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Shape effect of cavity flameholder on mixing zoneof hydrogen jet at supersonic flow
Rasoul Moradi a, A. Mahyari b, M. Barzegar Gerdroodbary c,*,A. Abdollahi d, Younes Amini e
a Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering & Applied Science, Khazar University, Baku,
Azerbaijanb Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iranc Department of Mechanical Engineering, Babol Noshirvani University of Technology, Babol, Irand Department of Mechanical Engineering, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Najafabad, Irane Department of Chemical Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 16 May 2018
Received in revised form
20 June 2018
Accepted 27 June 2018
Available online 18 July 2018
Keywords:
Computational fluid dynamics
Mixing efficiency
Scramjets
Hydrogen mixing
Cavity flameholder
* Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.06.1660360-3199/© 2018 Hydrogen Energy Publicati
a b s t r a c t
Cavity flameholder is known as an efficient technique for providing the ignition zone. In
this research, computational fluid dynamic is applied to study the influence of the various
shapes of cavity as flameholder on the mixing efficiency inside the scramjet. To evaluate
different shapes of cavity flame holder, the Reynolds-averaged NaviereStokes equations
with (SST) turbulence model are solved to reveal the effect of significant parameters. The
influence of trapezoidal, circle and rectangular cavity on fuel distribution is expansively
analyzed. Moreover, the influence of various Mach numbers (M ¼ 1.2, 2 and 3) on mixing
rate and flow feature inside the cavity is examined. The comprehensive parametric studies
are also done. Our findings show that the trapezoidal cavity is more efficient than other
shapes in the preservation of the ignition zone within the cavity. In addition, the increase
of free stream Mach number intensifies the main circulations within cavity and this in-
duces a stable ignition zone within cavity.
© 2018 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Scramjets are known as the most efficient engine for the
increasing of the flight speed. This engine is simple and low
cost and does not need high amount of fuel tank which is the
main challenge for the long flight. Development of the com-
bustion efficiency inside the cavity is a crucial for increasing
the performance of scramjets (supersonic combustion ramjet)
[1,2]. Since weight of this engine is low and the working
mechanism is simple, this type of engine is more recom-
mended. Hence, researchers have tried to increase the
(M. Barzegar Gerdroodba
ons LLC. Published by Els
efficiency of this engine. Among numerous subjects for
refining the scramjets, efficient mixing of fuel to air is crucial
for future development of these engines [3]. Since the velocity
of free stream inside themain chamber is high andmore than
sonic, the process of ignition is supersonic main stream oc-
curs very fast, and this augments the importance of mixing in
these engines [4e6].
In order to enhance the mixing rate inside the combustion
chamber, scholars and engineers have investigated different
methods [7e12]. Various techniques and geometries of
scramjets are proposed [13e16] and investigated to enhance
the efficiency [17,18]. It is important to note that the most
ry).
evier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Fig. 1 e Plan of three shapes of cavity (circle, rectangular
and trapezoidal).
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n en e r g y 4 3 ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 6 3 6 4e1 6 3 7 2 16365
favorable approaches for the development of these engines
are geometrical modifications of the domain and applications
of different techniques such as multi jets injectors, micro air
jets and shock generators. In addition, combinations of these
methods are also considered to enhance the mixing efficiency
of the fuel within cavity. Since this topic is very significant,
several review papers have focused on many features of fuel
injection within supersonic free stream [19]. In our previous
works [20e26], computational techniques are applied for in-
vestigations of different possible mechanisms of fuel and air
injections. Among different geometries, cavity-based flame-
holder concept seems a good mechanism for supersonic
combustors [27].
