See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282317743 Shodhana: An Ayurvedicdetoxification Technique and its Impact on certain Medicinal Plants Chapter · January 2014 CITATIONS 2 READS 5,946 1 author: Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Impact of shodhana(purification) on Ayurvedic poisonous plants View project Phyto-pharmacognostical and biological evaluation of certain Extra pharmacopoeial plants (Anukta Dravya) of Ayurveda View project Rabinarayan Acharya Institute of Post Graduate Teaching & Research In Ayurveda 355 PUBLICATIONS 1,065 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Rabinarayan Acharya on 30 September 2015. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.
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See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282317743
Shodhana: An Ayurvedicdetoxification Technique and its Impact on
certain Medicinal Plants
Chapter · January 2014
CITATIONS
2READS
5,946
1 author:
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Impact of shodhana(purification) on Ayurvedic poisonous plants View project
Phyto-pharmacognostical and biological evaluation of certain Extra pharmacopoeial plants (Anukta Dravya) of Ayurveda View project
Rabinarayan Acharya
Institute of Post Graduate Teaching & Research In Ayurveda
355 PUBLICATIONS 1,065 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
All content following this page was uploaded by Rabinarayan Acharya on 30 September 2015.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.
Shodhana: An Ayurvedicdetoxification Technique and its Impact
on certain Medicinal Plants
A
Concept of Visa
Rabinarayan Acharya
yurveda deals with drugs of herbal, mineral, metallic and animal origin where maximum are of herbal origin. Among the drugs of herbal origincertain plants are known for their toxic effects and are categorised
under visha (poisonous)and upavisha (semi-poisonous) drugs and are used either as a single drug or as an ingredient of a compound formulations.( Table-1)The list of poisonous plants has been provided in Schedule E-1 of Drugs & Cosmetics Rule, 1945(Vijay, 2005).Ayurveda emphasises on administration of these poisonous drugs only after through processingtechnique called as Shodhana (detoxification).Adverse effects of the poisonous medicinal plants are mainly due to the improper Shodhana (detoxification technique) and over dose etc. Safety is a fundamental principle in the provision of herbal medicines and herbal products for health care, and a critical component of quality control (WHO guidelines, 2004).The concept of shodhana (detoxification technique) in Ayurveda is not only a process of purification /detoxification, but also a process to enhance the potency and efficacy of the drugs (Shastri, 2009).Certain medicinal plants not categorized under poisonous drugs like Vacha(Acorus calamus Linn.), Vriddhadaru (Argyreia speciosa Sweet.),Hingu(Ferula foetida Bioss.), Kampillaka(Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Muell-Arg.)andGuggulu(Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex. Stocks) Engl.) etc. are also recommended to pass through specific shodhana process before administration (Shastri, 2009).Medicinal plants having potential to cause toxic effect, being used as an individual drug or as an ingredient of many compound formulations, if not processed properly, may cause adverse effects. Proper awareness about Visha, its classifications, Shodhana methods, media used for detoxification procedures and researches on impact of Shodhana, are the tools to bring poisonous medicinal plants into the mainstream and to make them more accountable.
Visha dravyas (poisonous drugs) are used in various Ayurvedic formulations, in spite of their reported side effects, due to their quick effectiveness and in relatively smaller dose. A vivid but scattered description of this can be traced in different texts of Ayurveda and particularly Agadatantra(Shri Taranatha, 2002). A substance which causes sadness to the world is also called as visha(Acharya Yadavji, 2008). Hence,visha dravya may be defined as a substance which is life threatening or produces many other complications and brings about sadness. In Ayurvedic classics, after proper processing, many visha dravyas are used as
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aushadha dravya because, dose differentiate a drug from poison, a medicine at one dose, can serve as visha or poison at the other. Hence, a substance which is fatal at relatively smaller dose can be considered as visha. Visha dravyas are attributed with certain properties which are responsible for its fatality in smaller dose. Action of visha i.e. poisonin context of its gunas,vega lakshanas and dhatugata lakshanas are very elaborately explainedin Ayurvedic texts(Acharya Yadavji, 2008). Visha when used by proper yukti (justification) can be converted to bheshaja( drug)(Acharya Yadavji, 2011).
