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SheaversusCashew:AcasestudyoflandusechangeandsocioeconomicdifferencesbetweentwoindustrialcropsinNorthernGhana.
TabathaRood
Submittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeof:MasterofForestResources
UniversityofWashingtonMarch2017
Committee:
IvanEastin
PatrickTobin
StevanHarrell
ProgramAuthorizedtoOfferDegree:
SchoolofEnvironmentalandForestSciences
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Abstract
LandusechangeoccursfrequentlyinWestAfrica,wherenewcashcropsareintroduced
andpromotedassustainablelivelihoods.Shiftsinlandusefromwoodlandstoagricultural
productionaffecttheecologicalandsocialcompositionoftownships,includingthestudysite,
Bamboi,whichislocatedintheNorthernRegionofGhana.Here,inthetransitionalzone
betweentheGuineasavannahandthedeciduousforest,twoindustrialcrops,shea(Vitellaria
paradoxa)andcashew(Anacardiumoccidentale)arecompetingforland.Bothsheaandcashew
industriesareprojectedtocontinueincreasing,andlandmanagementisneededtoensurethat
agriculturaldevelopmentisnotoblivioustotherelativeecological,social,andeconomic
impactsofthetwospecies.
InthisstudyIfoundthatcasheworchardsarenotonlyathreattotheregenerationof
juvenilesheatreesandexistingsheaparklands,butthattheyinturnhaveadirectimpacton
thelivelihoodsofwomenandotherlandlessindividualswhorelyonsheaasaprimaryformof
subsistence.Sheatreesarenativetoonly21countriesintheworld,playavitalecologicaland
economicroleinthesemi-aridlandscape,andholdsignificancetotheindigenouslandholding
tribeinthestudyarea.Tomanagelandtooptimizegenderequalityineconomicdevelopment
andretainvaluablenativespecies,Irecommendactiveplantingofsheaandoutreacheducation
onbothsheaandcashewmaintenanceandtheirdifferentialeffectsontheenvironment.
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Acknowledgments:Ihavesomanypeopletothankformakingthispaperapossibility.First,IwouldliketoacknowledgethepeopleofBamboi,especiallytheJebunifamilyfortheirhospitalityandculturalintegration,andEricOkrah,forbeinganexceptionalassistantinmyresearchandmarketanalysis.IwouldalsoliketothankNanaKwakuDapaaIIforensuringmysafetywhileinBamboiandprovidingconnectionstocommunitymembersthatwereessentialfordictatingthehistoryoftheregionandtheMopeople.Next,IwouldliketothankallofthepeopleanddonorsattheUniversityofWashington,withoutwhomIwouldnothavebeenabletoattendnorfinishthePeaceCorpsMastersInternationalprogram.Tomycommittee:IvanEastin,PatrickTobin,andStevanHarrell,thankyouallsomuchforyourguidanceintheprocessofdesigningthisstudy.AndtoMichelleTreudeauandDavidCampbellforcoordinatingfundingformyfinalquarter,Iameternallygrateful.IwouldalsoliketothankthePeaceCorpsGhanaforaffordingmetheopportunitytoworkalongsidesmallholderfarmersandliveasapartoftheBamboicommunity.TomyPeaceCorpsfamily,myBackdoorfamily,andmyrealfamily,youhaveshownmeanincredibleamountofsupportthroughsomeofthemosttryingtimesofmylife.ThispaperisdedicatedtomynephewTheo,andthetwins:PonaandZiemaJebuni.
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TableofContents:ListofFiguresandTables……………………………………………………………………………………………………………5Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...7BackgroundofGhana…………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………….9 HistoryofGhana….……………………………………………………………………………………..………………….9 EconomyofGhana.………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..12 AgricultureofGhana…………….………………………………………………………………………………………13
Socio-culturalDiversityofGhana….………………………………………………………………………………14 NaturalResourcesofGhana………….………………………………………………………………………………15 LandHoldinginGhana………………………………………………………………………………….………………16 BackgroundofBamboi………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………18Shea…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………21
HistoryinGhana…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..21EcologicalSignificance………………………………………………………………………………………………….22TheSheaSectorinBamboi…………………………………………………………………………………………..25Processing…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….26SocialSignificance……….……………………………………………………………………………………………….38MarketAnalysis……………………………………………………………………………………………………………30Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….33
Cashew…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….34
HistoryinGhana…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..35EcologicalSignificance………………………………………………………………………………………………….36TheCashewSectorinBamboi…………………….………………………………………………………………..39Processing……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………40SocialSignificance……….……………………………………………………………………………………………….42MarketAnalysis……………………………………………………………………………………………………………43Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….45
Methods………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….46Results……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..48Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..50Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….53ChallengesandLimitations………………………………………………………………………………………………………54References……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….56
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ListofFiguresandTablesFigure1:RegionalpoliticalmapofGhana,withstudysiteencircled.……………………………………….10Figure2:SatelliteimageryofBamboi,thestudysite.Source:GoogleEarth,2017……….............18Table1:Showsthedifferentiallandusepatternsbetweenlandownersand…………………………..20Figure3:MapshowingtherangeofsheaacrossAfrica,basedonWATHGPSpointsandsuitabilityanalysis.Source;Naughtonetal.2015…………………………………………………………………….24Figure4:DenselypopulatedsheastandinNorthernGhana…………………………………………………….25Figure5:Ayoungboyholdsatinoffreshlycollectedsheanuts………………………………………………26Figure6:Awomancarriessheaasfuelwoodfromthebush…………………………………………………….27Figure7:GraphdetailingtheexporttrendsofsheanutsandsheabutterfromGhana…………….31Table2:ThepricesofSheaatvariousmarketlocations……………………………………………………………32Figure8:MaturecasheworchardinBamboi,demonstratingtheproperumbrellacanopy……...37Figure9:Cashewtreeatflowering…………………………………………………………………………………………..38Figure10:Afarmerstandsnexttohiscashew1-2yearsofage……………………………………………….38Figure11:Initialdevelopmentofthecashewnut…………………………………………………………………….38Figure12:Afullydevelopedcashewnutwithapple…………………………………………………………………38Figure13:GPSmapofafarminBamboiclear-cutforcasheworchardestablishment.Evidenceofcashewfarmexpansionoverayearperiod………………………………………………………………………….39Figure14:Thecompleteprocessofcashewfromrawcashewnut(RCN)tofinishedkernel.Source:Dendena&Corsi,2014………………………………………………………………………………………………..41Figure15:AnillustrationofthepercentofcostsandprofitsdistributedfromgrowthofRCNtoretailsaleofcashewkernels.Source:McKinsey&Company,2010………………………………………….44Table3showsthegrossrevenueofsheaandcashewinBamboi……………………………………………..48Table4illustratesthenetprofitsfromsheanutsandbutter,andcashewRCNattheircurrentyieldsinBamboi,whenspecificpercentagesofinputandlaborcostsareaccountedfor.The
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samecalculationsarethenusedtocomparethesituationinBamboitothenationwideaveragesinGhana…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..49
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IntroductionThroughoutGhana,landisbeingconvertedfromforestandsavannahtoagriculturalandbuilt
landscapes(Coulteretal.,2016).Asthepopulationexpands,itisexpectedthatthistrendwill
continue.Amongthelandusechangestoagriculturalproduction,cashew(Anacardium
occidentale)cultivationisoneofthemostrecentandfastestgrowingindustrialcrops.The
expansionofcashewhasamultitudeofimpactsincludinglandtenuresystemchanges,
reductionoflandavailableforgrowthoffoodcropsandreductioninthelandavailablefor
regenerationofnativespeciessuchasshea.Withinnativeforestsandwoodlandsinthe
northernregionsofGhanaexistsshea(Vitellariaparadoxa),aneconomicspeciesthatsupports
thelivelihoodsofruralwomenwhenthenutsarecollectedandprocessedintosheabutterfor
localorinternationalsale.
Sheaandcashewaregenderedsectors,withsheabeingexclusivelyawomen’sactivity,
bothincollectionandprocessing,andcashewbeingpredominantlyamen’scrop.Shea
productionissaidtocontributeupto12%ofhouseholdincomethroughoutthesheagrowing
areasoftheworld(Pouliot,2012),andcashewisperceivedasalucrativeendeavor.Withthe
expansionofcashewplantations,however,existingsheaparklandsandjuvenileshea
regenerationarethreatened,alongwiththesocialandeconomicbenefitstheyprovideto
women.
Sheaisnotactivelygrownandnaturallyregenerateswithinsurrounding‘bush,’whatis
knownthroughouttheliteratureassheaparklands.Cashewisgenerallygrownasamono-
culture,similartoforestplantationsandorchards.Therefore,throughoutthispaper,sheawill
bereferredtoassheaparklands,andcashewascasheworchards.Sheaisconsideredtobea
semi-domesticatedspecies,asfarmersselectspecifictreestomaintainontheirfarms,thoughit
isnotactivelyplanted.Withtheretentionofolderandhighproducingsheatrees,thecurrent
populationisatriskofbecomingoldandunproductiveifjuveniletreesarenotprotected,orif
thereisnotenoughlandtoensuretheirnaturalregeneration.
DuringmyPeaceCorpsserviceinGhana,Ihadtheopportunitytoliveandworkin
Bamboi,asemi-urbantownshiplocatedintheNorthernRegion.ThecommunityofBamboi
representsahighlydiversepopulation,duetotheeconomicopportunitiesthatlogging,
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charcoalproduction,andsmallscalegoldminingpresenttotransientandimmigrantsettlers.I
workedprimarilywithsheanutpickersandbutterprocessors,aswellascashewfarmersinthe
area.Duringmystay,IwitnessedtheexpansionofseveralindustriesinBamboi,butbecamethe
mostinterestedintheexpansionofcashewanditseffectsontheexistingandfutureshea
parklands.
Inthispaper,Iwilldiscusslandusechangefromnativesheaparklandstocashew
orchardsanditsimplicationsontheecological,social,andeconomicfabricofasemi-urban
townshipinthetransitionalnorthernzoneofGhana.Tocomparesheaandcashewholistically,
itisfirstnecessarytodiscusstheenvironmentinGhanaandthestudysite,followedbyanin
depthanalysisoftheecology,history,socialimpact,andeconomiesofsheaandcashew
respectively.ThiswillincludeabriefhistoryofGhanaandthestudysiteBamboi,followedby
separateanalysesofsheaandcashewfromecologytoeconomy.Finally,sheaandcasheware
directlycomparedbasedoncumulativeecological,socialandeconomicparameterstoprovide
recommendationsonlanduseandmanagementstrategiesatthestudysiteandbeyond.
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BackgroundofGhana
GhanaislocatedontheGulfofGuineainSub-SaharanWestAfrica,borderedbyCôted’Ivoire
(IvoryCoast)tothewest,TogototheeastandBurkinaFasotothenorth.Slightlysmallerthan
thestateofOregon,Ghanaishometonearly27millionpeople,with54%livinginurbanareas
(CIA,2016).Accra,thecountry’scapital,andKumasiarethetwolargestcitiesinGhana,with
populationsof2.3and2.6million,respectively.ThepopulationofGhanaisincreasingatarate
of2.18%peryear,withanurbanizationrateof3.4%peryear(CIA,2016).Therapidgrowthof
urbancentersinGhanahasincreasedpressureonnaturalresourcesespeciallyinruralareas,
whichprovidecharcoalandnon-timberforestproducts(NTFPs)tourbancenters.
Ghanaisdividedintotenpoliticalregions,eachwithitsowncapital:GreaterAccra
(Accra),Eastern(Koforidua),Western(Secondi-Takoradi),Central(CapeCoast),Ashanti
(Kumasi),BrongAhafo(Sunyani),Volta(Ho),Northern(Tamale),UpperEast(Bolgatanga),and
UpperWest(Wa).AmapofGhanaandits10regionsispresentedinFigure1.Theregionsare
furthersubdividedinto216districts.
HistoryofGhana
AncientGhanawasanempirelocatedintheareathatisnowMaliandMauritania,considerably
north-westofcontemporaryGhana.AlsoknownastheWagaduEmpire,ancientGhanawasan
importanttradingsiteinWestAfricabetween300ADandabout1500AD,connectingWest
AfricawiththeArabicWorld(W.B.Encyclopedia,2017).
