Shame and Body Image

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Shame and Body Image 1

Running head: SHAME AND BODY IMAGE

The Effect of Shame on the Perception of Body Image in Females

05/07/2009

Phillip Walker




Abstract

Past studies have found that chronic negative feelings can cause body dissatisfaction in

adolescent females. The present study was designed to see if these feelings, when induced

temporarily, cause cognitive and perceptual distortions in body image as well. Twenty-five

college-aged females were placed in either a neutral ( N = 13), or experimental condition ( N =

12), where they were asked to write about a recent neutral or shameful event in their life,

respectively. Then, they reported their current and ideal body types, and where they thought men

found women attractive, and then performed two visual estimation tasks of their width using a

tape measure and aperture held by the experimenters. Our hypothesis was that those with

induced shame would see themselves as larger, and report their ideal and attractive body types as

slimmer. Our results showed a significant difference between the conditions on reported ideal

body size, and a trend towards significance for what participants though men found attractive.

Although no other hypothesis were confirmed, we can conclude that temporary shame does

cause women to desire themselves to be skinnier than they would otherwise.




The Effect of Shame on the Perception of Body Image

Constant pressures to belong and conform to the styles and habits of peers are prevalent

during the preteen and teenage years of many Americans, and indeed children in most

industrialized nations. When one thinks back to high school, it is easy to recall children—girls

especially—who often criticized each others’ looks, clothing styles, and changing body types.

The onset of puberty causes many of these oft-critiqued body changes, including widening hips,

a deeper voice, and the onset of the menstrual cycle. Because these changes occur at different

times in every school-aged female, those who develop early or late are often the targets of

criticism, and sometimes even exclusion, from their peers, and thus may become dissatisfied

with their bodies. In fact, body dissatisfaction in females can be seen in preadolescent

schoolchildren as young as 10 and 11 (Sands, Tricker, Sherman, Armatas & Maschette, 1996) as

well as pubescent adolescents (Paxton, Eisenberg & Neumark-Sztainer, 2006).

Paxton et. al. also confirmed that females are significantly more susceptible to body

image dissatisfaction than males, as they found that one of the primary social factors predicting

dissatisfaction for younger females later in adolescence (parent and friend dieting environment)

did not exist for males. Furthermore, Fallon & Rozin (1985) showed that, while females differed

significantly between their reported current body size was on a scale of silhouettes and where

their ideal body size was or where they thought men found them attractive, men indicated their

current, ideal, and attractive body types as about the same.

In a follow-up to the Fallon & Rozin study, Zellner, Harner & Adler (1989) confirmed

that women placed their ideal and attractive body types as lower than their current, but also

showed that women with high scores on the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT), indicating abnormal




eating patterns, actually stated their ideal body types as even thinner than where they thought

men found women attractive, showing that body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness in women

with abnormal eating patterns is not based on the opinions of men, but on other factors—possibly

the media’s portrayal of “desirable” women, or their own inner desire to be as thin as possible. In

fact, they argue, a woman’s ideal body shape can be directly related to the amount of weight loss

desired, and thus to abnormal eating patterns. Because abnormal eating habits seem to be one

significant result of body dissatisfaction in females, and could likely lead to pathological cases of

bulimia and anorexia (see also, Johnson & Wardle, 2005), one might wonder whether common

predictors of depression, such as substance abuse or intense dieting, could lead to body

dissatisfaction as well. However, while Stice, Burton & Shaw (2004) found that depression and

bulimic pathology were co-morbid in adolescent females, other factors, such as substance abuse,

had no significant relation to bulimia or other abnormal eating patterns. They also found that

abnormal scores on the Body Satisfaction Questionnaire significantly predicted high levels of

bulimia, emotional eating, stress, low self-esteem, and depression, whereas other possible

predictor variables, such as dietary restraint, did not.

Noles, Cash & Winstead (1985) also found that females’ perceptions of their body image,

and body dissatisfaction in general, could be linked to feelings of depression and low-self esteem

regardless of eating patterns. They found that individuals scoring high on the Center for

Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) were significantly less satisfied with their

body size, and thus found themselves less attractive, than non-depressed participants, despite

observer-rated attractiveness being equal between the groups. Interestingly, however, they found

that those in the depressed group were actually more accurate than non-depressed participants in




judging their body sizes, thus indicating that normal individuals often exhibit positive body

image distortions. Johnson & Wardle (2005), furthered the Noles et. al. study by finding body

dissatisfaction as a significant predictor of depression, specifically in females. Thus, if the link

between depression and body dissatisfaction goes both ways, then those with either would be at

risk for falling into a positive feedback loop, which could lead to substantial negative

psychological consequences, such as anorexia or bulimia. Indeed, a drive for thinness has also

been found to be positively correlated with body dissatisfaction (Sands, Tricker, Sherman,

Armatas & Maschette, 1996). Jakatdar, Cash & Engle (2006) also confirmed that these body

image distortions are significantly more prevalent in heavier women and Caucasian women—

which lends further support to the hypothesis stated earlier, that the drive for thinness and

abnormal eating patters may be a consequences of the thinning of women being portrayed by the

media.