The shape effect of the cavity in different applications
within the scramjets are studied by various scholars. Kum-
mitha et al. [28] applied CFDmethod for analyzing of fluid flow
behavior inside the scramjet combustor with different cavity-
based flame holders in presence of shock generator. In their
study, shock interactions and their effects on the flow pattern
inside the model are extensively explained. Investigated ef-
fects of passive methods for optimizing the performance of
scramjet combustor. He also presented numerical analysis of
hydrogen fuel scramjet combustor with different turbulence
models. Huang et al. [29e31] examined the result of geometric
constraints on the significant parameters of the cavity
flameholder such as drag and temperature based on the
variance analysis technique.
Though cavity flameholder has been applied as a well-
organized model for providing fuel in a combustor of the
scramjet [32e34], limited works studied the effects of flow
feature and shape of cavity on its performance. In fact,
analyzing and finding of the main parameters which is sig-
nificant on the hydrogen mass distribution inside the cavity
could present the valuable data and improve the knowledge of
the design of the future scramjets. In addition, the effect of the
free stream velocity on the shock effect on the fuel distribu-
tion inside the cavity was not investigated. Previous works
have always investigated the formation of the shock structure
on themain flow patterns as the key point for the analyzing of
the fuel distributions in supersonic combustion chamber.
Indeed, the formation and structure of the fuel jet with the
free stream reveal the main effective terms in the mixing ef-
ficiency of the various methods.
Our work has tried to comprehensively focused on these
deficiencies and explain the main advantages of each cavity
shapes on the performance of the scramjets. As shown in
Fig. 1, three different geometries of cavity such as circle,
rectangular and trapezoidal are investigated. Meanwhile, the
criteria of the ignition zone are displayed to clearly demon-
strate the effect of each parameter on this zone. Furthermore,
streamline patterns are compared for different models to
show the influence of the streamline on the various condi-
tions. It should be noted that circulations are the main results
of the cavity in the supersonic flow patterns. Hence, the for-
mation and effective term of this phenomena is crucial for the
recognition of the main parameters. It is clear that the injec-
tion of the fuel with sonic condition highly disturbs the main
circulation within the cavity. As it will be further explained in
the next sections, the injection of the hydrogen divides the
main circulation inside the cavity and the role of the cavity
shape is significant for the formation of the circulations inside
the cavity. This study also analyzes the flow pattern in the
downstream of the cavity. Hence, the obtained results could
be valuable for the next generation of the scramjets.
In order to analyze the shape effects of cavity, circle,
rectangular and trapezoidal cavities are examined to analyze
the role of the flow inside the cavity on feature and mixing
performance of scramjet. Furthermore, the result of free
stream Mach number on the mixing rate of hydrogen jet is
comprehensively investigated.
Numerical approach
In this work, geometry of the DLR experimental work [35,36] is
used as the main size for further investigations. Since the 2D
model is applied, the size of the domain in x and y direction is
300 and 50 mm, respectively. Fig. 2 shows the applied grid for
Fig. 2 e Grid generation.
i n t e rn a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n en e r g y 4 3 ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 6 3 6 4e1 6 3 7 216366
the chosen domain for a rectangular cavity. In this research,
structured grid with high resolution inside the cavity are
generated. In order to reduce the numerical diffusion, chosen
efficient grid with high resolution in the model is essential.
Since the main interactions of the problems occurs inside the
cavity, the size of grid is very low in this region. In addition,
the grid should be uniform to avoid any discontinuity in the
results. The grid is densely clustered near the walls of the
combustor and in the vicinity of the injection slot, and the
height of the first row of cells is set at a distance to the wall of
0.001mm,which results in a value of wall yþ smaller than 10.0
for all of the flow field.
In this research, the main inflow Mach supersonic
airstream, stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature
are 2, of 1 atm and 300 K. In addition, other Mach numbers
M∞ ¼ 1:2 and 3 are investigated. Fig. 2 clearly demonstrates
the applied hydrodynamic boundary condition for our model.
In our model, all thermal boundary condition of wall is
assumed constant temperature of 300 K. For turbulence and
species boundary condition, zero flux is applied on the walls.