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ThefirstEuropeansarrivedtomodernGhanainthe15thcentury,beginningwiththe
Portuguesein1471.UponthediscoveryoflargequantitiesofgoldbetweentheAnkobraand
Voltarivers,thePortuguesenamedtheterritoryMina-meaningmine,thoughitlaterbecame
knownthroughoutEuropeastheGoldCoast(Gocking,2005).Thefirstcastlewasbuiltbythe
PortugueseatElminaonthecoastin1482totradeingold,ivoryandslaves.Theyweresoon
joinedbytheDutchin1598,followedbytheEnglish,Danes,andSwedesinthemid-18th
century.Fortsandcastlesbegantodotthecoastline,andtensionsrosebetweenEuropean
entitiesoveraccesstoresourcesandtradingnetworks.Eventually,theEnglishdominatedthe
regionandin1874theGoldCoastbecameanofficialcrowncolony(Gocking,2005).
WhileEuropeanswerebattlingoverthecoastlineterritory,theAshantipeople,with
theircapitalinKumasi,begandevelopingtheAsantestatebyconqueringthenearbyAkan
peopleandeitherkeepingorsellingthemasslaves.Eventually,theAshanticonqueredthe
GonjaandDagombatribesintheNorth,whobecametheirprimarysourceofslaves.Witha
significantstrongholdoveramajorityofwhatisnowmodernGhana,theAsantestatemade
movestogaincontroloverthecoastalterritory.In1826,theAsanteweredefeatedbythe
BritishattheBattleofDodowaandapeacetreatywassigned.Despiteabriefhiatus,attacks
continueduntil1901,whenboththeAsanteProtectorateandtheNorthernTerritoriesbecame
partoftheGoldCoastcolony(Gocking,2005).
BritainestablishedthefoundationofthemodernpoliticalstructureinGhana,beginning
withthelegislativecouncilandthecourtsystem.Initially,bothfeaturedminorrolesfor
Ghanaians,untilanewconstitutionwassignedin1946whichgaveGhanaiansamajorityinthe
legislativecouncilandwaseffectiveinlinkingthepoweroftheAsantestatewiththewholeof
Ghana.
PoliticalpartiesbegantoorganizeandonMarch6th1957thelegislativecouncilvotedto
makeGhanaindependent—thefirstAfricannationtodoso.In1960,TheFirstRepublicof
Ghanawasestablished,withKwameNkrumahasthefirstpresident.KwameNkrumahwas
famousforhispassioninpromotingPan-AfricanismandwasthefounderoftheOrganizationof
AfricanUnitythatinspiredmanyotherAfricannationstoseekindependence.In1961,Nkrumah
metwithU.S.PresidentJohnFKennedytowelcomethePeaceCorps.Ghanawasoneofthe
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firstcountriestoacceptPeaceCorpsVolunteersfromtheU.S.,whocurrentlyserveinthe
health,educationandagriculturalsectors.ServiceinGhanahascontinueduninterruptedsince
1961.
Theyearsfollowingindependenceweretumultuous,astribesbecamepoliticalparties
competingforpower,andtherealitiesofindependenceandnationaldevelopmentsetin.After
declaringaonepartysystem,Nkrumahwasoverthrownandaseriesofmilitarycoupstook
placeinthe1970sand1980.DuringthistimeGhanawentthroughseveralrepublics,butsince
1993ithasbeenofficiallyknownastheFourthRepublicofGhana(Gocking,2005).Thecountry
isgovernedasaconstitutionaldemocracy,wheretheheadofstateisalsotheheadofthe
government.Themostrecentelectionwasheldin2016,makingNanaAkufo-AddooftheNew
PatrioticParty(NPP)theseventhpresidentoftheFourthRepublicofGhana.
EconomyofGhana
GhanahaslongbeeninvolvedintradeacrossAfrica,anditseconomyhasbenefittedfromthe
wealthofnaturalresources,particularlytimber,gold,bauxiteandmagnesium.Cocoawas
introducedin1878,andbyindependenceGhanawastheworld’sleadingproducerofthecash
crop(Gocking,2005).Today,Ghanaremainsatopproducerofcocoaandissecondonlytothe
IvoryCoastintermsofcocoaproduction(Statista,2016).
TheGhanaiancedibecametheofficialcurrencyin1965,replacingtheGhanaianpound.
Thecediiscurrentlyvaluedat0.23U.S.dollars($US).Theexchangerateduringmyservicein
Ghanawas3.79Ghcto$US1andwillbeusedastheexchangerateforfiguresthroughoutthis
paper.Thegrossdomesticproduct(GDP)ofGhanawasvaluedat$US41.3billionin2015
(AgriculturalDevelopmentBankGroup,2016).Servicescomposethemajority(53.3%)ofthe
nationalGDP,followedbyindustry(26.6%),andagriculture(20.2%).Cocoaaccountsfor1.9%of
thetotalGDPwhileforestry/loggingaccountsfor2.3%(Service,GS2016).
RecentdiscoveryandexploitationofcrudepetroleuminGhanahastransformedthe
exporteconomy.In2014,Ghanaexported$10.2billionUSD,makingitthe92ndlargesttotal
exporterintheworld(OEC,2017).Crudepetroleumaccountedfor26%oftotalexports,
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followedbygold(23.4%)andcocoabeans(22%)(OEC,2017).ThoughGhanaisaleading
exporterinitsregion,theeconomyisalsoheavilyreliantonimports.In2014Ghanaimported
$US14.8billion,makingitthe87thlargestimporterofgoodsintheworld(OEC,2017).
Between1991and2006,GhanawassuccessfulinmeetingtheMillenniumDevelopment
Goalofhalvinghungerandpovertybefore2015,reducingextremepovertyfrom36.5to18.2
percentofthepopulation(FAO,2015).Still,overaquarterofthepopulationremainsbelowthe
povertylineof$US1.25perday.MostoftheextremepovertyinGhanaoccursinthethree
Northernregions,withthemostextremepovertyconcentratedintheUpperEastregion.The
northernregionscontinuetobemuchlessdevelopedthanthesouthernregionsofGhanadue
tolackofinfrastructure,arablelands,andnaturalresources.
OneofthemajorhindrancestoeconomicgrowthinGhanaistheunreliableand
inadequatesupplyofelectricpower.ThemajorityofGhana’selectricpowertodaycomesfrom
theAkosomboDam,atthebaseofoneoftheworldlargestartificiallycreatedlakes,LakeVolta.
LocatedintheEasternRegion,thedamgenerates1,020MWofpower.Thepowergenerated
bytheAkosomboDamisnowaugmentedbytheKpongandBuiDams.Intotalthedamshave
aninstalledcapacityof2,360MW,whenrunningallturbines(Asante,2014).Theavailable
hydropowerofGhanacurrentlysuppliesthemajorityofallenergytothecountry,however
shortagesandblackouts(knownlocallyas“dumsordumsor”)persist,whichislargelyduetothe
saleofelectricpowertoneighboringcountries(Asante,2014).
AgricultureofGhana
Ghanaisdividedintosixagroecologicalzones,fromNorthtoSouth:SudanSavannahZone,
GuineaSavannahZone,TransitionZone,Semi-deciduousForestzone,RainForestZoneandthe
CoastalSavannahZone(FAO,2008).TheclimateofGhanaischaracteristicallytropicalcloserto
thesoutherncoast,warmanddryinthesoutheast,hotandhumidinthesouthwest,andhot
anddryinthenorth.ThemeanelevationinGhanais190mabovesealevel(CIA,2015).
ThemainagriculturalproductsofGhanaincludecocoa,oilpalm,coconut,rubber,
tropicalfruitandfoodcrops.Tropicalplantssuchasplantainsandbananasaretypicallygrown
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inthesouthernregionsofGhana,whereastubersandothersavannahcropssuchasyamsand
milletaregrowninthenorth.ThoughthereissignificantexchangebetweentheNorthand
Southintermsofagriculturalproducts,staplesarereflectedintypicalsouthernandnorthern
cuisine.
AlmostallagriculturalactivityinGhanareliesonseasonalrains,sinceonly30,345ha
(0.22%)of14,038,224haofagriculturallandareirrigated(MOFA,2013).Theseasonalrains
differgreatlydependingonthelatitude.Typically,thesouthexperiencestworainyseasons:the
firstoccursfromApriltoJulywhilethesecondshorterrainyperiodisfromSeptemberto
November.TheNorthtypicallyexperiencesonlyonelongrainyseasonbetweenJulyand
October,peakinginAugustandSeptember.Changesintheserainshavehadasignificant
impactonagriculturalactivitieswithlater,lessfrequentrainsoccurringinrecentyears.During
thewintermonthsfromlateNovembertoearlyMarch,windsfromthenortheastcarrydust
fromtheSaharadesert.ThisphenomenonisknownasHarmattanandresultsinsicknessin
humansandlivestock,decreasedvisibility,anddecreasedphotosynthesis—especiallyinthe
Northernregions(Chineke&Chiemeka,2009).
Socio-culturaldiversityofGhana
Ghanaishometoawidediversityoftribes,traditions,andreligions.Christianity,traditional
beliefs,andIslamaretheprimaryreligions,withChristianitydominatingthesouthernregions,
Islaminthenorthern,andtraditionalbeliefsinterspersedthroughout.Bestestimatesof
religiouspreferencesshow71.2%Christianity,17.6%Muslim,Traditional5.2%,withminor
religionsandnoreligiouspreferencecomprisingtheremaining6%(CIA,2015).Ithasbeen
estimatedthattherearemorethan180languagesspokeninGhana.AlthoughEnglishwas
declaredtheofficiallanguagein2010bytheGovernmentofGhana,themostcommonly
spokenlanguageintradeandtransitisAsanteTwi(16%)followedbyEwe(14%),Fante(11.6%),
Brong(4.9%),Dagomba(4.4%),Dangme(4.2%),Dagarte(3.9%),Kokomba(3.5%),Akyem
(3.2%),Ga(3.1%),andothers(31.2%)(CIA,2015).Thoughtherearemanylanguages,itis
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estimatedthatbetween61%ofGhanaianscanreadandwriteinEnglish,asitisusedasthe
languageforinstructioninprimaryeducation(GSS,2012).
ThepopulationofGhanaisveryyoung,with57%ofpeoplebeingundertheageof25
(CIA,2015).Thecountryhasexperiencedbothmassiveimmigrationandemigration.Theformer
wasmostpopulardirectlyafterindependence,whenlaborersfromneighboringcountrieswere
attractedtomineralminingandcocoaharvestopportunities.Inthe1960supto12%ofthe
populationwasestimatedtobeimmigrants,untileconomicdownturnandsocialunrestledto
thedeportationofhundredsofthousandsofpeople(CIA,2015).Thelargestamountof
emigrationoccurredinthe1970s,whenGhanaexperiencedseveredroughtandcontinued
economicdownturn,sendingmanyGhanaiansintoneighboringCoteD’Ivoire,andlaterto
Nigeriainsearchofworkintheoilandgasindustry.
EmigrationofGhanaianscontinuesthroughouttheworld,withthemajorityof
emigrantsoriginatefromtheAshantiandGreaterAccraregions.EmigrantsfromGhanamigrate
toEurope(37.7%)otherAfricancountries(35.8%),andtheAmericas(23.6%)(GSS,2012).
NaturalResourcesofGhana
GhanaisoneofthewealthiestcountriesinWestAfricaintermsofnaturalresources.Gold,
timber,petroleum,industrialdiamonds,manganese,fish,rubber,hydropower,silver,salt,
limestoneandbauxitearejustafewofthemajornaturalresourcesinGhana.Thereareover
10,750kmofprotectedlandsinGhana,4.46%ofthetotalland,containingarichdiversityof
plants,animalsandinsects.Forestandwildlifereservesaccountfor12%ofthenationalland
use,whereastreecropsaccountfor16%ofthetotallandarea(MOFA,2009).
Ghanahasatotalof17vulnerable,endangered,orcriticallyendangeredspecies,including
theAfricanelephant(Loxodontaafricana),chimpanzee(Pantroglodytes),Diana
monkey(Cercopithecusdiana),redcolobusmonkey(Procolobusbadius),andthewild
dog(Lycaonpictus)(Konadu,2016).Rapidpopulationgrowthandtheexpansionofagricultural
landsandbuiltenvironmentsinthecountryposeaseriousthreattotheconservationofthese
species,someofwhich,suchasthewilddog,mayalreadybeextinctwithintheregion.Shea
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providesnativehabitat,andactivepantingcouldincreasethehabitatsuitableformanyofthese
species.