These studies all give substantial evidence to the claim that low self-esteem, depression,

and negative feelings in general cause body dissatisfaction in females—particularly those in the

adolescent and preadolescent age groups, and that these feelings, along with body dissatisfaction,

can also cause disordered eating patterns, and may lead to anorexia or bulimia. The next logical

question would be why. It is unclear if the negative feelings found in women with abnormal

eating patterns just cause them to think their bodies are larger or less desirable than they actually

are, or cause these women to truly see and feel their bodies as larger. For example, when these

women look in the mirror, or move around in the world, do they actually see themselves in a

distorted way, or act differently than women with normal eating patterns?




There is extensive literature supporting the idea of two streams of visual processing in the

human brain. Goodale & Milner (2005) observed the visual agnosic patient D.F. and concluded

that, while she was unable to identify the shapes, sizes, and identities of objects by looking at

them, when she was allowed to interact with them she had no problems at all. This separation

between object recognition and object interaction in the ventral and dorsal streams, respectively,

has been shown extensively by studies in normal populations by demonstrating proper action via

the dorsal stream when ventral stream processes fail, (see Aglioti, DeSouza & Goodale, 1995;

Ellison & Cowey, 2006; Irwin & Brockmole, 2004) and in children as well (DeLoache, Uttal, &

Rosengren, 2004). Thus, while it seems possible that negative feelings and body dissatisfaction

may cause women to see or report their current body sizes as larger than reality, it is unlikely that

they would act in the world and move around as if this were the case. Logic would support this,

as individuals with anorexia or bulimia, or those that exhibit high body dissatisfaction in general,

do not seem to have any trouble interacting with the world.

Finally, another unanswered question in the literature is if more temporary negative

feelings can affect they way women feel about, or see, their bodies. As stated before, there is

extensive evidence in the literature to support the hypothesis that young females who are

depressed or chronically dissatisfied with their bodies report significantly large differences

between their current and ideal body sizes, and between current body size and where men find

attractive. There is little evidence, however, showing that body dissatisfaction, or larger

discrepancies between current and ideal or attractive body types, can be induced temporarily by

fleeting feelings of low-self esteem, sadness, or shame, or that actual perception of one’s body

can be changed by temporary emotional manipulation. This lack of evidence is despite the fact




that temporarily induced emotion has been shown in numerous studies to influence visual

perception in other ways (Stefanucci, Proffitt, Clore & Parekh, 2008; Stefanucci & Proffitt, in

press). Similarly, another question may be if temporary negative feelings could also cause

women to report ideal body shapes and shapes attractive to men as lower than they would

normally. If this is the case, it may inform future intervention or therapy techniques for stopping

disordered eating before it can occur—namely, if negative feelings such as shame and

embarrassment can be linked to slimmer ideal body shapes, and thus a higher likelihood for

disordered eating, then one way to prevent these cases from occurring initially would be

attempting to remove shame and embarrassment from the environment of school aged females.

The present study was designed to test these unanswered questions. We wished to induce

shame in college-aged women to see what effect it would have on the way they reported their

current and ideal body sizes, along with the female body size these women believe men find

attractive, and the body size women have on average. Our hypothesis was that temporary

feelings of shame and embarrassment would cause female participants to view themselves as

larger, and the ideal and attractive female body size as smaller, than they would otherwise using

an array of female silhouettes. They were also asked to visually estimate their body width using

both an exocentric estimation task, where the experimenter held up a tape measure, and an

egocentric task, where the participants were asked to adjust an aperture so it was just wide

enough for them to fit through. Our hypothesis was that the exocentric tape measure estimation

task would be affected by the shame manipulation, with those in the experimental condition

reporting themselves as wider, while the egocentric estimation task with the aperture would not.

The reasoning being that the former task is performed via the ventral stream of visual processing,




and would thereby be susceptible to the emotional distortions, while the latter task would not, as

it primarily performed by the dorsal stream, and thus would show no change with the onset of

negative feelings, just as individuals with eating disorders show no difficulty in moving around

their environment. Finally, as indicated by Noles, Cash & Winstead (1985), it is possible that

depressed individuals differ from normal individuals in that those who are depressed are, in fact,

more accurate about their actual body size, and that non-depressed individuals will exhibit

significant overestimation. Thus, we were interested in seeing if this could be found with

temporary feelings of shame by showing that those in the experimental condition differ from

controls in that they report themselves as closer to their actual body size.