Visha, basing upon its origin, has been classified into two categories viz.Jangamavisha (animal poison) and Sthavaravisha (plant and mineral poisons)and has beenrecited as ten and sixteen respectively(Acharya Yadavji, 2008). Further,basing upon origin it is classified as Akritrimavisha (natural poison) and kritrimavisha/Garavisha (artificialor chemically prepared poison) whereAkritrimavisha is again sub divided into two i.e. sthavara and jangama(Acharya Yadavji, 2010).Certain texts of Rasashastra and Dravyaguna classified visha in various categories like mahavisha-upavisha etc(Chunekar, Pandey. 1999).
In spite of their fatal effect manyvisha dravyas(poisonous substances) are used as medicines.( Table-3) Many of the of the poisonous plants as well as rasaushadhis which are reported for their toxic nature but they are used, after proper processing, widely in the treatment without any adverse effects as they are effective in small doses to cure the diseases(Rasavagbhata, 1995).
Visha dravyas, along with their undesirable properties, are also incorporated with certain desirable properties, by which they act faster than other medicines or plants. Further, to make these properties therapeutically effective certain shodhana(detoxification technique) procedures are explained in the classical texts, which may be helpful for diminution of toxic properties of the poisonous substances.
Shodhana has been defined as a process of separation by which physical and chemical impurities get separated from the substances by treatment with various drugs. It is a process by which blemishes are separated from the substance by means of pharmaceutical procedures of Swedana (boiling), Mardana (trituration) etc. with particular drugs.(Sadananda, 2004).
Shodhana, basing upon its specific indications, is grossly subdivided into two
Classification
Visha dravya (poisonous substances)
Concept of Shodhana
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major categories as samanya(common) and vishesha(specific)shodhana(Shastri, 2009).Plants with a potential to cause toxic effect, also undergoes this process. It is generally carried out in two methods.
The general method of purificatory procedures applicable to all the poisonous drugs of a particular group,is known as Samanya Shodhana of visha dravyas(Upadhyaya, 1999)
In one method, underthis procedure the drug is being cut into small pieces followed by soaking in cow's urine for 3 days. Every day the cow's urine should be
threplaced with fresh sample. On 4 day drug should be washed with warm water followed by dryingunder sunlight.
In another method, the drug should be kept on a piece of cloth, the four fold should be tied to make a shape known as pottali and boiled (Swedana) with milk in Dolayantra for 5 prahara (15hrs). Milk must be above the level of pottali andthe level of milk should be maintained throughout the Swedana process with repeated addition of milk.
Certain specific of detoxification techniques are recommended for a particular drug. e.g. Shodhana of Bhallataka in brick powder (Sadananda, 2004);Gunjaseeds in Kanji (sour gruel)(Sadananda, 2004); and immersion of nux-vomica seeds in cow's urine followed by swedana with cow's milk & roasting with cow's ghee(Chunekar, Pandey, 1999); Vacha rhizome with panchapallava kwatha(Govind, 2008) (Table 4).
Classical texts of Ayurvedarecommend different techniques/procedures for shodhana of a specific visa dravya. (Prashant, 2008;Sastri, 2008&Upadhyaya, 1999)
I. Achushana (absorption)
Oily content of certain toxic materials are minimized through different absorption means, e.g. Bhallataka Shodhanawith brick powder.
II. Bharjana (frying or roasting)
The drug is fried with specific liquid media on Mandagni (mild heat), e.g. Hingu shodhana, kupilu shodhanawith cow's ghee.
III. Bhavana (levigation)
The drug is triturated with prescribed liquid media for specific time period. e.g. Ahiphena Shodhanawith ginger juice.
The drug is kept immersed in the prescribed liquid media for specific time period e.g. Vatsanabha shodhanacow's urine.
V. Parishravana (straining)
The solid drug is dissolved in suitable liquid media and separated from insoluble impurities through straining, e.g. Gugguluwith triphala decoction.
VI. Prakshalana (washing)
The drug is washed with prescribed liquid to remove its physical impurities e.g. tuber of vidarikanda after collection Shodhana with water.
VII. Prithakikarana (separation)
Physical impurities are removed e.g. KampillakaShodhana
VIII. Swedana (boiling under liquid bath)
The drug is boiled in prescribed liquid media through Dola Yantra method e.g. nux-vomicaShodhana with cow's milk.
