cngng. t otntl o cn

on n dvnly -dtnd ln, tn gon con-tnd tt t no o t. oton, owv, ld to contdcton, o ll lty n t, t lty t v o o n nd to ttn, o l t wold nngl.159 tnd t , tyclly nd o ncty, otd o t. o,not ll lty n t t.

t nc o tl tng t oton o cng n tlon, tn gon to v wttn o t d o c,

t noton o lngt nd dt, not ng o t nc o tng. c ovo ol, t cl tt not ll odo t xtnon nd cl o ng dtngd. cond glng llcy n gon togt dnl o -tnc, wc ccodng to nto ctd y tntllct, ttc clty, n ng o contnt l-oc. nc contntly n fx, owv, ty cn nv d to tlv ty lwy cong t nv . ty kd ow c n nc cn v tn known, wt

t o t to known? ctvly l tt o gont cn t lty o ovnt wtot t ng ov,n d ooton.

Wtd ood tt nw lgon n ll ccodwt t ltt dvnc n t ntl cnc. n nc-l t tt Wtd t, nd dot, tt tondton o tyc n t ntl cnc. H tt wn tt tt t lw nd ncl o cnc old

v t ondton nd gdng nd o lgon.160 w wov, owv, t dg o tcton wc yc nt now tn tt o t cnc o tyc, nd to toltnt tyc to yc to ndtnd t nto cnc coltly.161

158. Hn gon, Creative Evolution, tn. t tcll, clln,London, 1911, . 318.

159. d

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