Method

Participants

Twenty-five female participants (Mean age = 19.38, SD = 1.28) from introductory and

upper-level psychology courses at the College of William and Mary participated in this study for

course credit. Each participant read and signed an inform consent form for both the cover study

and the actual experiment (see Appendices A and B, respectively) before completing the study.

Design

A between-subjects design was employed for this study. The experimenter manipulated

the level of shame felt in college students by placing the participants into two groups: an

experimental group ( N = 13) in which they were asked two write about a shameful experience

from their past for five minutes, or a control group ( N = 12 ) in which they wrote about their

morning wake-up procedure. The experimenter then measured the effect this manipulation had

on the participants’ perception of their own body image. The students were asked to identify




several estimates of their own size, their ideal size, the size men find attractive, and the average

female size on an array of silhouettes (see Appendix C). They also used a visual-matching task

and aperture width estimation task to estimate their own body width and the minimum aperture

width they could fit through, respectively.

Materials

The two prompts used for the control and experimental conditions can be found in

Appendix D, and the silhouette scale used to measure body size estimates was adapted from

Stunkard, Sorensen, & Schulsinger (1983). A standard tape measure was used for the size

estimation task, with measurements taken in 1/4ths of an inch. For the aperture estimation task,

two 3’6”-tall planks of wood were used for each side. Also, a mirror was placed at one side of

the room to allow the participants to make comparisons at any point during the study. Finally,

several surveys were administered at the end to control for individual differences among

participants: The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D, see Appendix E),

The Thought-Shape Fusion Scale (TSF, see Appendix F), and a general exit questionnaire (see

Appendix G). The CES-D measures symptoms of depression, with a higher score indicating

higher levels of depression in the individual. The TSF measures how much thought about food,

dieting, and exercise influences individuals’ actual feelings of their body shape. Finally, the exit

questionnaire asked basic questions about sleep quality, level of hunger, and caffeine intake,

among others.

Procedure

One male and one female experimenter conducted the experiment for each participant to

control for possible biases due to the gender of the experimenter. Upon entering the room, the




participants were greeted and introduced to the two experimenters, and then asked to sit at a

table. They were given a short summary of the cover experiment, which was allegedly looking at

the fake “Subjective Sequential Memory Theory.” The experimenters explained that each

participant was being asked to write a short story for five minutes, take a ten minute break, and

then rewrite the story as closely as possible, as the study was looking at the details and facts

people could remember after a break. Once the participants agreed, they signed the cover study

informed consent form, were given the appropriate prompt, and asked to write for five minutes

while the experimenters left the room.

Once the five minutes had elapsed, the experimenters re-entered the room and collected

the prompt and story from the participant. They then explained that the participant would have to

wait ten minutes before rewriting the story, and could choose between sitting and waiting in the

chair or participating in a study (the actual one) being conducted by a partner lab at the

University of Virginia looking at peoples’ perceptions of ideal and attractive body types. Once

the participant agreed to participate in the second study, they signed another consent form, and

the silhouette scale was placed in front of them. They were asked to look at the scale and

indicate, on a separate sheet, four different points: Where they thought their current body size

was, where their ideal body size was, where they thought men found women the most attractive,

and what the average female body type was. They were instructed to use the mirror placed

against the wall for comparison if necessary, and to use intervals of .25 to provide more accuracy

in the results. Afterwards, they were asked to stand up next to the table and perform the size

estimation task—one of the experimenters held up a tape measure to the side, with the numbers

pointed away from the participant, and asked the participant to instruct the experimenter to move




the tape in or out so that it corresponded to the widest point of participants’ body. A similar task

was the performed with the aperture. The two experimenters held each side of the aperture four

feet from the front of the participant and asked them to imagine walking though it. The

participants were instructed to tell the researchers how to adjust the aperture so that they, the

participant, could just barely fit through it without rotating. For both the tape measure and

aperture estimates, the participants were allowed to use the mirror as before. The starting width

of the tape measure and aperture was randomized across participants.

After the measurements were taken, the three questionnaires were administered to the

participant while the experimenters left the room. Once completed, they were collected, and the

participant was debriefed. For a full script, detailed explanation of the cover study and

debriefing, and actual instructions given, see Appendix I.

Results

One participant was removed from the analysis because they reported fabricating their

shameful story. Therefore, the control and experimental conditions each had 12 participants. An

alpha level of .05 was used to indicate significance across all tests, and the means and standard

deviations of each dependent variable are reported in Table 1.