Researches on shodhana
In recent past many systemic and scientific studies have been carried on poisonous drugs to find out the impact of shodhana procedures on phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of the drugs likeVatsanabha (Acontium ferox Wall.), Kupilu (Strychnos nux-vomica Linn.), Bhallataka (Semecarpus anacardium Linn.), Dhatura (Datura metel Linn.&Datura innoxia Mill.), Langali (Gloriosa superba Linn.), Gunja (Abrus precatorius Linn.), Chitraka(Plumbago rosea Linn.&Plumbago zeylanica Linn.),Karaveera (Nerium indicum Mill.)and Jayapala (Croton tiglium Linn.),Vacha (Acorus calamus Linn.) etc.
Vatsanabha (Acontium ferox Wall.)
The tuberous rootsare the official part of Vatsanabha (Acontium feroxWall.;Ranunculaceae).It contains aconite, an alkaloid, which is mainly responsible for its toxic effect. In Ayurveda it is used as an ingredient in many compound formulations, which are indicated for the management of fever, rheumatic pain, common cold, indigestion etc. (Sanjeev, 2011)
Classical texts of Ayurveda recommend different methods of shodhanaforVatsanabha . In one method; under the procedures, nimajjana(dipping); the roots are cut into small pieces and immersed in cow's urine for 3 days(Vagbhata, 1998). In other methods under the proceduresswedana(boiling),the drug undergoes swedana procedures, in dola yantra with any of the media for specific period of time like;for 3 hours in goat's
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milk(Upadhyaya, 1999);for 3 or 24 hours in triphalakwatha(Indradeva, 2003);for 3 or 5 or 6 hrsin cow's milk(Upadhyaya, 1999);for 8 yama (24 hours) in cow's urine(Indradeva, 2003) andfor 3 hours in water and milk as media(Laksmipati, 2007).It is also recommended to give Bhavana(trituration) to the pieces of Vatsanabha by Gomutra (cow' urine) for 3 days(Indradeva, 2003).Further, some experts opine to makeVatsanabharoot in to small pieces andkept it in a cloth piece. Mahisha mala (buffalo dung) is smeared over the cloth piece and a mass should be prepared. Then the round ball of mass should be heated in the fire of Karisha (husk) for 3 hours. After self-cooling, the cloth is taken out and the Shuddha (processed) Vatsanabha is collected(Upadhyaya, 1999).AFI
A recent research study shows that, the percentage of aconitine in raw Vatsanabha(0.113)was reduced to 0.089after being processed with Gomutra(Cow's urine)as a media. (Singh, 2003)
In an another study it was observed that theremoval of toxic alkaloids aconite is more by swedana with the cow's urine method in comparison to others media like cow's milk, goat's milk, Triphala Kwatha, etc and the study concluded that Gomutra( Cow's urine) should be considered as the best media for Shodhana of Vatsanabha(Sarkar, 2008).
A reduction in toxicity was observed after administering crude aconite processed in cow's milk, the compound did not become absolutely non-toxic (Sen SP and Khosla RL, 1968).
It is reported that when crude aconite was processed in cow's milk, the toxicity was significantly reduced with no mortality occurring at a dose of 2.6 mg/mouse. At both the doses of 10.4 and 20.8 mg/mouse, the percentage of mortality was 16.66. Processing in cow's urine also rendered crude aconite less toxic. No mortality occurred at any of the dose levels studied. The aconite processed in both cow's urine and cow's milk was found to be absolutely non-toxic. None of the mice died even at a dose as high as 20.8 mg/mouseThorat S and Dahanukar S( 1991).