LandholdinginGhana
LandinGhanaiscontrolledthroughamixtureofcustomaryandstatemanagement.Itis
estimatedthatbetween80-90%oftheundevelopedlandinGhanaismanagedthrough
customarylawsandpracticesundertraditionalrule(Alabi,2014).Alongsidetraditionalrule,at
thenationallevel,theMinistryofLandandNaturalResources(MLNR)isresponsibleforthe
managementoflandsinGhana.ThemissionoftheMLNRisto“ensuresustainable
managementandutilizationofthenation’slands,forestsandwildliferesourcesaswellasthe
efficientmanagementofthemineralresourcesforsocio-economicgrowthanddevelopment.”
(GoG,2017).TherearethreeagenciesthatfallwithintheMLNR:theLandsCommission,the
ForestryCommission,andtheMineralCommission.
LandinGhanaisbrokendownintothefollowinguses:forestreserves(11%),wildlife
reserves(5%),unreservedhighforest(2%),savannahwoodlands(30%),treecrops(7%,with
cashewclaiming18,000ha),annualcrops(25%),unimprovedpasture(15%),andbush/fallow
(5%)(ADF,2000).Ghanaisexperiencingrapidpopulationgrowth,leadingtolandcoverand
landusechanges(LCLUC)thatareacceleratingtheconversionofforestsandsavannahlandsto
agricultureandurbanorbuiltenvironments.PopulationestimatessuggestthatGhanawill
reach50millionpeopleby2050,requiringasubstantialexpansionofagriculturallandsaswell
asincreasedagriculturalproductivity(Coulteretal.,2016).Toincreaseagriculturalproductivity,
agriculturaldevelopmentoftenpromotesincreasedmechanizationinfarmingmethods,which
decreasestheneedforruralagriculturallaborandfurtherincreasestherateofurbanization
andthus,pressureonlanduse.AstudyconductedinsouthernGhanausingLandsatdatafound
that62%oflandusechangesintheregionwereassociatedwithconversiontoagricultural
conversion(Coulteretal.,2016).
Landholdingandtenureareparticularlyimportantwhendiscussingsheaandcashew
crops.Landtenurereferstothesystemofholdingland,includingbothlandownershipand
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access/userightstoland(Lund,2003).Sheatreesaretypicallycultivatedoncommunallands,
whereascashewisplantedonprivateland.Thoughthelandmaybeleased,thecashewtrees
onceplantedbecomeprivateproperty,whichhasimplicationsforprivatelandownershipand
representsachangeinthecurrentlandtenurepractices.Thissituationwillbefurtherdiscussed
indetailinthesocialimplicationsofcashewlaterinthispaper.
TheNationalLandPolicywaspublishedinJune1999andprovidesaframeworkfor
accesstolandbyallGhanaianswherelandisavailablefordispersal,andindividualsadhereto
customarytenurepracticesandfollowapplicablezoningrulesforlanduse(ADF,2000).This
policywascreatedtoensureaccesstolandforwomenandotherlandlesspeople,although
littlehaschangedwithrespecttotraditionalmethodsoflandacquisition,especiallynotinrural
areas(ADF,2000).
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BackgroundofBamboi
Bamboi,thestudyarea,isasemi-urbantownshiplocatedontheBole-Wenchihighwayinthe
transitionalzonebetweentheNorthernRegionandtheBrongAhafoRegionwithanestimated
populationof10,000peopleandisseparatedfromtheBrong-AhaforegionbytheBlackVolta
River(Figure2).
ThefirstsettlersinBamboiweretheDegaorMopeople,whotransmigratedfromthe
UpperWestregionofGhanawhentheirtribehadanaltercationwiththeSissalapeopleovera
doghead(Fetishpriest,pers.comm.2015).TheDegapeopleareoneofthefewethnicgroups
inAfricathatpracticebothpatrilinealandmatrilinealsystemsofinheritance,whereroyal
successionispatrilinealandpropertyinheritanceismatrilineal.
Figure2:SatelliteimageryofBamboi,2016.Source:Googleearthimagery,2016
Brong-AhafoRegion
Bole-WenchiHighway
BlackVoltaRiver
NorthernRegion
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DegaHare(Degaland)todayissplitbetweentheBoledistrictintheNorthernRegion,
andtheWenchiandKintampodistrictsoftheBrongAhafoRegion.TheDegaaresurroundedby
NafaanapeopletotheWest,BonototheSouthandGonjatothenorth.DegaHareisestimated
tobe1,700km2withabout46villages(Ntabaneejue,2010).Thediscoveryofgold(circa2011)
inthesiltoftheBlackVoltaRiverhassinceledtomorerapidexpansioninBamboi.Thesmall
scaleminingindustryissaidtoemploy9.3%ofthedistrictpopulation,withanadditional6.6%
inthemanufacturingsector(Service,2014).
Today,BamboiisstilldominatedbytheDegapeople,whoalsosharetheirlandwith
manyothertribesincludingtheDagaati(fromtheUpperWest),Gonja(fromtheNorth),Asante
(fromtheAshanti),Dagomba(fromtheNorth)andtheEwepeople(fromtheVolta),aswellas
otherminoritytribes.Theinfluxofimmigrantsettlersisparticularlyimportantwithrespectto
landuseandlongtermsustainablemanagement.Accordingtoresearchonindigenousand
immigrantsettlers,ithasbeenfoundthatimmigrantpopulations,largelyduetoinsecurityin
landholdings,tendtobelesssustainableintheiruseofland(Afikorah-Danquah,1997).This
wasobservedfirsthandinBamboi,asmigrantsandtemporarysettlerswereoftenthosemost
heavilyinvolvedincharcoalproduction,illegallogging,andsmallscalegoldminingontheriver.
DuetothehighlyheterogeneouspopulationinBamboi,landmanagementcanbedifficult.Itis
extremelyimportanttoconsiderthedifferentialeffectsofindigenouslargelylandholding
residentsandtransientorpermanent,largelylandless,immigrantpopulations.
Thedifferentialmanagementstrategiesonlandusedbyownersversusthoseof
immigrantpopulations,basedonastudyconductedbyAfikorah-Danquah1997,ispresentedin
Table1.Duetothelowtenuresecurityonleasedlands,immigrantsettlershavelessinvestment
inthesustainablemanagementoftheirfarmlandsandgenerallyhaveanegativeimpactonthe
landovertime.
20
Table1:Differentiallandusepatternsbetweenlandownersandimmigrantsettlers.DerivedfromresearchbyAfikjorah-Danquah1997
Table1Landowners ImmigrantSettlersTreeplantingIncreasedfallowperiodsDeliberatesaplingmanagementMinimumtillageVegetationregeneration
LowtenuresecurityNotreeplantingOverexploitationduetotenancyfeesDeforestationduetohoemethods
ThemaineconomicactivitiesinBamboiincludesubsistenceagriculture,cashew
cultivation,mangocultivation,smallscalegoldmining,charcoalproduction,sheabutter
production,generaltrade,andfishing(personalobservation,2015).However,sincethe
completionoftheBuidamin2013,upriverfromBamboiontheBlackVolta,fishinghas
declinedsubstantially.Asaresult,manypeoplewhopreviouslyreliedontheriverfor
sustenance,suchastheEwe,haveturnedtosmallscalegoldmininginordertocontinuetheir
livelihoodsontheriver.
Duringthedryseason,Bamboiisadryplateauofsavannahwoodlands,butwhenthe
rainscome,theGuineagrasscangrowover3.5mtall.EconomictreesinBamboiconsistof
shea,dawadawa,teak,kapok,mangoandcashew.Soilsareprimarilysavannahochrosolsand
tropicalbrownearth,typicallypoorinorganicmatterandnutrients,thoughsometerracesoils
fromtheriverallowforstaplecropandtobaccocultivation(Service,2014).InDecember,theair
becomesgrayanditisdifficulttoseethesunasshiftingcultivatorsburntheirfarmsin
preparationforplanting.
Bushburninghasasignificantimpactoncashewandshea.Forexample,almost120ha
ofmaturecashewinBamboiwaslosttomismanagedbushfiresin2000.However,thisdoesnot
implythatallburningisnegative.Slashandburnagriculturehaslongbeenusedasaneffective
andefficientwaytopreparefarmlandsforplanting,andprovidesanutrientrichlayerofashfor
newcrops,aswellasclearsthelandfortheregenerationofothernativespecies.
21
Shea
Sheaparklandsarecurrentlythreatenedbycasheworchardexpansionandcharcoalproduction
inBamboi.Thethreattosheaalsoaffectswomenandotherlandlessindividualswhorelyon
sheanutby-productsasasourceoffoodandsupplementalhouseholdincome.Sheanutsand
butterareconsideredtobenon-timberforestproduct(NTFPs),whichserveasatypeofnatural
insuranceagainstunexpectedcroplossandotherincomeshortfalls(Pouliot&Treue,2013).
Protectionofthesheaparklandsandsupportforjuveniletreeregenerationonfarmandfallow
landsarekeytothecontinuedsuccessofthesheaindustryinthearea.
Duringthe1950s,researchandtechnologicaldevelopmentintheEuropeanfatsandoils
industryidentifiedsheabutterasahighlysuitablecocoabutterequivalent(CBE),whichisused
largelybytheconfectionaryindustryintheproductionofchocolate(Wardell&Fold,2013).
Sincethisdiscovery,themarketforsheabutterhascontinuedtoincreaseinternationally,as
sheabutterisalsousedwidelyinthecosmeticindustry.Today90%ofthemarketforshea
butterisasaCBE.SheabutterisnotyetapprovedasaCBEintheUnitedStates,althoughifthis
weretochange,demandwouldlikelyexceedsupplyandleadtosubstantialpriceincreases.
I. HistoryofSheainGhana
Itisestimatedthatapproximately9.4millionsheatreesgrowinGhana,coveringalmosthalf
thecountryandoccurringaccrossalmosttheentireareaofthethreeNorthernregions(Jasaw,
2015).Thesheagrowingareaisestimatedtobearound77,670km2inWesternDagomba,
SouthernMamprusi,WesternGonja,Lawra,Tumu,WaandNanumbadistricts,withtheEastern
Gonjadistricthavingthedenseststandsofsheatrees.Moresparsesheatreecoverisfoundin
Brong-Ahafo,Ashanti,andtheEasternandVoltaRegionsinthesouthofthecountry(CRIG,
2002).
RegulationofthesheaindustryinGhanabeganwithastateownedcorporationknown
astheProduceBuyingCompany(PBC).ThePBCtoutedsheaasawaytoboosttheeconomyof
northernGhana,whichcontinuestotrailfarbehindthesouthernregions.Inthe1980sthePBC
22
dictatedtheestablishmentofSheaNutFarmerSocietiesthataveraged25-30membersand
wouldcollectsheanutsforsaletostateownedcompanyrepresentativesatafixedprice.Due
toheavycomplaintsaboutthelackofeffectiveness,lowprices,andlackofcashadvancesfor
nutpurchasing;allpriceregulationsandbuyingrestrictionswereremoved,andprivateactors
wereintroducedtothemarketin1991(Chalfin,1996).TheLicensedBuyersAssociation(LBA)
wasformedinresponsetothegovernment’scontinuedcontrolofinternalmarketing,andall
exportcompanieswererequiredtojointheLBA.In1994,theFarmersServiceCompany
(Fascom)beganbuyingsheanutsaswell.Fascominitiallybeganin1978asameanstoprovide
agriculturalequipmenttothenorthernregions;theyarenowsupportedbyUSAIDandhave
preferentialaccesstotractors,millingequipment,andwarehouses(Chalfin,1996).
Withtheopeningofthemarket,nationalandinternationalbuyersofsheanutsand
butterhavegrownexponentially.However,themajorityofthebutter(upto51%)remains
reservedforlocalconsumptioneitherascookingoil,ceremonialgifts,orcosmeticpurposes
(Pouliot,2012).
In2012,thelargestsheaprocessingcenterwasopenedbythePBCinNorthernGhana.