The results in each condition for the silhouette estimates are reported in Figure 1. No

significant differences were found across conditions in the silhouettes on current body size

estimates, F (1,22) = .29, p = .594, or the estimated average female body size, F (1,22) = .59, p =

.450. The estimated size men found attractive trended toward significance, F (1,22) = 2.07, p =

.165. A significant effect was found, however, between the control and experimental groups for

the reported ideal body size, F (1,22) = 5.11, p = .034. For the tape measure estimate, no effect




was found between groups either in absolute terms F (1,22) = .45, p = .511, or when taking the

difference between the participants’ actual shoulder widths and their tape measure width

estimation, F (1,22) = .16, p = .693. Similarly, no effect was found in absolute terms, F (1,22) =

.76, p = .392, or when controlling for shoulder width, F (1,22) = .42, p = .525. In accordance with

the hypotheses, differences were also analyzed for the silhouette estimates. No effect was found

for either current – ideal, F (1,22) = .69, p = .415, current – attractive, F (1,22) = .01, p = .931, or

ideal – attractive F (1, 22) = .93, p = .347, across conditions.

As shown in Figure 2, analysis of the differences in estimation between the aperture and

tape measure width within each condition yielded results that trended toward significance for the

experimental condition, t (11) = 1.74, p = .109, but not the control condition, t (11) = 1.12, p =

.288. Also, as shown in Figure 3, a significant correlation was found between the current and

ideal body size estimates across all conditions, r (22) = .63, p = .001. Furthermore, the

experimental condition did not show any significant difference between ideal and attractive body

shape for the silhouettes, t (11) = -.80, p = .438, nor did controls, t (11) = .58, p = .576.

As with Noles, Cash & Winstead (1985), a cutoff of 20 or higher on the CES-D was used

to indicate depression. Only one participant fell above this threshold, however, and removing

them from the analysis had no effect on the overall results. Out of a possible 132, the scores on

the TSF were uniformly low (M = 12.67, SD = 11.91), and thus no participant was removed from

the analyses based on their score. Furthermore, the scores on these two scales were not

significantly correlated with any of the measures taken by the experimenters during the study.




Discussion

This study was designed to see if inducing shame causes women to view and feel

themselves as larger, and if their ideal, or perceived attractive, body size is lower than it would

be otherwise. The finding that participants in the experimental group reported their ideal size as

significantly lower (skinnier) than those in the control group, and the trend towards significance

in this same direction for the estimate of where men find women attractive, confirms the

hypothesis that when one feels shame or embarrassment for themselves they desire themselves to

be skinnier than they would otherwise. Further research could confirm the aforementioned trend

in significance, and show that the hypothesis that shame also makes women think men desire

skinnier females than normal is true. The lack of a significant effect between conditions in the

difference between current and ideal or current and attractive body size is interesting, however,

as one would expect this discrepancy to grow as shame is induced, especially if there is no

significant difference in reported current body size, as indicated by the present study. More

research is needed to show if, in fact, shame does or does not increase the current-ideal body size

imbalance, or if the result is due to limitations of the current study, as will be discussed later.

Because earlier research (Johnson and Wardle, 2005; Jakatdar, Cash & Engle, 2006) suggests

that negative feelings such as low self-esteem are co-morbid with cognitive distortions with

respect to body image, it is likely that the answer is the latter, as shame is a feeling that often

accompanies depression and other negative feelings.

Furthermore, it is interesting that the experimental condition did not show a difference

between their ideal body size and the body size they thought men found women attractive, and

were in fact no different in this distance than controls. One might expect this to be the case based




on the findings of Zellner, Harner & Adler (1989). However, Zellner et. al. showed this to be the

case only for women with abnormal EAT scores, and so more research is needed to determine if

the non-significant finding in the present study is because a significant difference between ideal

and attractive body shape is only related to abnormal eating patterns, and not depression or

negative mood, or if the previous finding in Zellner et. al. is, in fact, false.

The results of the present study also show that inducing shame and embarrassment has no

effect on the more perceptual measures of one’s body size. Contrary to our hypothesis,

participants in the shame condition did not report themselves as being larger than those in the

control condition, either on the silhouette scale or with the tape measure. Although this could be

due to limitations of the present study, these results suggest that shame only cause cognitive

distortion with respect to one’s body image, while perceptual accuracy remains intact. We did

confirm, however, that induced shame had no effect between conditions on the estimated width

needed for the aperture.

The correlation between current and ideal body size estimate is of note, as it suggests that

the larger a woman estimates or feels herself to be, the larger her reported ideal body size—

indicating either that women are realistic in their desired body size, and thus there is no universal

ideal body type, or, similarly, that one’s ideal body size is scaled to their current body type.