In a study
Latest researches
to assess the chronic toxicity, raw aconite, cow's urine treated aconite, and milk treated aconite were administered in 6.25 mg/kg dose, in Charles Foster strain albino rats, for 90 days, Six rats from each were kept for another 30 days without test drugs treatment to observe recovery from chronic toxicity. Raw aconite was found to be highly toxic in chronic exposure;urine treated aconite had no apparent toxicity, but milk treated aconite had mild toxicity in kidney. The toxicities of raw aconite and milk treated aconite were reversible, but sudden
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withdrawal of urine treated aconite caused adverse effects, suggestive of tapering withdrawal. Shodhana treatments remove toxic effects from raw aconite (Sarkar, 2012)
Cardiac activity was carried out Charlse Foster albino rats by taking EEG. 24 animals were divided in to four groups. Group 1received tap water, Group 2 6.75mg/kg Raw vatsanabha (RV), Group 3 6.75mg/kg of gomutra shodhaita vatsanabha (GMSV) and Group 4 received 6.75mg/kg of godugdha sodhita vatsanabha (GDSV).Antipyretic study was carried out yeast induced pyrexia in Wister rats. 24 rats were divided in to four groups and injected 1 ml/100 g yeast suspension.. Group 1 received yeast( 1ml/100 g), Group 2 40.0 mg/kg paracetamol, Group 3 1.35 mg/kg of RVand Group 4 received 1.35mg/kg of GMSV Group 5 received 1.35mg/kg GDSV. Invitro neuro -muscular activity study was done on each leech dorsal muscle by recording contraction. Increase in the heart rate, prolongation of the duration of the QRS complex and prolongation of the repolarization period between QRS complex were found in RV sample. No such changes were observed in GMSV and GDSV treated groups. A significant (P<0.05) body temperature
A series of pharmacological activities pertaining to raw and process vatsanabha was reported by LB Singh in his book visa plants in Ayurveda. It is reported that due to shdhanatechnique, the active principles of vatsanabha lose their depressant action on the heart and instead become stimulant having mild cardio-tonic property. It is being postulated that the cow's urine treatment to the crude aconite hydrolyzed partially or wholly the parent alkaloids into aconines and benzoyl aconines and behaved as a cardiac stimulant.Vatsanabha treated with cow' urine and cow's milk potentiated barbiturate hypnosis, and the effects were more pronounced than that produced by crude aconite. Vatsanabha treated with cow's urine and cow's milk was found to possess anti-inflammatory effect and could effectively block the phlogestic action of carrageenin. The result when compared with that of hydrocortisone acetate showed that the drug treated with milk produced equal response whereas urine treated drug gave a poor response.Aconite treated with cow's urine had a more pronounced antipyretic effect than paracetamol. The onset of antipyretic effect of paracetamol and aconite treated with cow's milk was found to be quicker but the duration of action was short, whereas the effect of urine treated aconite was more sustained. Vatsanabha treated with cow's urine and cow's milk produced statistically significant analgesic activity. The analgesic effect of urine treated and milk treated aconite although was belated, yet persisted for a longer time (Singh LB, 2003).
A study designed to evaluate the impact of Shodhana treatment of cardiac activity, antipyretic activity and neuromuscular activity of Vatsanabha.
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lowering effect was found in raw sampleand the activity was found less in both GMSV and GDSVgroups. Muscle relaxant activity of raw and both the shodhita groupswas noticed. The study concluded that shodhana treatment removes cardiac and neuromuscular toxic effects from the raw aconite without affecting the antipyretic activity in a drastic manner.( P K Sarkar, Prajapati, Shukla, Ravishankar 2012)
Kupilu (Strychnos nux-vomica Linn.)
Seeds are the official part of Kupilu (Strychnos nux-vomica Linn.; Loganiaceae) and are used as an ingredient of compound formulations of Ayurvedic system of medicine indicated for nervous debility, paralysis and weakness of limbs, sexual weakness, dyspepsia, dysentery and chronic rheumatism. Additionally, it is employed in the treatment of anemia, asthma, bronchitis, colic, intermittent fever, hysteria, etc., in a specific therapeutic dose. It contains alkaloid known as strychnine, brucine which isresponsible for its toxic effect(Swarnendu, Rabinarayan, 2012).