As shown in Fig. 2, the hydrogen gas was injected from the
cavity front wall at three different pressures. The chosen
pressures are according to the total pressure of the free stream
condition. In this study, total pressure ratios (PR) of 0.25, 0.5
and 1 are investigated for the jet injection. It is worthy to note
that no chemical reactions and/or combustion processes are
taken into account in this work.
In order to simulate the chosen domain, implicit CFD code
is used to solve NaviereStokes equations with SST turbulence
model by using cell centered finite volume approach [37e42].
The details of the applied techniques and turbulence model
are explained in our previous works and other similar refer-
ences [43e46]. Previous studies showed that this is a good
model for this problem [47e53]. In evaluating the flame
holding capacity it is necessary providing estimates of ignition
delays for hydrogen-air mixture under the conditions of pre-
sent numerical experiment being compared with that pro-
vided by chemical kinetics model. The details on ignition
delays for different flow parameters can be found in Ref. [54].
Fig. 3 e Grid independency and validation of obtained
results for cavity a) without swept angle b) with swept
angle of 30.
Results and discussion
Validation
Validation is a first step for the simulation of the engineering
and scientific researches. In order to confirm the superiority of
the grid and analyze the precision of the obtained results,
experimental data of Gruber et al. [27] is chosen and three-
dimensional model of the cavity flameholder is used. Fig. 3
compares obtained results of the normalized pressure distri-
bution for two different shapes of cavity. Our findings show
that deviation is less than 10% for diverse models.
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n en e r g y 4 3 ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 6 3 6 4e1 6 3 7 2 16367
Additionally, the results of the three different grids are also
compared and it is found that the number grid in fine grid is
reasonable for further simulations. Since two-dimensional
models presented reliable results and obtained validation
confirmed the applied numerical approaches, further simu-
lations will be done with two-dimensional models. For fine
grid resolution and great number of steps accumulation of
numerical stochastic error could exceed all acceptable values.
Special estimates are necessary. The method for those esti-
mates can be found, for example, in Refs. [55] and [56].
Effect of circle cavity on mixing of hydrogen
Fig. 4 illustrates the distribution of hydrogen gas within the
circle cavity with different pressure ratios. In PR ¼ 0.25, the
injected hydrogen remains in the cavity and the distribution
of the hydrogen in the downstream is approximately uniform.
As the Pressure ratio of the fuel jet increases, the interaction of
the jet with themain stream increases and the gradient of the
hydrogen percentage inside/outside the cavity varies. In order
to recognize the mixing rate of the hydrogen, the pattern of
streamline of these models should be investigated. Fig. 5
compares streamlines for various conditions.
According to the results of the flow patterns (Fig. 5), two
circulations covers the whole cavity. As observed from Fig. 4,
mass distribution of the hydrogen jet in the circle cavity with
PR ¼ 0.25 is approximately similar. Increasing the pressure of
the hydrogen jet effects on the interactions of the freestream
and jet outcomes and freestream intends to enter the cavity.
This declines the mass fraction in the left side of the cavity.
The flow pattern of Fig. 5 in PR ¼ 1 clearly confirms this
entrance of the main stream into the cavity.
Fig. 4 e Effect of various pressure ratio of hydrogen jet
Rectangular cavity
Figs. 6 and 7 illustrates the mass distribution and streamline
pattern inside the domain for the various PRs of hydrogen jet,
respectively. One of the main differences of this geometry
with circle geometry is the formation of the extra circulation
inside the cavity. As shown in the Fig. 7, two distinct circula-
tions are observed in the upstream of the fuel jet inside the
cavity. This confirms that the circulation inside the domain is
effective term on the distribution of the mass inside the cav-
ity. One of valuable results is the flow pattern of the hydrogen
in downstream outside the cavity. It is found that increasing
total pressure of the hydrogen intensifies the fluctuations in
the downstream.