As hinted at previously, there are a few limitations of the present study that could have

impacted the results. In regards to the silhouette scale, many of the participants, especially in the

experimental condition, did not use the mirror at all during the study. Thus, the measures

gathered from the silhouettes are likely entirely cognitive in nature, as the participant would have

to rely on the memory of their body size, or how they have felt about themselves in the past.




Requiring the participants to make their current body size estimates by comparing with what they

saw in the mirror would make the silhouette estimates more perceptual, as originally intended.

Also, the silhouettes only differ in one dimension—that is, only one body type was depicted,

with weight added or taken away from the middle of each silhouette as you move up or down the

scale. In reality, women exhibit numerous body types, so ideally more varied silhouette scales

should be used for future experiments where participants are allowed to make adjustments to

other body parts, and the ratios between them, as well.

In regards to the tape measurements, the fact that participants rarely used the mirror

indicates that they were likely adjusting the tape measure with respect to the memory of their

body size. Furthermore, participants could have been using the size of the experimenter as a

means of comparison for the tape measure width. That is, if a particularly large experimenter was

assisting in the matching task, the participant could adjust the measure to wider than they would

for a smaller experimenter, as they could be adjusting it with relation to the width of the

experimenter. Also, it is possible that participants could be judging their widest point as

something other than their shoulders, and thus could explain why no significant effect was found

for the difference between shoulder width and tape measure estimates across conditions. Future

studies should take more measurements of the participants in order to accurately gauge

distortions between actual and reported body width.

The aperture estimates suffered from numerous problems. First, because only the

participants’ shoulder width measurement was taken, the study was conducted under the

assumption that each participant used this part of their body to judge their ability to walk through

the aperture. However, because the aperture was only three feet, six inches tall, and thus never




reached the shoulders, it is likely that many participants used other parts of their bodies, such as

hip width, to judge their ability to walk through. In future studies, multiple measurements of each

participant need to be taken, including hip and shoulder width, and the aperture should be made

tall enough so that it is taller than every participant’s shoulders.

Additionally, because participants we only asked to write about their shameful or neutral

experience for five minutes, it is unlikely that the effect lasted for much longer than five minutes

afterward. Therefore, some of the measures at the end of the experiment, such as the tape

measure and aperture estimates, may not have been as influenced by the manipulation as the

silhouette responses were. In future studies, participants should be asked to write for longer, and

their level of shame and anxiety should be evaluated immediately following the measurements

taken by the experimenters as part of the study. Also, because the stories were not kept, and the

scales were administered well after five minutes from the end of writing, there is little way a

manipulation check could be performed on the present experiment—a serious limitation that

should be corrected in follow-up studies.

As previous studies have indicated that cognitive distortions regarding perceived body

image are more prevalent among Caucasian, upper-class individuals (Jakatdar, Cash & Engle,

2006), it would be interesting to explore other socioeconomic classes or ethnic groups to see if

the results found in this study could be replicated more generally—that is, if inducing temporary

shame in individuals of other socioeconomic classes or ethnic groups gives similar results to the

present study, or if the effect is mostly restricted to upper class whites. Furthermore, as Sands,

Tricker, Sherman, Armatas & Maschette (1996) showed that cognitive body distortions can

occur in preadolescent children, a possible future study could show that the effects found in the




present study exist in this age group as well. Also along these lines, if similar effects to the

present study are found in preadolescent children, it could help inform intervention programs for

young people at risk for anorexia or bulimia, as it would indicate that body image dissatisfaction

may be closely linked to feelings of shame and embarrassment—feelings very common amongst

middle- and high-school-aged children.

Finally, because it seems feeling of shame and embarrassment do influence what females

desire their body size to be—namely, it causes them to want a slimmer body—and because these

feelings are common amongst both school- and college-aged females due to constant social

pressures and the desire to fit in, it seems likely that shame induced in other manners would be

equally as effective as the method used in the present study. For instance, while this study

induces shame by having the participants personally recall some past embarrassing event, more

significant effects may be found when shame is induced in the moment, and is more social in

nature. Examples include having someone in the room while the experiment is being conducted

who is constantly looking at or judging the participant in a disapproving manner, or having

multiple fit, well-dressed confederates take the study at the same time, and obviously excluding

the participant, in order to make them feel looked-down upon or shameful about their

appearance.

Despite the shortcomings of the present study, it seems evident that shame causes female

participants to desire their body size to be significantly lower than their non-shameful peers, thus

putting more pressure on them to be skinnier. Because shame and embarrassment are often felt in

conjunction with depression, a disorder that is co-morbid with anorexia and bulimia, it seems

likely that these feelings are significant factors in causing cognitive body image distortions, and




thus could be influential in the development of eating disorders. Ideally, this could be used to

inform therapy for anorexic or bulimic patients. Furthermore, although no effect was found on

the more perceptual measurements in the present study, further research with the limitations from

this study corrected could show different results, especially in a more socially induced shameful

experience. If future studies showed that shame and embarrassment influence more perceptual

measures, it could indicate that women at risk for eating disorders, or who feel unusual pressure

to be skinnier, may actually be seeing and feeling themselves as larger than they truly are—not

just thinking it.