Thefacilityiscapableofprocessing40,000metrictons(mt)ofsheaintobutterperyear,which
isalmostequaltotheentireharvestofGhana.TheCocoaResearchInstituteatBole(CRI)has
developednewvarietiesofsheatreesthatreducethematurationperiodfrom15-20yearsto
sevenyears.Withnewnationwideinvestmentsinprocessingfacilitiesandimprovedearly
maturingsheavarieties,additionaleffortsneedtobemadetoprotectandsupportthe
developmentoftheshearesource.
II. EcologicalSignificanceofSheaParklands
Thesheatree(Vitellariaparadoxa)belongstotheSapotaceaefamily,andisfoundinonly21
countriesintheworld;formingacontinuousbeltfromEasternSenegalandtheGambia,tothe
highplateausofEastAfricaintosoutheasternUganda(Figure3)(Boffa,2015).Therearetwo
speciesinthegenusVitellaria:V.paradoxainWestAfricaandV.niloticainEastAfrica.V.
paradoxaisknownforhavingahighstearin(fat)content,whichisparticularlybeneficialin
23
butterproduction.Sheaisparticularlysuitedforsemi-aridtoaridenvironmentsandisdrought
andfireresistant.Themeanheightofthetreeisabout10m,butcanreachupto15mwitha
meandiameterof50cm(Glele,2011).Sheatreesbeginbearinglargeplumlikefruitwithlarge
seedsabout15to20yearsafterplanting.Averageannualkernelproductionisabout2.2kgper
tree(Gbedji,2003).Sheatreesareknowntobeproductiveforover200yearsormore
(Naughton,2016).
Sheatreesarefiretolerantandadaptedtoresistandthriveinfirecycles.Thisismostlikely
duetotheadaptationofsheatreeswithshiftingagricultureandslashandburntechniquesthat
occurredovercenturiesinWestAfrica(Dogbevi,2008).However,withincreasedcultivationof
permanentcashcropssuchascashewandmangoplantations,fallowperiodsandtraditional
fireregimeshavedecreased,whichthreatenjuvenilesheatreeregeneration.
Sheabutterismadefromtheprocessingofsheanutsandisseenasanenvironmentally
friendlyalternativeforindustrializedvegetableoilssincethesupplychaindoesnotinvolve
extensiveuseoffertilizers,pesticides,orcausesubstantiallandusechange.Inadditionto
providingsignificantincometolocaleconomies,sheaparklandshelptoconserveexistingsoils,
oldgrowthperennialbiomass,habitats,andbiodiversity(Glew&Lovett,2014).
Someresearchsuggeststhatclimatechangecouldincreasetherangeofthesavannahzone
andthattherangeandproductionofsheatreescouldalsoexpand(Glele,2011).Thiscoupled
withthedevelopmentofnewearlymaturingsheavarieties,presentsabrightfutureforthe
populationsofsheaindustryinGhana,giventhatactiveplantingbecomesapartofthe
managementscheme,andlandisavailablefornaturalregeneration.
24
Figure3:MapshowingtherangeofsheaacrossAfrica,basedonWATHGPSpointsandsuitabilityanalysis.Source;Naughtonetal.2015
Vitellariaparadoxa
Vitellarianilotica
25
Figure4:SheaparklandsinNorthernGhana.AllPhotosbyTabathaRood.
III. TheSheaSectorinBamboi
Specifically,inBamboi,sheanutsarecollectedonlyafterthechiefandeldershavecommenced
theseasonthroughaceremonialsacrifice.TheSomTooorsheanutceremonytakesplace
betweenAprilandMayandbeginswiththeHareti(fetishpriest),andasacrificialchicken.The
sacrificeismadetothelandandmeanttoensureabountifulharvestandprotectionagainstthe
fatalsnakebitesthatoftenoccurduringharvest.Ifthesacrificedchickenfallsonitsback,it
symbolizestheacceptanceofthesacrificeandbenevolentharvestconditions.However,ifthe
chickenfallsontoitsstomach,adivinerwillhavetobesummonedtointerpretthepositioning
ofthechickenandmakerecommendationsforthenextstepsintheceremony(Fetishpriest,
26
pers.comm.2015).Theceremonyisalsointendedtoallowforthemostamountofnutstofall
andensureequalaccesstothesheanutsamongallwomenpickers.
Oncetheharvestseasoncommences,Shea
nutsarecollectedfromthegroundaroundthe
baseoftrees(Figure4)firstaroundthetown,then
upto3kmfromthepicker’shouse,usuallyatthe
sametimefuelwoodisbeingcollected.Women
andchildrenaretheprimarycollectorsofshea
nuts,andfrommid-ApriltolateJune,whenthe
sheanutsaremostplentiful,schoolchildrenwill
spendamajorityoftheirafternooncollectingshea
nutsfromthebaseofthetrees.Collectingshea
nutscanbebackbreaking,butisalsodangerous
duetothepresenceofsnakesandthetallgrasses
thatgrowbetweenthetreesatthestartofthe
rainyseason.
Oncesheanutsarecollected,theyare
usuallydriedinthesunoncementorhardpacked
mudfloors.Then,thenutsareeithersoldinthemarket,orareprocessedlocally.
IV. Processing
Theprocessofproducingsheabutterislengthyandarduous,usuallyrequiring13-14stepsand
anaverageof4daysper85kgofnuts(Pouliot,2012).Thecriticalinputsforproducingshea
butterincludewater,fuelwood,andmanuallabor(almostalwaysperformedbywomenand
girls).
First,sheafruits,whichareusuallyeaten,mustbede-pulpedandparboiledtoprevent
germination.Then,thenutsaresortedthroughfordebrisandspoilednuts,washedinclean
coldwater,thenlaidoutinthesuntodryonapreferablycleansurface.Oncedry,thenutsare
Figure5:Ayoungboyholdsatinoffreshlycollectedsheanuts,withmostofthegreenfleshypulpeatenoff.
27
thencracked,usuallywithawoodenpaddletorevealtheinnerkernel.Thenutshelland
kernelsarethenwinnowedtoseparatetheshells,whicharethendiscarded.Sheakernelsare
thencrushedintosmallpiecesusingeitheramanualormechanicalprocess.InBamboi,
wealthierfamilieswouldusuallycrushthekernelsusingagrindingmill.However,mostpeople
crushthekernelsusingthetraditionalmortarandpestle.Millednutsusuallyresultedinlower
qualitybutter,sincemillsintownarerarelydedicatedtosolelysheagrinding,leadingtohigh
levelsofcontamination.
Oncethekernelsaregroundintogrits,thegritsarefriedinalargepotoverathree
stonefire.Processorsmustbeverycarefulnottoburnthegritsduringthisstage.Thefriedgrits
arethengroundormilledintoasmoothpasteusingagrindingstoneormill.Thesmoothpaste
isthentransferredtolargemetalbowls,andwaterisadded.Womenthenbeatandmixthenut
pastebyhandinlargebasinswithwateruntilthebrownpastebecomeslighterincolor.Hot
waterisaddedtotheemulsifiedmixtureandthebeatingcontinuesuntilthesheabutterbegins
toseparateandfloatstothetopofthebasins.Thesheabutterisskimmmedfromthetopof
themixture,placedinlargepotsandboiledagain.Impuritiesfloattothetopofthepotandare
continuouslyremoveduntilthebutterbecomesapureoil.Thehotoilisthenfilteredthrough
clothtoremoveanyimpurities,anditisstoredincleanmetalbasinsthatarelefttocool
Figure6:Awomancarriessheaasfuelwoodfromthebush.
28
overnight.Sheabutterisusuallythenrolledintoballs(usuallyaround18g),oritispackagedfor
saleinanothermarket.
Theproductionofsheabutterisanintenseprocessrequiringasignificantamountof
timeandeffortonthepartoftheprocessors.Previousstudiessuggestthatproductionof1kg
ofsheabutterrequires3kgofsheanutsandbetween2.5-10hoursoflabor(Pouliot&Elias,
2013).Thisdoesnotincludethetimetocollectthenuts,waterandfirewoodusedinthe
productionprocess.
Ifwomenwanttostorethesheanut,theyusuallystopafterstepfouroftheprocess
andstorenutsin85kgjutesacks.Therearemajorproblemswithstoragehowever,assmall
animalsandmoisturepresentseriouschallengestoproperstorageandpreventionofspoiling.
InBamboi,therearenoareasdedicatedtosheastorage,althoughstoragewouldbebeneficial
incapturingthehighestvalueforsheanutsandbutter,sincepricescanriseuptothreetimesin
theoffseason(Hatskevichetal.,2011).
V. SocialSignificance
Sheatreesareoneofthefewnativespeciesintheregion.Othernativespeciesincludethe
AfricanMahogany(Khayaanthotheca)andBaobab(Adansoniadigitata),whichcomprisethe
sacredgrovesoftreesinBamboi.Sacredgrovesareknowntooccurinvariousforms,from
smallforestpatchestolargerburialandancestralgrounds,andrepresentasourceofspiritual
sustenanceforthecommunity.Mostsacredgroves,likethoseinBamboi,arecenteredona
shrine.InBamboispecifically,thereareatleastfiveoftheseshrines.Theseshrinesareoften
dedicatedtospecificnaturalresourcessuchastheriver,theland,thetrees,withone
specificallydesignatedtoTeo,theearthgod.Sacredgrovesarerecognizedasoneofthemost
importantformsofculturebasedconservationstrategies,oftenprotectedbysocialtabooand
maintainedbyanearthpriest(Aniah,2016).
Inmanyplaces,sacredgrovesaredisappearingandshrinesarebeingdestroyed(Aniah,
2016)duetoabreakdownofthe‘socialfence’andyoungergenerations’disregardof
traditionalbeliefsinfavorofmorepopularreligions,andincreasedindividualism.Sheatrees
29
aresupposedtobegovernedunderthesameprotectionsasaresacredgroves,evenwhen
locatedoutsidetheboundsofashrine.Still,manypeopleharvestthetreesforfuelwoodor
charcoalproduction(Figure6).
SheaisaparticularlyimportantnaturalresourceforwomeninBamboiandthroughout
itsrange.AspartofthetraditionalactivitiesforwomenoftheDegandDagaatitribes,women
relyontheincomeandfoodderivedfromsheanutsyearroundand95%ofruralwomenin
NorthernGhanaaresaidtoparticipateinsheanutcollection(Moomen&Dewan,2016).
InBamboi,womenpicksheafruitseitherinthewildorfromtheirhusbands’plots,and
cultureplaysamajorroleinthisprocess.Generallytheoldestwiferegulatesthecollectionand
processingactivityamongwivesinpolygynousmarriages.Falloworabandonedplotsare
reservedforthewivesofthepreviousowners,whilstuncultivatedplotsareopentoallwomen.
Typically,anyfallowedplotoruncultivatedlandwillbepickedbychildren.Thismeansboth
landholdingandlandlesswomencancollectsheafruits.Thisisparticularlyimportantin
Bamboi,wherethereisalargevulnerablepopulationoflandlessfamilies.
Sheanutpickingandtheprocessingofnutsintobutteristraditionallydonebywomen
(Elias&Carney,2007;Moomen&Dewan,2016;Chalfin,1996;Pouliot&Elias,2013).In
additiontobeinganincomesource,itisalsoanimportantbondingexperienceforwomen
youngandold.Thetraditionalmethodsofhandcraftedsheabutterextractionhavebeen
passeddownthroughgenerations,asmothersandgrandmothersteachyoungerwomento
processsheacorrectly.
Sheacreatesalocalsourceofwomen’sincome,whichiscriticalforeconomicandsocial
development,especiallyinthelessdevelopednorthernregions.Youngwomenareoften
responsibleforpayingtheirownjuniorhighschoolandseniorhighschoolfees,andwithout
accesstolocalwork,manyyoungfemalesintheareaareforcedtoresorttoprostitutionor
kayayowork.Kayayeaarewomenwhosellsnacks,water,cellphonecredit,andother
commoditiesontheirheadsalongmajorhighwaysandinurbancenters.Manyyoungwomenin
Bamboialreadyparticipateinthisactivityduetothetown’slocationalongtheWenchi-Bole
highway.Sincemosturbanizationisoccurringinthesouth,manygirlsfromtheNorthern
30
regionsofGhanamovingtotheslumsofKumasiandAccrainsearchofwork.Thealternatives
tolocalworkaredangeroustowomen’shealthandfrequentlyresultinearlypregnancy.