Different methods of Shodhana of kupiluseeds are in practice like soaking in cow' urine for 7 days; soaking in cow's urine for 7 days followed by swedana with cow's milk for 3 hrs(Yadavji, 1998); soaking in cow's urine for 7 days followed by swedana with cow's milk for 3 hrs & roasting with cow's ghee(Chunekar, Pandey, 1999); immersion in Kanji, swedana with Godugdha, roasting with cow's ghee,(Sadananda, 2004)and roasting with castor oil(Trivedi, 1963). Keeping in Gomaya (cowdung), boiling in Multanimitti (one type of soil obtained from a place known as Multan)(Parikh, 2006) and dipping in Ardrakaswarasa (fresh ginger juice)(Swarnendu, Rabinarayan, 2012)
Recent study reveals that after processing in kanji(sour gruel) and ardraka swarasa (fresh ginger juice) the strychnine content was reduced by 39.25% and 67.82% respectively and the brucine content reduced by 17.60% and 40.06% respectively, in comparison to the raw seeds (Swarnendu et al., 2011).It is also reported that after processing with Eranda taila (castor oil) the toxic Strychnine & Brucine contents were reduced by 67.36% and 46.97% respectively in comparison to the raw Nux-vomica seeds(Swarnendu, 2011). when processed by dipping(nimajjana) in cow's urine and then boiling under liquid bath (swedana) in cow's milk, showed reduction in
(Swarnendu, 2012).A researchdata shows that strychnine contents are reduced after processing with cow's ghee (Pradeep, 2000).
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Kupeelu seed
toxic alkaloids strychnine & brucine, by 71.49% and 54.02% respectively, in comparison to the raw seed, as determined by H.P.T.L.C. study
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In another studythe ethanolic extract of all samples (processing with aloe and ginger juice, by frying in cow's ghee and by boiling in cow's milk) were subjected to spontaneous motor activity (SMA), pentobarbitone induced hypnosis, PTZ induced convulsions, diazepam assisted protection, and morphine induced catalapsy. All samples reduced spontaneous motor activity and inhibited catalepsy.The seeds processed in milk showed the lowest strychnine content in the cotyledons, exhibited marked inhibition of PTZ induced convulsions and maximal potentiation of hypnosis(Chandrakant et al. 2010).
A study was conducted by administration of the powder of raw and processed kupeelu seeds(processed with kanjii.e. sour gruel) as test drugs for anti-inflammatory activity by employing Carrageenan and Formaldehyde induced hind paw oedema in Wister strain albino rats at a dose of 22.5 mg/kg body weight orally. The result showed that the processed kupeeluprovided highly significant anti-inflammatory activity against formaldehyde induced hind paw oedema, but did not have similar activity against Carrageenan induced hind paw oedema(Swarnendu etal., 2011)
(Semecarpus anacardium Linn.)
The fruits are the official part ofBhallataka (Semecarpus anacardiumLinn.;Anacardiaceae) and reported for containing Bilwanol, Anacardiolas the major chemical constituents. In Ayurveda it is administered internally in the cases of nadi dourbalya (nervous debility), amavata (acute rheumatism), Apasmara (epilepsy), gridhrasi (sciatica), swasa (asthma),Kustha(Skin diseases), arsha( piles), grahani(Irritable bowel syndrome), jwara(fever), svitra(leucoderma),agnimandya (loss of appetite), krimi (helminthic disorder) etc. Tarry oil present in the pericarp of the fruit causes blisters on contact. The major constituent of the Tarry oil is anacardic acid and bhilawanol, a mixture of 3-n-pentadec(en)ylcatechols. Bhilawanols A and B are known as Urushiols, and also, anacardic acid is closely related to Urushiol. Urushio l - induced contac t dermat i t i s dur ing d i ffe ren t s tages Shodhana(detoxification procedures) of Bhalltaka fruit has been reported(R Ilanchezhian, 2012).
Many methods are in practice for the shodhana of Bhallataka fruits like, cut pieces of fruits were mixed with brick powder and rubbed thoroughly by covering it with thick cloth till the outer covering is removed. Then it was allowed to be in brick powder for 3 days till the oily part was absorbed.Then washed with hot water, dried and preserved(Gyanendra, 2005);under goes Swedana in Dolayantra for 3 hrs in coconut water(Sadananda, 2004);after removal of the thalamus portion the fruit should be soaked in cow's urine for seven days followed
Bhallataka
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by cow's milk for seven days. Then the seeds should be put into bag containing coarse brick powder with which they are rubbed carefully, to reduce the oil content. Then the fruits should be washed with water and dried in air(Yadavji, 1998);Thalamus removed fruits should be taken in a vessel containing boiling water and has to be boiled for 10 minutes.(Chunekar, Pandey, 1999)Apart from the classical methods, some other Shodhana methods are still followed by traditional practitioners. One such method is frying Bhallataka fruits in open fire. Bhallatakafruits are taken in an iron pan, should be heated from below and hot charcoal is put over the fruits in the pan (R. Ilanchezhian, 2011).