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Appendix A

Cover Study Informed Consent Form

Informed Consent Form

College of William & Mary

The general nature of this study entitled "Subjective Sequential Memory" conducted by Jeanine

K. Stefanucci has been explained to me. I understand that I may be asked to write about a lifeexperience. My participation in this study will take no longer than half an hour. I understand that

confidentiality will be preserved and that my name will not be associated with the data collected.All results of this study that are published will not include any identifying information. I know

that I may refuse to answer any question asked and that I may discontinue participation at anytime. I also understand that any payment or credit for participation will not be affected by my

responses or by my exercising any of my rights. There are no foreseeable risks to this study.However, I understand that if I am injured in the performance of this research, the College will

not provide voluntary compensation or treatment. I am aware that I may report dissatisfactionswith any aspect of this experiment to the Chair of the Protection of Human Subjects Committee,

Dr. Michael Deschenes, 757-221-2778 or [email protected]. I understand that if I have anyquestions regarding this experiment, I should contact Dr. Jeanine Stefanucci, 757-221-3898,

[email protected]. I am aware that I must be at least 18 years of age to participate. My signature below signifies my voluntary participation in this project, and that I have received a copy of this

consent form.

_________________________ _________

Date Signature

____________________________ Print Name

THIS PROJECT WAS APPROVED BY THE COLLEGE OF WILLIAM AND MARYPROTECTION OF HUMAN SUBJECTS COMMITTEE (Phone: 757-221-3966) ON March 1,

2009 AND EXPIRES ON March 1, 2010.Appendix A




Appendix B

Actual Study Informed Consent Form

Informed Consent Form

College of William & Mary

The general nature of this study entitled "Visual Perception" conducted by Jeanine K. Stefanuccihas been explained to me. I understand that I may be asked to report on the size of my body. My

participation in this study will take no longer than 15 minutes. I understand that confidentialitywill be preserved and that my name will not be associated with the data collected. All results of

this study that are published will not include any identifying information. I know that I mayrefuse to answer any question asked and that I may discontinue participation at any time. I also

understand that any payment or credit for participation will not be affected by my responses or by my exercising any of my rights. There are no foreseeable risks to this study. However, I

understand that if I am injured in the performance of this research, the College will not providevoluntary compensation or treatment. I am aware that I may report dissatisfactions with any

aspect of this experiment to the Chair of the Protection of Human Subjects Committee, Dr.Michael Deschenes, 757-221-2778 or [email protected]. I understand that if I have any questions

regarding this experiment, I should contact Dr. Jeanine Stefanucci, 757-221-3898, [email protected]. I am aware that I must be at least 18 years of age to participate. My signature

below signifies my voluntary participation in this project, and that I have received a copy of thisconsent form.

_________________________ _________Date Signature

____________________________

Print Name

THIS PROJECT WAS APPROVED BY THE COLLEGE OF WILLIAM AND MARY

PROTECTION OF HUMAN SUBJECTS COMMITTEE (Phone: 757-221-3966) ON March 1,2009 AND EXPIRES ON March 1, 2010.




Appendix C

Silhouette Scale (adapted from Stunkard, Sorensen, & Schulsinger, 1983)




Appendix D

Control Condition Prompt

In as much detail as possible, please write about what you do when you get ready in the morning.

Try to write it with enough detail that a person you’ve never met would really understand your process.

Experimental Condition Prompt

In as much detail as possible, please write about the most shameful experience that you haveever had. Try to write it with enough detail that a person you’ve never met might begin to feel

ashamed.

Shame (as defined by the Webster dictionary) is a painful sensation excited by a consciousnessor guilt or impropriety, or of having done something which injuries reputation, or of the exposure

of that which nature or modesty prompts us to conceal.

Examples:

1. A younger sibling, upset that her older sister was getting married and leaving, followed her around for an entire day and accidentally stepped on her sister’s wedding dress and ripped it,

causing both her sister and her mother to feel and express to her that she had ruined her sister’sspecial day.

2. Getting into a car accident after drinking and surviving while the individual(s) in the other car

died as a result of your decision.

Remember, these are just brief sketches of shameful experiences and you are writing about your own personal event in as much detail as you can. Please, be as truthful and detailed as you can.




Appendix E

CES-D Scale




Appendix F

TSF Scale

Please rate each statement by putting a circle around the number that best describes how much

you agree with the statement, or how much it is true of you. Even though some of your responses may seem irrational to you, we want to know what you think on an emotional level.