Astableindustryfortheemploymentofruralwomenhasmanyadvantages.Providing
localemploymentwithinthesheaindustrycouldalsohelptoreducetheurbanizationratein
Ghana,aswellasprovideopportunitiesforwomentobecomeliterateinbusinessandfinance.
VI. MarketAnalysis
AstudyinBurkinaFasorevealedthatcollectingandprocessingsheanutsandkernels
contributedtoasmuchas12%oftotalhouseholdincome(Pouliot&Elias,2013).Anotherstudy
conductedintheBoledistrictfoundthatsheacontributedbetween8%and25%ofwomen’s
income(Ingrametal.,2016).
Internationallysheaisusedprimarilyasareplacementforcocoabutterinconfectionary
products,aswellasaningredientinmanycosmeticproductsandsoap.Inlookingatthevalue
chainforsheabutterfromthelocaltotheinternationalmarket,itappearsthatmostofthe
valueaddediscapturedindevelopedcountries.Sheabutterhasawidevarietyoflocaluses.
Thebutterisprimarilyconsumedascookingoil,thoughwiththeinfluxofpalmandother
cheapervegetableoils,itsuseisdecreasing(Naughton,2016).Asidefromconsumption,shea
butterhassocialsignificance,asitisusedasagiftatweddingsandbirths,andcanberubbed
ontheskinasmoisturizer.Inaddition,sheabutterisusedasabaseformanycosmeticproducts
includingsoap,lipbalm,pomade,andmoisturizer.Sheabutterisanaturalanti-inflammatory
anditshighconcentrationofVitaminsAandE,makeitsuitablefortreatingavarietyofskin
conditions,includingeczemaanddermatitis.LocallyitisoftenusedduringtheHarmattanasan
anti-histamine,blockingthedustfromenteringthenostrils.
ThelocalpricesofsheanutsandbutterinBamboiisquitelow.Alocalbowl
measurementofsheanuts(depulped,boiled,anduncracked)soldfor3GhanaCedis($US0.79,
2015),andan85kgjutesackofthesamenutssoldfor100Cedis($US26,2015).Sheabutter
wassoldinthelocalmarketforbetween13and15Cedisperbowl(localmeasurement,roughly
31
3.33kgs)($US3.40-3.90,2015).InTamale,theNorthernregionalmarket,nutsachieved
approximatelythesameamount.
ArecentmarketanalysisofsheapricesattheportofTemafoundthatsheakernels
(driedandcracked,dehusked)soldfor$US0.50/kg.Thisisonlyslightlyhigherthantheprices
womenarereceivingthroughoutthecountry,andislikelyduetothesmallamountof
processingthatoccursfromsheanuttokernel.InBamboi,womenwouldsellnutsin85kgjute
sacksfor100GHcor$US0.30/kg.Thistwentycentincreaseisnotasdramaticasthedisparity
inprofitsassociatedwithbutterproductiononaninternationalscale.
Trendsinthenationalexportofsheanutsandbutterfrom1996to2013areshownin
Figure7.Inrecentyears,exportsofsheabutterhaveincreased,whichsuggestsmorewomen
areprocessingforexport.Thiscontroloverprocessing,ifcoupledwithincreasedrevenue,is
beneficialtowomeninGhanaasitgivesthemmorecontrolofthemarketandaccesstovalue
additionactivitiessuchassecondaryprocessingandproductmanufacturing.
Ontheinternationalmarket,purehandcraftedsheabuttersellsforveryhighprices,
althoughthemajorityofthisprofitiscapturedbymiddlemenandthepackingandmarketing
industries,ratherthanbylocalprocessorsandcollectors.OrganizationssuchastheGlobalShea
Figure7:GraphdetailingtheexporttrendsofsheanutsandsheabutterfromGhana.Source:GhanaExportPromotionAuthority(2014).
32
Alliancewerecreatedtoaddressthisissue,andworkasanon-governmentalorganizationin
northernGhanaandotherpartsofWestAfrica,toorganizeprocessorsforcollectiveactionand
increasedbargainingpower.
Unfortunately,sheabutterwhensoldinbulkreceivesamuchlowerprice,whichisnota
resultofaloweramountoflaboronthepartoftheprocessors.Forinstance,thecurrent
marketpricefor25kgofpuresheabutterinAccrais$US34.30or$US1.37/kg(Okrah,Eric
pers.comm.,2016).Consumersindevelopedcountriespaynearlysixtimesthelocalpricefor
sheabutter($US7.80/kg)(GlobalSheaAlliance,2017).
Table2liststhepricesofSheabutterfoundatvariouslocationswithBamboibeingtheleastexpensive,andtheinternationalmarketbeingthemostexpensive.Ascanbeseenbythepriceontheinternationalmarket,muchofthevalueisbeingretainedbymiddlemenandtradersfromGhanatotheinternationalmarket.
PricesofSheaButterinVariousMarkets
Bamboi $US0.31/kg
Accra $US1.37/kg
International $US7.80/kg
Thoughthesheamarketishighlyunpredictable,somestudieshavefoundthatwomen
actuallybenefitfrommarketuncertainty(Chalfin,2000).Theuncertaintyestablishedbyprivate
actorsallowswomentochoosetheirbuyers,andthususecollectiveactiontoraiseprices.This
isimportanttoconsiderwhenmakingrecommendationstowardsthesheamarket,specifically
regulation.
Unfortunately,anincreaseintheproductionofprofitabilityandproductionofsheamay
notresultinadirectincreaseinwomen’sincome,asmenoftentakecontrolovercommodities
oncetheybecomeprofitable(Karria&Ashby,2001).Therehasalreadybeenanincreaseof
meninthesheamarketinGhana,especiallyasmiddlemenandtraders(Ingrametal.,2015).
Therefore,furtherincreasesintheprofitabilityofthespeciesasacashcropmaypushwomen
outofthesector.Thistrendcouldbesuppressedwiththeeducationoffemaleproducersas
tradersandbusinesswomen.
33
34
VII. ConclusionsonShea
Advocatesforgenderequityandsustainabledevelopmentthinkthatsheahasthepotentialto
improvethequalityoflifeforfemaleproducers.Overthelast20yearssheahasbecomethe
focusofmanydevelopmentinitiatives.Sheaisknowntotargetatleastthreeofthemajor
SustainableDevelopmentGoalsputforthbytheUnitedNationsforthe2015-2030timeperiod.
Theseincludetheeliminationofhungerthroughfoodsecurityandsustainableagriculture,
eradicationofpoverty,andgenderequalitythroughwomen’sempowerment(Naughton,2016).
Thecurrentthreatstosheaincludeillegallogging,charcoalproduction,firewood
collection,andexpansionofcasheworchards.Sheaisaprimarysourceofwoodforcharcoal
production,accordingtotheForestryCommissionofGhana,duetotheperceptionthatsheais
themostefficientandrobustfuelwood.Althoughsheaisundertraditionalprotectionin
Bamboi,throughAct571,whichwasenactedtoprotectforestlandsinGhanain1999,this
failedtoincludevulnerablespeciessuchasshea,dawadawa(Parkiabiglobosa)andbaobab
(Adonsoniadigitata)(Oppong-Ansah,2014).Sincetraditionalauthorityisrelativelyweakin
Bamboicurrently,thesheatreesareparticularlyvulnerabletoexploitationinthisarea.
SomeinitiativeisbeingtakeninnorthernGhanatodevelopsustainablemanagement
schemes.ThreecommunitiesintheWestGonjadistricthavebeenselectedtohostpilot
projectsdesignedtoincreasethedensityofsheatrees.TheTechnicalCooperationProject(TCP)
isanagreementbetweentheMinstryofLandsandNaturalResources(MLNR)andtheFoodand
AgricultureOrganization(FAO),andwillinvolveactiveplantingofanimprovedvarietyofshea
treesdevelopedbytheCRIatBole(FAO,2016).Thesenewvarietiesmaturewithin7yearsand
presentanexcitingopportunityintherevivalofsheaparklands.
Withnewdevelopmentsininfrastructureandsheavarieties,thereishopethatfarmers
willbeginactivelyplantingsheatoensureregeneration.OnefarmerinBamboiwasapproached
byanextensionagentoftheCRIlastyear,andwasencouragedtoplantshea.Theagentwas
givingoutimprovedvarietyseedlingsforfreetopeoplewhowereseriouslyinterestedin
farmingsheatrees.Thefarmerdidnottakeanyoftheseedlings,mostlybecausetheextension
35
agenttoldhimthattheCRIisworkingtoreducethematurationperiodfrom7yearsdownto3
years.
Ifsheaisactivelyplanted,itwouldhelptosupportthegrowingnumberoffemale
headedhouseholdsinBamboi(Ingrametal.,2015).Thoughthereissomeriskofmenbecoming
involvedatvariousstagesofthetradingprocess,thesectorislargelydominatedandsocially
exclusivetowomen.Activeplantingwouldencouragefuturesheastands,allowingthesectorto
continueitsgrowthwithinGhana.
Cashew
CashewiscommonlyassociatedwithoriginsinthecerradosofCentralBrazil(Dendena&Corsi,
2014).Thecashewtreeisaperennial,droughtresistanttreecultivatedinalmostalltropical
countriesaroundtheworld,withthemostintensiveproductionlyingbetween15degrees
southandnorthoftheequator(Ohler,1979).
Cashew(Anacardiumoccidentale)wasintroducedtoBamboiaround1969-70andthere
arenowmorethan200cashewfarmersinBamboi(Jebuni,Azaasumahpers.comm.,2015).Like
manycashcrops,cashew,whenplantedandmaintainedproperly,canprovidesignificant
incometofarmers.However,inBamboi,yieldsaremuchlowerthanoptimumorevennational
averages,andtheexpansionofplantationsthreatensheaparklandregeneration.Theworld
averageyieldofrawcashewnut(RCN)perhectareisestimatedtobearound500kg/ha(Horus
Enterprises,2005),thoughinthestudyarea,aninformalsurveyofcashewfarmsfoundthatthe
averageyieldwasonly71kg/ha.
Largelysmallholdings,casheworchardsrangeinsizefrom0.8to2.5haandestimatesin
Ghanashowedatotalof59,000haoflandundercashewbeingcultivatedby60,000farmers
(WATH,2007).Cashewisgrowninmosttropicalcountries,withIndia,VietnamandBrazilbeing
theprimaryproducersin2010.India,theUnitedStatesandEuropearethemainconsumersof
cashewnuts.Theindustryisexpectedtocontinueexpandingasglobalconsumptioncontinues
torise,especiallyinnewmarketssuchasAsia.Outofalloftheareasofcashewnutproduction
36
aroundtheworld,noneareasrecentordynamicasinWestAfrica.Since2014,cashewhas
becomethesecondlargestcashcropintermsofexportvalue,behindcocoa(Rabanyetal.,
2015).
I. HistoryinGhana
CashewmadeitsfirstappearanceinGhanainthe1960swithsporadicplantingthroughoutthe
greaterAccraandCentralregions,laterspreadingtotheBrong-Ahaforegion,whereitisnow
grownatthehighestdensity(Evansetal.,2015).Initialinterestincashewwasminimalpartly
duetoincorrectinitialplantingmethodsthatdidnotproduceoptimumyields.In1983,cashew
becamepartoftheEconomicRecoveryProgrammeinGhana,whereitwasidentifiedasoneof
thefutureprominentnon-traditionalexportcrops(Frimpong,2016).
In1998,duetothedeclineinthepriceofGhana’smainagriculturalexport,cocoa,the
agriculturalcontributiontoGhana’sGDPfellfrom47%to41%.Thissparkedthepromotionof
non-traditionalagriculturalcommodities,ofwhichcashewwasone(ADF,2000).Thesameyear,
theMinistryofFoodandAgriculture(MOFA)commissionedandfundedastudytoinvestigate
thestatusofcashewanditspotentialtoreducepoverty,especiallyinthenorthernregions.The
studyconcludedthatthepotentialforcashewwastremendous,andtheGovernmentofGhana
(GOG)implementedtheCashewDevelopmentProjectatacostof$US15.5million(ADF,2000).
TheprojectranfromSeptember2002toJune2010,andtargetedareaslikeagricultural
extensionandtraining,diseaseandstumpingtreatment,aswellasprovidingaccesstocapital.