Trapezoidal cavity
The mass distribution and streamline patterns of the trape-
zoidal cavity for M ¼ 2 is illustrated in the Figs. 8 and 9,
respectively. As depicted in the figures, increasing the PRs of
the fuel intensifies the mass distribution on downstream of
the cavity inside the cavity. Unlike the rectangular cavity, the
mass fraction of the hydrogen jet in the upstream of the
hydrogen jet within the cavity remains constant.
Fig. 9 illustrates the streamline within the cavity for
various PRs (PR ¼ 0.25, 0.5 and 1). The figure confirms that
there are three circulations within the cavity. Two of these
circulations are upstream of the hydrogen jet and these cir-
culations remains for different PRs.
The comparisons of these three shapes of cavity flame-
holder show that trapezoidal cavity is more efficient in pres-
ervation of the ignition zone in downstream of the hydrogen
on hydrogen mixing rate inside the circle cavity.
Fig. 6 e Mass distribution of the hydrogen jet in the rectangular cavity.
Fig. 5 e Flow pattern of hydrogen and main stream inside the circle cavity.
i n t e rn a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n en e r g y 4 3 ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 6 3 6 4e1 6 3 7 216368
Fig. 8 e Effect of trapezoidal cavity on the mass distribution in different PRs.
Fig. 7 e Comparison of the streamlines within the rectangular cavity for different PRs.
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n en e r g y 4 3 ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 6 3 6 4e1 6 3 7 2 16369
Fig. 9 e Comparison of the flow feature inside the cavity flameholder (M ¼ 2) for different PRs (PR- ¼ 0.25, 0.5 and 1).
i n t e rn a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n en e r g y 4 3 ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 6 3 6 4e1 6 3 7 216370
jet within cavity. This effect is significant due to importance of
the hydrogen concentration within cavity.
Effect of freestream Mach number
In order to recognize the shape effect of shape cavity, the in-
fluenceof thevariousMachnumber (M¼ 1.2 and3) on themass
transfer and ignition zone is investigated. Fig. 10 compares the
Fig. 10 e Effect of Mach number on the flow featu
effect of Mach number on the mass concentration and flow
feature of trapezoidal cavitywhenhydrogen jetwith PR¼ 0.5 is
injected. The results clearly show that ignition zone fluctuated
in low Mach number (M ¼ 1.2) while the uniform mass distri-
bution of hydrogen is noticed atM¼ 3. In fact, the circulation is
limited to the cavity in high Mach number due to high mo-
mentumof the freestream.However, theeffectof thehydrogen
in more pronounced when the free Mach number is 1.2.
re and mixing zone inside trapezoidal cavity.
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n en e r g y 4 3 ( 2 0 1 8 ) 1 6 3 6 4e1 6 3 7 2 16371
Conclusion
In this study, comprehensive computational studies are per-
formed to investigate the geometric effect of the cavity shape
on the fuel distribution and mixing efficiency of the hydrogen
jet in the supersonic free stream. In order to do this, three
different shapes of circle, rectangular and trapezoidal cavity
are chosen and investigated when the hydrogen jet is injected
from the bottom of the cavity. In this study, two dimensional
CFD approach is used with SST turbulence model to simulate
the flow inside the cavity.
The obtained results show that the trapezoidal cavity is the
most efficient cavity shape for the generation of the wide and
stable ignition point. In fact, the presence of large circulation
in downstream within trapezoidal cavity significantly in-
fluences on preservation of the hydrogen mass concentration
in this region. The comparison of the various free stream
Mach number shows that the ignition zone tends to remains
within the cavity as the Mach number of inlet flow increases.
Indeed, hydrogen jet becomes dominant in low Mach number
and this induces unstable ignition zone within cavity. Our
findings also show that flow of fuel is more stable in down
stream of trapezoidal cavity rather than other geometries in
high PRs. In fact, the formation of the large circulation inside
the trapezoidal cavity reduces the destabilization of the fuel in
the downstream and it is very significant for the flame
stability.
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