Please answer every item without spending too much time on any particular item.

How much do you agree with the following

statements?

Not at

all

Some Much Very

much

Totally

1. If I eat fried food, I will gain far more weight

than if a friend eats fried food.

0 1 2 3 4

2. Thinking about eating chocolate is almost as

unacceptable to me as actually eatingchocolate

0 1 2 3 4

3. Just thinking about eating a cinnamon bun can

actually make me gain weight

0 1 2 3 4

4. I feel fatter after thinking about eatingchocolate.

0 1 2 3 4

5. If I actually choose to eat cake, it is more

unacceptable than if it is served to me at afriend’s house.

0 1 2 3 4

6. If I don’t exercise for a month, I will look

much fatter than if a friend doesn’t exercisefor a month.

0 1 2 3 4

7. If I think about gaining weight, I want tocheck that my clothes aren’t fitting more

tightly.

0 1 2 3 4

8. Thinking about gaining weight is almost as bad to me as actually gaining weight.

0 1 2 3 4




9. Just picturing myself gaining weight canreally make me gain weight.

0 1 2 3 4

10. For me, thinking about gaining weight mightactually make it happen, but it doesn’t work

that way for my friends.

0 1 2 3 4

11. I am likely to gain more weight by eatingfried food I’ve prepared for myself than by

eating fried food my mother has prepared for me.

0 1 2 3 4

12. I feel huge if I just imagine not exercising for

a month.

0 1 2 3 4

13. Just thinking about “pigging-out” makes mewant to weigh myself.

0 1 2 3 4

14. For me, thinking about not exercising for amonth is almost as wrong as actually not

exercising.

0 1 2 3 4

1. I am likely to gain less weight by eating ameal that I’ve personally prepared than by

eating the same meal prepared by a friend.

0 1 2 3 4

16. Just imagining myself “pigging-out” canactually make me look fatter.

0 1 2 3 4




How much do you agree with the following

statements?

Not at

all

Some Much Very

much

Totally

17. After thinking about eating a carrot, I feelfatter.

0 1 2 3 4

18. If I imagine breaking my diet, I want to check in the mirror that I didn’t look any fatter.

0 1 2 3 4

19. If I think about myself “pigging-out”, it is

almost as immoral as really “pigging-out”.

0 1 2 3 4

20. It is more unacceptable for me to think about

having dessert than for a friend to think abouthaving dessert.

0 1 2 3 4

21. If I have to eat chocolate because my friendinsists, I will gain less weight than if I make

the choice to eat chocolate myself.

0 1 2 3 4

22. Just thinking about not exercising can change

the way I really look.

0 1 2 3 4

23. I feel fatter if I just think about “pigging-out”. 0 1 2 3 4

24. Just thinking about not exercising for a monthmakes me want to cut down on what I eat.

0 1 2 3 4

25. If I think about breaking my diet, it is almost

as unacceptable as really breaking my diet.

0 1 2 3 4

26. It is more acceptable for me to eat chocolate if I have chosen to do so, than if I have had no

choice about eating it.

0 1 2 3 4

27. My shape can actually change, just by me planning to eat fattening food.

0 1 2 3 4

28. My body feels enormous when I just picturemyself breaking my diet.

0 1 2 3 4

29. If I think about pigging out, I feel fatter but if

my friend has the same thought, (s)he would

0 1 2 3 4




not feel fatter.

30. I feel fatter if I break my diet when I have

cooked than if I break my diet whensomebody else has made dinner.

0 1 2 3 4

31. I feel fatter just by thinking about gaining

weight.

0 1 2 3 4

32. I feel fatter if I don’t exercise because I am being lazy than if I don’t exercise because my

doctor says I am injured.

0 1 2 3 4

33. Picturing myself eating chocolate makes me

want to check my body to make sure I haven’tgained any weight.

0 1 2 3 4

This scale was scored by summing the values of each response.




Appendix G

Exit Questionnaire

Participant # _______________ Time of Experiment _____________ Experimenter ___________

Sleeping Habits

1) How would you rate your sleep quality?

Last night?

1 2 3 4 5not good at all very good

Over the past week?

1 2 3 4 5not good at all very good

2) How would you rate your sleep quantity (number of hours)?

Last night? 4 or less .... 5..... 6.....7.....8.....9.....10 or more

Over the past week? 4 or less .... 5..... 6.....7.....8.....9.....10 or more

3) One hears about 'morning' and 'evening' types of people. Which of these types do you consider yourself to

be?