ThefirstrecordedexportofcashewfromGhanawas15mtin1991.Sincethen,exports
haverisendramatically.Annualexportsofcashewreached47,000mtin2006andtheindustry
continuestogrow.In2008cashewexportsfromGhanacontributed6.1%oftheGDPand18.2%
oftheagriculturalGDPinGhana(Wognaaetal.,2013).In2014,Ghanaproduced50,000mtof
RCN.
Thoughtheareaofcultivatedcashewcontinuestorise,therearemajorproblemswith
thequalityofcashewfromGhana,aswellasasignificantlackofdomesticprocessing.Asa
result,muchofthevalueofthecashewproductisnotretainedinGhana(Figure15).Still,the
37
cropisconsideredtobeasignificantcontributortotheincomeofpoorindividuals(Wognaaet
al.,2013).
Thelackofproperplanting,thinning,pruningandgeneralmaintenanceofcashew
plantationsisapparentinthenationalyieldstatistics.Atpresent,averageyieldsforcashewin
Ghanaare0.4mt/haor400kg/ha,whereastheachievableyieldis1.8mt/haor1800kg/ha
(Wognaaetal.,2013).ThisissueisbeingaddressedbyMOFA’sAgriculturalExtensionAgents
whoaretrainedinproperplanting,thinning,andpruningtechniques.Extensionagentsare
spreadverythinlythroughoutGhana,andhaveavarietyofotherprojectstowhichtheyare
assigned.Asaresult,notmuchisbeingdoneinBamboitoimprovecashewyields.
II. Ecologicalsignificance
Cashewisanevergreenperennialtree,andtheonlyplantinitsfamilywitheconomicvalue.
Cashewtreesbeginfruitingasearlyasthreeyearsafterplanting,thoughtheydonotusually
reachstableproductionvolumesuntileightyearsofage.Theyhaveanaveragelifespanof
betweentwenty-fivetofortyyears.Theirheightandcanopiesvaryconsiderably,rangingfrom
5-14mtall,andupto20mwide,respectively(Dendena&Corsi,2014).Therootsystemofthe
cashewtreeisdeepandwidespread,allowingforintercroppingwithcropssuchasmaizeand
groundnutsuntilcanopyclosure,whichoccursaroundfivetosixyearsofage.Intercropping
withmaizeandgroundnutsyieldssignificantimprovementinthegrowthofcashewseedlings
(Dendena&Corsi,2014).
Floweringofthecashewtreeoccursafterthedryseason,andresultsinthe
developmentofthecashewnut,followedbythecashewapple.Boththecashewappleandthe
nutareofeconomicvalue,althoughthecashewappleisoftennotusedduetothelackof
affinityfortheastringenttasteinmostofGhana.Eachnutcontainsasinglecashewkernel,
38
surroundedbyathintesta,andadoubleshellcontaininganacardicacid—apoisonousphenolic
compound.Forthisreason,localprocessingisdifficult,anddangerous,astheacidcanburnthe
handsoftheprocessorandcauseallergicreactionsincludinganaphylacticshock,whichcanbe
fatal.
Cashewplantationsrequireasignificantamountofmaintenanceuntilthetreeshave
matured.Ifmaintainedproperly,cashewplantationsrequirelessmaintenancethroughouttheir
lifecycles.ManycasheworchardsinBamboi,howeverwereimproperlyplanted,basedon
inaccurateguidancebyagencyofficialsintheirnaissance.Asaresult,pruningandthinningare
oftenrequiredoncashewplantationstoimproveyields.
Atplanting,theareaaroundseedlingsmustbekeptclear,topreventcompetitionfrom
localweedsandovershading,thenpesticidesandfertilizersareapplied.Recommended
fertilizationsuggeststheapplicationof500gN,125gP205,and125gK20pertree,twiceper
annum(Panda,2013).
Figure8:MaturecasheworchardinBamboi,demonstratingtheproperumbrellacanopy.
39
Cashewplantationsaresubjecttoanumberofinsectpestsanddiseases,allofwhich
werefoundinoneorchardoranotherinBamboi(Pers.Obv.,2015).Themaindiseasesand
pestsforcashewincludeanthracnose,stemrootborers,thrips,andcertainfungalinfections.
Thesearemanagedbytheapplicationofpesticides,especiallyduringthefloweringseason.
Thereareafewintegratedpestmanagementstrategiesthatareusedtocontrolpests,
includingtheuseofweaverants,locallyreferredtoas“soldierants.”However,mostfarmers
resorttotheuseofchemicalpesticidestomanageinsectinfestations.Otherchemical
applicationstocashewplantationsincludeherbicidesandfungicides.Thesechemicalsare
detrimentaltotheenvironmentandfurtherresearchisneededintotheircontaminationoffruit
andcashewkernels.
Figure9:Cashewtreeatflowering. Figure10:Afarmerstandsnexttohisyoungcashew1-2yearsofage.
Figure11:Theinitialdevelopmentoftherawcashewnut. Figure12:Afullydevelopedcashewfruit.
40
CashewisusuallyharvestedbetweenFebruaryandApril,afterthefruithavestartedto
dropfromthetrees.Men,womenandchildrenallparticipateinthelaborofgatheringcashew
fruitandremovingthenutfordrying,althoughtheyarerarelycompensatedfortheirlabor.This
willbediscussedindetailwhencomparingthesocialeffectsofsheaandcashewrespectively.
III. TheCashewSectorinBamboi
AspartofmyPeaceCorpsserviceIwasamemberoftheCashewInitiative,whichconducted
surveysandprovidedrecommendationstofarmerstooptimizeyieldsofcashewfarms.In
Bamboi,35farmsweresurveyedforpests,acreage(usingGPS),useofpruningandthinning,
pesticidesandfertilizeruse,andaverageyields.Mostcashewfarmswereanaverageof3-4ha
insizeandwereriddledwithavarietyofproblemsrangingfrombushfiredamagetopoor
maintenanceandpruningtowindbornediseasessuchasanthracnose.Theaverageyieldof
cashewinBamboiwasonly71kg/ha,whichissignificantlylowerthanthenationalaverage.
Manyofthefarmssurveyedhadsignificantdamagefrombushfires.Firebeltsarea
maintenancestrategythatprotectplantationsagainstuncontrolledbushfire.Theyare10min
Figure13:AerialimageofafarminBamboiclear-cutforcasheworchardestablishment.Evidenceofcashewfarmexpansionoverayearperiod.
41
widthandencircletheentireplantation.However,theyareextremelylaborintensive,and
manyfarmershavetroublecompletingthembeforethemajorburningseasonbegins.
Ofthe35farmssurveyed,15farmerssaidtheywereplanningtoexpandtheircashew
farms.Cashewfarmestablishmentandexpansionrequiresaconsiderableinvestment.Removal
oftreesisusuallydoneaftertheplotiscleared,andhassignificantcosttothefarmer.One
farmerwastryingtoestablishanew8hacashewfarm.Althoughitwasillegaltocutdownshea
trees,hepaidtohavehisfarmclearcutandthenpaidafinefortheillegallyharvestedshea
trees.Thefarmcosthim$US263.85inlabortoestablish.Thisdidnotincludethecostforshea
treeremoval.
Theexpansionofthesameclearcutforcashewplantationestablishmentisshownin
Figure13.ThisGPSpolygonwastakenFebruary13,2015,whenthefirstphaseoffarm
establishmentwascompleted.ThisGoogleEarthimagewastaken11/13/16andshowsthe
expansionofhiscashewfarm(KarimA,pers.comm.,2017).
IV. Processing
TheentireprocessofcashewprocessingfromRCNtoediblekernelissummarizedinFigure14.
Thereareseveralbyproductsproducedatdifferentstagesofcashewprocessing,whichwillbe
discussedlaterinthemarketanalysis.Therewereonlytwofunctioningprocessingfacilities
withinGhanain2015,asmostcompetitorslackedtheaccesstocapitalinordertoaggregate
enoughRCNtomeritfactoryoperation.Processing,asshowninFigure15,bears30%ofthe
totalcost,withonlya16%profitmargin.
Thedryingpartoftheprocessisparticularlyimportantforthequalityofthefinal
product,orcashewkernel.SinceBamboiexperiencedhottertemperaturesandmoredirect
sunlightthanthemajorityoftheBrong-Ahaforegion,itwasknownthatsolardryingofthenuts
tooksignificantlylesstimeandthatoccasionallynutswouldbydryenoughtohearthe
indicative‘rattle’evenatthetimeofharvest.
42
Figure14:Thecompleteprocessofcashewfromrawcashewnut(RCN)tofinishedkernel.Source:Dendena&Corsi,2014
43
AsidefromtheprocessingofRCNtoediblekernel,thereareseveralopportunitiesfor
localprocessingofthecashewapple.Duetothelackofelectricityandthehighfermentation
rate(approximately4hoursfromnutremoval)oftheapple,juicingofcashewappleshasnot
becomecommercialized,thoughsomelocalsdoconsumethefreshjuice.Otheroptionsliein
theproductionofjam,marmalade,andalcohol.Somecashewdenseareasareexperimenting
withfermentinganddistillingcashewapplejuiceintovariousspirits.Thispresentsaneconomic
opportunitybeyondthesumreceivedfortheRCN,andanareawherewomencanparticipatein
secondaryactivitiesandpotentiallyreceiveincomefromotherwisewastedagriculturalby-
products.
Aspreviouslymentioned,Ghanalacksthecapacityandinternalcapitaltoprocessmost
ofthenutsgrowninthecountry.Asaresult,alargemajorityofthenutsareshippedtoIndia
andVietnamwherelaborcostsaremuchlowerthaninGhana.Amajorityofthisprocessingis
donebyhand,whichresultsinhigherwholekernelyieldswhencomparedtomechanical
processing,thoughthehealthimpactsfromtheanacardicacidareoftensignificanttothe
processors.Inadditiontonegativehealthimpacts,therehavealsobeenconsiderableissues
withtheworkingconditionsofthewomen’sworkforcethatprocesscashewinIndiaand
Vietnam(Dendena&Corsi,2014).
V. SocialSignificance
Plantingofcashewtreesisaverysociallysignificantact(Evansetal.2015;Lastarria,1997),asit
implieslandtenureandownership.Therefore,theexpansionofcasheworchardsisleadingto
issuesoflandrights,aswellasaddingpressureonsavannahwoodlandareas.Sincelandis
usuallyonlyavailabletomen,cashewplantationsareprimarilyownedbymen.Outof50
cashewfarmersinBamboi,onlyfourwerewomen.Cashew,byandlargeisconsideredtobea
“men’scrop,”anddespitewomenandchildren’sinvolvementinlaboronthefarm,profits
usuallygodirectlytothemen.
Themoneyfromcashewisspentinavarietyofways,includingsomehousehold
expenses,althoughamajorityofthemoneyisreinvestedintocasheworchardexpansionand
44
maintenance,chainsawoperationfees,travel,drinkingandgambling(Ingrametal.,2015).
Sinceprofitsfromcashewarereceivedinalumpsumonceperyear,therewouldalsooftenbe
aperiodofcelebrationfollowingasuccessfulcashewseason.Moneyisthenusedtobuygifts
forfamilymembersand/orforbelatedholidaygatherings—especiallyifthefamilysuffered
duringtheprecedingdryseason.
Asidefromchangescashewtreesenforceonthelocallanduseandpropertydynamics,
cashewkernelsareveryrarelyconsumedlocally.ManyfarmersinBamboihavenevertasteda
cashewkernel.However,cashewanditsbyproductsfrommanufacturinghavemanyusesinthe
internationalmarket.
Ascashewcontinuestoexpand,itnotonlythreatenssheaparklands,butalso
encroachesonlandavailableforsubsistenceagricultureandother‘women’sdomains.’Arecent
studyfoundthatwomenandgirlsloseoutonlandforfoodcropswhencasheworchardsare
expanded(Evansetal.,2015).Immigrantsettlersarealsopreventedfromplantingcashew
trees,sothecropisalsobiasedtowardindigenes(Ingrametal.2015).
Cashewhasbecomeintegratedintothesocialenvironmentasithasexpandedin
Bamboi.Theinfluxofmoneyattheendofthecashewseasonissignificantinthatpriorto
cashewseason,thecommunitywouldhavebeenexperiencingseriousfinancialhardshipdueto
theleanseasonthatfollowsthedryperiods.
VI. MarketAnalysis
CashewwillbediscussedintermsofeitherRCNorcashewkernel(CK),theformerisentirely
unprocessedcashew(asidefromdrying),andthelatteristheediblefinishedproduct.Theprice
ofcashewkernelsontheinternationalmarketisdeterminedbyanumberoffactorsincluding
thesupplyofRCN,thebehaviorofcertainactorsintrademanipulationandmarketspeculation,
thepriceofsubstituteproducts(especiallyalmonds),andexchangeratefluctuations.Cashew
kernelsaresoldbasedongrade,whichessentiallymeanshowperfectthekernelisafter
processing.Wholekernelsfetchmuchhigherpricesthanhalves,partialbreaks,orpieces.Many
problemsinprocessingcanoccurwiththemalfunctionofmachinery,whichmustbeexactly
45
calibratedtosplittheoutershellandavoidsplittingtheinnerkernel.Forthisreason,hand
processingispredominantinIndiaandVietnam,wherelaborisextremelycheap,asmanual
processingisoftenmoreefficientthanmechanicalprocessingintheproductionofwhole
kernels.
Similartoshea,cashewistypicallysoldin85kgjutesacks.Individualtradersand
corporaterepresentativeswillpurchaseRCNdirectlyfromfarmersandaggregateRCNbefore
saletoprocessors.Duringthe2015cashewseason,thefarmgatepriceinBamboiwas3Ghc/Kg
($US0.79,2015).Bytheendoftheseasonpriceswouldfrequentlyriseto5Ghc/Kg($US1.32,
2015).Manyofthepricefluctuationsarearesultoflackofregulationandoutsidebuyerswho
canpayapremium.Thesebuyerssometimesenhancethemarketforfarmers,howevercan
ultimatelydeterotherforeigninvestors,leadingthemtobuyRCNfromneighboringcountries
withlowerprices(WayneTilton,RedRiverFoods,pers.comm,2017).
Figure15:AnillustrationofthepercentofcostsandprofitsdistributedfromgrowthofRCNtoretailsaleofcashewkernels.Source:McKinsey&Company,2010.
46
AsshowninFigure14,theprimaryby-productsforcashewinclude:cashewnutshell
liquid,cashewshellcake,andcashewskinextract.Cashewnutshellliquidisthemostimportant
ofthebyproducts,duetoitsuniquechemicalpropertiesthatcanbeusedinthepolymer
industry,asacomponentinbrakelinings,paints,varnishes,andsurfacecoatings(Kumaretal.
2002).Theliquidhasthepotentialofreducingtheenvironmentalimpactsoftheplasticand
compositeindustries,andiseconomicallycompetitive(Dendena&Corsi,2014).Again,ifGhana
weretoprocessmoreofitsownRCN,thiswouldbeanadditionalsourceofincome.
ThepercentageofprofitsandcostsallocatedacrossthestepsfromgrowthofRCNto
finalcashewkernelsisshowninFigure15.Thefarmerisresponsiblefor13%ofcosts,yetonly
reaps2%oftotalprofitsfromthecrop.Theprofitmarginsontheirinvestmentsareverysmall.
VII. ConclusionsonCashew
Plantingofcasheworchardsisconsideredtobealandusechangeratherthananactof
deforestation,howeverthereplacementofpreviouslyheterogeneouswoodlandwith
homogenouscashewstandsrepresentsaseriousthreattothebiodiversityoftheregion
(Temudo&Abrantes,2014).Also,giventheshadingthatoccursincasheworchardsovertime,
nativespeciesthatwouldotherwiseregenerateonfallowlands(suchasshea)losethe
opportunityforgrowthanddispersal.
TherapidexpansionofcashewinGhanaisnotonlyathreattosheaparklands,butmany
peoplealsofearthatcashewistakingawaylandpreviouslyusedforsubsistenceagriculture,
threateningtheirpresentandfuturefoodsecurity(Evansetal.2015).Asneworchardsare
createdandolderonesexpanded,theavailabilityoflandforfallowperiodssignificantly
decreases,resultingincontinuouscultivationonagriculturalplotsforfoodcrops.Continuous
cultivationwithoutfallow,resultsintherapiddepletionofsoilnutrientsandthusloweryields
onfoodcrops.
Finally,expansionofcashewwithoutchangestothecurrentlandtenuresystem
reinforcesgenderinequalities,asmostwomenareexcludedfromcasheworchardownership,
andoftenloseplotsforfoodcropstocashew.Therearesomeopportunitiestodevelopa
47
women’ssectorinthecashewindustrywiththeprocessingofcashewapples,howeverthere
wouldneedtobeashiftinthementalityofmostGhanaianconsumers,whoatpresentdonot
careforthetasteofthepseudofruit.Inlookingattheeconomicanalysisofcashew,however,
itappearsthecropmaybemoresociallysignificantthananyotherparameter.Plantingcashew
secureslandtenure,andthussocialstatusassociatedwithlandholding.
WiththematrilinealinheritanceofpropertyinBamboi,cashewcanbepasseddownto
females.Traditionally,thewife’sfamilyhassomeclaimtotheestateofthehusbandinBamboi,
thoughinmoderntimes,theirinvolvementisunlikely,andtheorchardwouldrathergodirectly
tothewifeandchildren(AzaasumahThomas,pers.comm.,2017).
Aswillbeseeninthedirectcomparisonofsheaandcasheweconomics,cashewin
Bamboiisnotprofitablewhenconsideringonly25%ofexpectedinputandlaborcosts.
Therefore,thesocialbenefitmayoutweightheeconomicbenefitsofplantingthistreespecies.
However,iftheyieldsinBamboiweretoapproachthenationalyieldsofGhana,cashewwould
provetobemuchmoreeconomicallyattractivethanshea.
Methods
IhadtheopportunitytoserveasaPeaceCorpsVolunteerinBamboifromOctober2014to
March2015,duringwhichtimeIengagedinagricultural,health,educationalandsocial
activities.AsidefromlivingalongsidethediversepopulationofBamboi,duringmyserviceI
becameheavilyinvolvedintheorganizationofcashewfarmersandsheabutterproducers.As
partofPeaceCorpsGhana’sCashewInitiative,Iworkedtosurveyfiftypluscasheworchardsfor
variouspestsandimprovedmanagementstrategies,andwasabletospatiallyreference35
orchardsinordertoprovidefarmerswithacertificateoftheirlandholding.Thesecertificates
wereusedbyfarmersasameanstoaccesscapitalforfurtherinvestmentincashew(eitherfor
fertilizersandpesticides,ororchardexpansion).Separately,Iworkedwithsheabutter
producers,andwassuccessfulinorganizingandregistering73womenforaprocessing
cooperative.Unfortunately,myservicewastruncated,andthiscooperativedidnotcometo
48
fruition;however,Iwasabletolearnagreatdealaboutthelocalsheaindustryandprovide
trainingsonqualitycontrolinsheanutstorageandbutterproduction.
Tounderstandtheecologicalandeconomicimpactsofsheaandcashew,anextensive
literaturereviewwasperformed.Theframeworkforthesocialimpactsofbothcropswas
largelybasedoninformaldiscussionsandparticipantobservationswhilstlivinginBamboi
althoughitisalsosupportedbyrelevantliteratureonagroforestryandfarmedparklandsin
WestAfrica.Theeconomicanalysisofthetwospeciesutilizednational,international,and
locallyobtainedstatistics.
AcomparisonofcashewandsheaproductsonaneconomicbasisispresentedinTables
3and4.Forthesecomparisons,Ifirstcalculatedthegrossprofitbasedonthecurrentyieldsof
cashewinBamboi(71kg/ha)andthepotentialoutputofasheaorchard.Iwasabletoestimate
sheaonthesamesquareplantationschemeascashew(100treesperhectare,whichassumes
10mby10mspacingbetweentrees).Sheatreesareknowntoproduceapproximately2.2
kg/year,sointurnasheaorchardcouldtheoreticallyproduce220kg/ha/year.Grossrevenue
forsheaandcashewareshowninTable2.
Locallaborcostsarerarelycalculatedduetotheheavyrelianceonfamilylaborand
communallaborsharing.However,forcomparativepurposes,thenetprofitsfromsheaand
cashewinanindustrializedsettingwhen100%oflaborcostsareincludedareshowninTable3.
Forthesecalculations,Itookthemaximumgrossprofitandmaximumcostsoflaborforboth
species.Themaximumlaborcostsforsheawas$US209.10,combiningbothharvest(picking)
andpost-harvest(butterproduction)costs.Therateoflaborforbothcashewandsheawas
0.75Ghc($US0.20,2015)perhour.Themaximumlaborcostofcashewwascalculatedat940.5
Ghc($US248.15,2015),whichisbasedonWognaa2013’saveragenumberoflabordaysinthe
firsttenyearsofcashewfarming.Themaximumcostoffertilizersandpesticideswasbasedon
personalcommunicationswithcashewfarmersinBamboi.
ThelocalfarmlaborratewasestimatedbetweentwoandsixGhanaiancedisperday
(Evansetal.,2015).Thesamelaborrateascashewwasappliedtosheapicking,sincethereis
nomarketpriceonthisopenaccessactivity.Onedayoflaborwasassumedtobe8hoursin
length,whichwasusedtocalculateanhourlyrateof0.75Ghcperhour.Sheaisharvested
49
duringaperiodofthreemonths,onaveragefourdaysperweek,andapproximatelythree
hoursperday,amountingtoapproximately108Ghc($US28.50,2015)peryear.Processingof
sheacanbedoneyearround,howeverismostconcentratedinthethreemonthsfollowing
harvest.Costoflaborinprocessingwasderivedfromestimatesindividualtreeyieldof2.2
kg/ha(Glele,2011)andtheprocessingratioof3kgsheanutsequivalentto1kgofsheabutter
(Pouliot&Elias,2013).Withthesefiguresitispossibletogetaroughestimateofbutter
productionperhectareat73kg/ha.Withthiscalculation,andtheestimateoflaborper
kilogramofsheabutterattwoandhalftotenhours(Jasawetal.2015),itwaspossibletogeta
rangeofcostsinlaborforproductionfortheyearfrom304to684.4Ghc($US80.21-180.60,
2015).ThemaximumlaborcostswasassumedforthecalculationsinTables2and3.
Theannualcostoffertilizer,pesticide,andherbicideusewasestimatedbylocalcashew
farmersinBamboitobenomorethan1,729.74Ghc($US456.40,2015)perhectareperyear.
ThisnumberwasusedasamaximuminputcostforthecalculationsinTable3.
Results
Table3showsthegrossrevenueofsheaandcashewinBamboi.GrossrevenuewascalculatedbasedoncurrentyieldsandmarketpricesinBamboi,Itdoesnotconsideranycostsofinputsorlaborforeitherspecies.
Table3
SheaNuts/Butter CashewRCN
Yield 220kgsheanut/ha
73kgsheabutter/ha
71kgRCN/ha
MarketPrices Nuts:$US26.38/85kgJuteSack
Butter:$US3.95/Bowl(3.3kg)
$US0.79-1.32/kg
GrossRevenue $US61.82/haperyearOR
$US87.55Ghc/haperyear
$US56.20-93.67/haperyear
50
Table4illustratesthenetprofitsfromsheanutsandbutter,andcashewRCNattheircurrentyieldsinBamboi,whenspecificpercentagesofinputandlaborcostsareaccountedfor.ThesamecalculationsarethenusedtocomparethesituationinBamboitothenationwideaveragesinGhana.