Definitely morning type

More a morning than an evening type

More an evening than a morning type

Definitely an evening type

Caffeine Habits

4) Do you drink caffeine regularly? YES or NO

5) How many servings do you have per day (on average)? _______________




6) How many servings have you had today? ________________

Fitness Habits

What is your height? ______________ What is your weight? ______________

How many hours per week (on average) do you exercise? _______________

Eating Habits

When is the last time today that you ate food? ________________

What did you eat? _________________

Please rate your level of hunger RIGHT NOW:

1 2 3 4 5not at all very




Appendix H

Script

Hello, my name is _________ thank you for agreeing to participate in this study about memoryretention. We know from theory of Subjective Sequential Memory that individuals are more

likely to remember paradigms rather than details when they are asked to verbally repeat storiesthey have written. We are testing to see if the same data is replicated during written responses or

whether individuals are more likely to remember more details. We’re going to give you a promptand ask you to write an essay on it for five minutes. We ask that you be as detailed and in-depth

as possible. Afterwards, we will take a short break, after which we will ask you to rewrite thestory as closely as possible. We’re looking at the details and concepts you remember about your

essay after a break. Of course, your writing and everything else will remain completelyconfidential, and your name will never be attached to the data—only your participant number. If

you are uncomfortable or need to leave at any point please feel free, and you will still receive fullcredit. This is a double-blind study, so another researcher will be looking at our responses and

then getting rid of your responses afterward—no one else will see it. Do you have any questions?

Participant reads and signs the writing consent form.

Give the participant the prompt and have them write for five minutes. After this, take the

response paper from them.

Now we need to take a ten-minute break before we ask you to rewrite the story. If you are

interested, our partner lab at the University of Virginia is collecting data on perception of bodyimage, and we would love to have you answer some questions about this during the break. If not,

we ask that you sit here for those ten minutes, as we are not allowed to keep your data if youleave the lab as it may affect what you remember. If you do choose to participate the data for this

study will also remain completely confidential. Your name will never be attached to the data being used, only your participant number.

Participant agrees and we thank them. Give them the UVA consent form to sign.

Give them the images of silhouettes and a piece of paper to record their responses.

OK, now I would like you to write on the first line where you perceive yourself to be on this

scale—that is, which image (or in between which) corresponds to you own body shape closest.

Now, on the second line indicate where on the scale your ideal body shape would be if you couldchoose any.




On the third line, indicate where on the scale do you think men place attractive females?

Finally, indicate on the fourth line where on the scale you think most women, or the averagefemale is.

Participant indicates all of these, and they are marked down on the data sheet.

Now, I am going to hold up this tape measure, and as you to instruct me to move it in or out sothat it corresponds to the widest point of your body. Feel free to make as many adjustments, and

to be as precise, as necessary.

Participant makes this measure; DON’T HOLD IT IN FRONT OF YOUR BODY, and it isrecorded on the data sheet.

OK, next I’m going to ask you to stand up and face these two pieces of wood. I want you to tell

me to make the opening between them wider or narrower so that it is just barely large enough for you to fit through. As before, feel free to make as many adjustments as necessary.

Participant makes this measure, and it is recorded on the data sheet.

Now before we re-write the story, the research team at UVA has asked us that all participants fill

out a brief questionnaire.

Give participants the questionnaires (Depression scale, then TSF scale, then exit questionnaire),

and collect it when they are done.

All right, that’s the end of our study. We’re not going to ask you to rewrite the story you wrote

earlier. What we were looking at in general with this study was how the participants’ moodaffected the way they say their own body size, and they way they imagine ideal and desirable

body shapes. We were looking at the difference between those asked to write about somethingneutral vs. those asked to write about a sad event from their childhood. Obviously, you were in

the _______ condition. Do you have any questions?

Before you go, I would like to know—did you have any suspicion as to what the study wasactually about while you were doing it?

Collect the measurements for shoulder width.




Table 1

Means and Standard Deviations for Silhouette, Tape Measure, and Aperture Estimates by

Condition

Condition

Control Experimental

M SD M SD

Silhouettes

Current Body Size 3.96 1.32 3.73 .64

Ideal Body Size* 3.29 .63 2.79 .44

Attractive Body Size 3.19 .45 2.92 .47

Average Body Size 4.23 .33 4.35 .46

Current – Ideal .67 .94 .94 .62

Current – Attractive .77 1.39 .81 .89

Tape Measure (in.)

Tape Measure Width 18.59 3.21 17.86 1.99

Shoulder Width – Tape Measure -2.61 2.84 -2.22 1.92

Aperture (in.)

Aperture Width 17.28 4.04 16.09 2.43

Shoulder Width – Aperture -1.30 3.72 -.45 2.68

* p < .05




Figure Captions

Figure 1. Silhouette estimates for each condition.

Figure 2. Tape measure and aperture width estimates for each condition.

Figure 3. Correlation between current and ideal body size estimates.










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Shame and Body Image

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