Table4
SheaNuts/Butter CashewRCN
Yields LaborCost InputCostMax.NetProfit
($US)
Max.NetProfit
($US)InputCost LaborCost
BamboiCurrent
SheaOrchard:220kg/ha//
73kg/ha
CashewOrchard:71kg/ha
0 0 68.81/87.55 93.67 0 0
25%
50%
75%
100%
0
61.69/35.28
54.57/(16.99)
47.45/(69.26)
40.32/(121.53)
(82.47)
(352.27)
(434.66)
(610.88)
25%
50%
75%
100%
25%
50%
75%
100%
GhanaNationalAverage
SheaOrchard:220kg/ha//
73kg/ha
CashewOrchard:400kg/ha
0 0 68.81/87.55 527.70 0 0
25%
50%
75%
100%
0
61.69/35.28
54.57/(16.99)
47.45/(69.26)
40.32/(121.53)
351.56
175.43
0.71
(168.93)
25%
50%
75%
100%
25%
50%
75%
100%
51
SheaversusCashewDiscussion
OnedaywhencollectingsheanutswithayoungDagaatiboy,Iaskedhimhowhewoulddecide
topickasheafruitornot.Hetoldmeofseveraldifferentmethods.Forexample,ifthefruiton
theoutsidewasnotappealingtoeat,hewouldnotpickthenut.Also,ifthenutwassprouting,
hewouldtakespecialcaretoplacethenutinaplacewhereitmightgrowbest.Hisfirstmethod
ofdiscernisbeneficialinregardtothequalitycontrolofthebutterproduct;however,the
seconddemonstrateshisconcernfortreeregeneration.Whenaskedhowheknewnottopick
thenuts,hetoldmethathismotherhadwarnedhimagainstpickingthosenutsthatmaylater
producemorenuts.
Despitethislocallymanagednaturalregenerationinpickingpreferences,sheais
currentlythreatenedbyagriculturalexpansion,charcoalproductionandillegalloggingin
Bamboi.Thetreesaresupposedtobeculturallyprotected,howeverpeopleareabletopay
finestothelocaltraditionalgovernmenttoforgoculturaloffenseintheirremoval,and/orwill
removethetreesillegally.
Whengrowninclustersonfarmlands,sheatreescanalsocreateabeneficialsoil
microclimateformaizeandothergrains(Baziari,2015).Incontrast,cashewonlyallowsfor
intercroppingduringthefirst5-6yearsoffarmestablishmentduetocanopyclosure.Typically
plantedasahomogenousplantation,cashewrepresentsashiftawayfromapreviouslydiverse
landscapeofnativespecies.Cashewfarmingcanalsoleadtoerosionofsoilnutrientsand
environmentalpollutionasmanycashewfarmersusechemicalpesticides,herbicides,and
fertilizersontheirfields.However,organicallyfarmedcashewwouldnothavethesame
ecologicaleffects.Thereissomeeffortbeingmadetoencourageorganicfarmingmethods
throughoutthecashewindustry,especiallysincethereisapremiumpricereceivedfororganic
RCN.
Landusechangesuchastheshiftfromsheaparklandstocasheworchardsclearlyhas
manysocialimplications.Thefirstiswithregardtocommunityversusprivatelandholdings.
52
Sheaparklandsallowforcommunalorfree(barringgenderedsocialtaboos)accessbasedon
currentharvestpractices.Casheworchardsconvertplotsoflandtosmallerunitsofproperty,as
treesareindividuallyowned,onlandthatwouldhavebeenpreviouslycommunal.Although
cashewhasarelativelyshortlifespan(25-40years)inheritanceisanimportantfactor.Women
inamatrilinealsocietycaninheritproperty,sosomeopportunitiesdoexisttoincreasethe
numberofwomencashewfarmers.However,thisprocesscallsintoquestiontheideaof
whethertheprivatizationoflandaspropertyisbeneficialtothesocialstructureatlarge.
ResearchonlandholdingandaccessinAfricadiscusstheincreasingtrendtowardland
privatization,andconcludesthat“genderbiasremainsprevalentintheprivatepropertysystem
andmarketeconomy”(Lastarria,1997).Thoughwomenhavefewdirectaccessrights,females
canaccruelandusestatusindirectlythroughmaleconnectionssuchastheirhusband,brother,
orfather.Cashewfarmsinherentlychangethelandfromcollectivetoprivateownership,since
thetreesareviewedasprivateproperty.Thisallowsforthetreesandthelandtheyoccupyto
bepasseddownorinheritedassuch.GiventhematrilinealinheritanceofpropertyinBamboi,
bothsonsanddaughterswouldbeeligibletoinheritthelandandtrees.AlthoughDega
traditionentitlesthewife’sfamilytotheestateofherhusband,thistraditionisrarelyadhered
toinmoderntimes,withmostinheritanceoftheestategoingdirectlytothewifeandchildren
ofadeceasedman(AzzasumaThomas,pers.comm.,2017)
Duetothenatureoflandownership,cashewisconsideredtobeaman’scrop.
Conversely,thesocialnatureofsheatendstorestrictworktowomen.Thus,toencourage
genderequalityindevelopmentoftheregion,itisimperativethatsheaparklandsandcashew
orchardshaveequivalentproportions.Hereitwouldbehelpfultohavemeasurementsofthe
landallocatedtocashewandaccessiblesheaparklands,inordertoseethedistributionin
comparisontorelativepercentagesofmenandwomeninBamboi.Thiswouldprovidea
frameworkfordeterminingtheequityofaccesstosourcesofincomebasedonthetwo
industries
Cashew,asitstandsinBamboi,isreplacingotherincomegeneratingspecies,andmay
notbeaprofitablechange.Theeconomiccomparisonbetweensheanuts,sheabutterand
cashewRCNisshowninTables3and4.Table3showsthegrossrevenuefromsheaand
53
cashew,withcashewhavingaslightlyhigherreturnsthansheainagivenyear.Thissituation
changesdrasticallywhenthetwoarecomparedagainbasedontheirprofitsinTable4.
Table3illustratesthenetprofitsofsheanuts,butterandcashewRCNwheninputand
laborcostsareaccountedforinquartileprogressions.Basedonrelativefarmingpractices,a
farmermaynotapplyasmanyfertilizersandpesticides,andthustheircostwillbelower.Thisis
representedinthequartileprogressionfromzeroinputandlaborcoststo100%,which
representsafullyindustrializedsystem,wherealllaborandinputsareaccountedfor.
AccordingtoTable4themostprofitableindustryinBamboiisinthesaleofunprocessed
sheanuts.Nutsremainprofitableevenwhenconsideringcostsoflabor,whichisnotthesame
forbutterproduction.Sheabutterresultsinalosswheneven50%ofthelaborisaccountedfor.
Evenworse,cashewintheareaisonlyprofitablewhennoneofthelabororinputsare
accountedfor.Assoonasafarmeraccountsfor25%oftheinputsandlaborcostsofacashew
plantation,lossesarerecorded.
CashewiscurrentlynotprofitableinBamboi.Thisisduetoavarietyoffactorsincluding
improperplanting,disease,andmismanagedfireregimes.Table3alsoillustratesthe
differentialincomesbyquartileofcashewbasedonnationalyieldstatistics.Averageyieldsin
Ghanaaremuchhigherthaninthestudysite,andthusprofitsarerealizedevenwhenupto
75%oftheinputandlaborcostsareaccountedfor.
Thoughnationallycashewisprofitable,inBamboi,casheworchardsinplaceofshea
parklandsisirrational,sincethetradeofnutshashigherreturnswithallcostsconsidered.
However,theprofitabilityofsheamaybedownplayedinBamboiandthroughoutGhana,dueto
thesocialaspectsofeconomics.Aswaspreviouslydiscussed,themarketuncertaintyofsheais
actuallybeneficialtosomewomen’sgroupsasitallowsthemtousecollectiveactionand
bargainingpowerwithoutsidersreadforeignbuyers(Chalfin,2000).Ingrametal.(2015)
suggestthatwomenoftenselectcommoditieswithlowervalueandreturns.Thisselectionis
basedontheevidencefromGhanathatwomenrarelybenefitfrommarketlinkages,sincemen
willusuallytakeoverthecommodityonceitbecomesprofitable(Ingramet.al.,2015).
54
Recommendations
InlookingatthecultivationandprocessingofbothsheaandcashewinBamboi,thereareafew
recommendationsthatcanbemadetowardstheco-managementofthespeciesandrelative
landusedecisions.First,collaborationisneededbetweennationalandlocalstakeholdersto
conserveorpreserveexistingsheaparklandstoensurecontinuedusebylandlessindividuals
whorelyonsheafruitharvestasaprimarysourceofincome.Second,propermanagementof
existingcasheworchardscouldincreaseyieldsperhectare,andthereforeincreaseprofit
marginsfromcashew.Therehasbeensomesuccessintheintercroppingofsheaandcashew,
andsincetheyhavedifferentseasons,furthercashewexpansioncouldbecoupledwiththe
intercroppingofimprovedsheavarietiestooptimizetotalyieldsperhectareandencourage
greatergenderequalityamonghouseholds.Intercroppingofcashewandsheawouldensure
theregenerationofthesheaspeciesaswellaspotentiallycombatanthracnoseandother
windborneillnessescommontothecashewplantations,byactingasawindbreak.
WithanincreaseinthesustainabilityofsheaparklandsinBamboi,itwouldalsobe
beneficialtoencouragecommunityinvestmentinthestorageandprocessingofshea.Providing
afacilityforthestorageofsheatotakeadvantageofoffseasonpriceswouldgreatlybenefitthe
totalincomeofwomenthroughoutthecommunity.Asheastoragefacilitycouldbeeasily
establishedinBamboiwiththesupportoflocalleaders.
Anotherviablealternativeforsheamanagementcouldbefarmermanagednatural
regeneration(FMNR).FMNRis“anapproachtoarablelandrestorationandreforestationthat
seekstoreconcilesustainedfoodproduction,conservationofsoils,andprotectionof
biodiversity”whichinvolvesfarmerselectionandawarenessofspeciessuchassheaandtheir
ensurednaturalregenerationonthelandscapebyprotectingjuveniletrees(Westonetal.,
2015).EducatingthefarmersinBamboiontheimportanceandbenefitsofhavingayoungand
fruitfulpopulationofsheatreesforfuturegenerationswouldencouragesuchbehavior,or
enhancecurrentpracticesofleavingspecifictreesonfarms.
55
Beyondfarmers,itwouldalsobebeneficialtoeducateyoungergenerationsinBamboi
ontheimportanceofshearegeneration.Aboveall,moresensitizationofthevulnerabilityof
shea,andfurtherresearchintotheimplementationofactivesheaplantingisneededtoensure
theco-existenceofthetwospecies.
I. ChallengesandLimitations
Thisstudyhasmanylimitations,mostlyinthelackofdatashowingtheactualexpansionrateof
cashewplantationsinthearea,aswellasthevulnerabilityofcurrentsheaparklands.Thiscase
studyisalsolimitedbytheamountofinformationthatisobtainablefromthisregion.Exact
figuresofexportsofsheaandcashewareoftencontrolledbyprivatestakeholdersinthe
industry,andduetotheirproprietarynature,mostareunwillingorunabletoproducesuch
figures.Furtherresearchintothelevelofvulnerabilityofexistingsheaparklandsinthearea
wouldbehelpfulindeterminingtheactualthreatthatcashewplantationexpansionpresentsto
shea.Thiswouldincludetherateofharvestforloggingandcharcoalproduction,aswellasany
woodlandsbeinglosttourbanizationinandaroundBamboi.
Therearealsomanychallengesthatwouldaccompanytherecommendedmanagement
strategiesforsheaandcashewinBamboi,andfurtherresearchisneededtodeterminethe
viabilityofashearegenerationprojectinthearea.AsseenintheBrong-Ahaforegion,cashew
expansionmaysoonovershadowanyhopesofintercropping(Evansetal.,2015).Therearealso
challengesdirectlyrelatedtoplantingshea,andespeciallyoncasheworchards.
First,dependingonthelandowner’sworldview,sheamaynotbeplantedoutoffearor
socialtaboo.TherearesomerumorswithinBamboithatamanmightdieifheistoplantashea
tree.Inadditionitmaybedifficulttogetmalelandholderstoactivelyplantshea,sincethey
willlikelynotbethedirectreceiversofincomefromthetree.
Itisalsoimportanttoconsiderthechangesthatwouldoccurasaresultofactiveshea
treeplanting,andespeciallyintercropping.Thoughpromotinggenderequality,income
generatedbywomenhasthepotentialofcreatingtensionwithinahouseholdrelatedto
relativeincomegenerationbetweenahusbandandhiswife.Still,asthenumberoffemale
56
headedhouseholdsincreasesanddevelopmentfocusesongenderquality,thereexistsmany
opportunitiesforwomentobecomemiddlemenwithinthesheaindustry,giventheyreceive
traininginfinancialliteracyandbasicbusiness.Furtherresearchisneededonimproved
varietiesofbothsheaandcashewspecies,andnationalregulationofthecropswouldbe
beneficialinprovidingbaselinesforprofitability.
57
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