Latest researches
Recent researches show that there is change in Rf values before and after shodhana of Bhallataka fruits. Biological activity of Semecarpus nuts were tested against lipopolysaccharides-induced nitric oxide production in rat peritoneal macrophages. It showed minimum activity in the extract from unpurified nut (8.06%), which gradually enhanced when treated with brick (10.61)(Yamini et al., 2008).TLC of methanol extracts of the fruits before and after shodhana reveals that almost all the compounds corresponding to certain Rf values are present both before after Shodhana except that corresponding to 0.82. Besides, the intensity of the chromatogram was reduced after shodhana which indicates that shodhana has brought in some change in the oily fraction of the constituents of Bhallataka by removing a certain compound that makes it non-toxic(Venkateshwarlu et al., 2010)
Research shows that shodhanawith soaking in cow's urine followed by cow's milk and rubbed with brick powder increases the anacardol level in shodhita bhallataka fruit samples. More percentage of the anacardol maybe due to the conversion of toxic urushiol into anacardol (Ilanchezhian Retal., 2012).
Acute toxicity study andefficacy study of both raw and Shodhita Bhallataka (shodhana with gomutra, godugdha and ishtikachurna) fruits are having LD50 more than 2000mg/kg. at the therapeutic dose of 270 mg/kg. However, at the dose level studied, which is nine fold more than the therapeutically equivalent dose in rats, both the samples show that there is potential for producing functional alteration in some of the important organ systems. Generally speaking shodhana process has the tendency to down grade the toxic potential of Bhallataka especially those involving WBC count, liver function and lipid profile. The lipid lowering effect was found to be remarkably potentiated by the shodhana process
Both raw and Shodhita Bhallataka showed significant effect on antibody
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formation against SRBC in rats, so both samples are having significant immunomodulatory activity, among the test drugs raw Bhallataka is having better effect. Raw Bhallataka showed significant reduction on immunological paw edema in pre-sensitized Wistar rats than the ShodhitaBhallataka. Both raw and shodhita Bhallataka fruits produced a considerable suppression in oedema formation against carrageenan in comparison to control group. ShodhitaBhallataka fruitwas found statistically significant at P<0.05 at the dose of 270 mg/kg. Raw Bhallataka produced weak to moderate anti-inflammatory activity in acute model of inflammation at the same dose level. Shodhana process significantly enhanced the anti-inflammatory activity (R. Ilanchezhian, 2011).
(Datura metel Linn.&Datura innoxia Mill.)
The seeds are the official partof Dhatura. The seeds of Datura metelLinn.,Datura innoxia Mill; Solanaceaeare considered as the botanical source ofDhatura. It contains tropane alkaloids like hyocyamine, hyocine etc. as the major chemical constituents which are responsible for its toxic effects and used for the management of Helminthic disorders, breathing disorders etc.(Anonymous,2004)
Dhatura seeds are processed through swedana using cow's milk for 1 yama (3 hour) and then it should be washed with hot water and dry properly(Sadananda, 2004)Dhatura seeds to be kept in Dola yantra& and allowed for swedana using cow's urine for 1 yama (3 hrs) afterwards to be triturated in Khalvayantra& filtered through cloth(Sadananda, 2004).Dhatura seeds should be soaked in cow's urine for 12 hours and to be washed throughly with water followed by swedana in a dolayantra containing cow's milk for 3 hours. The seeds are to be used after removing testa(Parikh, 1999& Anonymus, 2011).
Datura metel Linn.andDatura innoxia Mill. when under gone shodhanaby soaking in gomutra and followed by swedana in godugdha, showed 70-90% reduction in hyosciamine content and total removal of scopolamine (GC-MS analysis) after shodhana.Total alkaloid estimation showed almost 70% reduction in total alkaloid content of both D. metel and D. innoxia seeds after shodhana. After shodhanaD. metel sample showed 70% increase in total protein content whereasD. innoxia sample showed an increase of about 42%. (Patel et al., 2010).The percentage of water soluble extractive, alcohol soluble extractive, and total alkaloid were found reduced in the shodhita Datura metel seeds such as 21.56% water soluble extractive value was found in ashodhita sample whereas 5.56%, 7.50% and 3.37% were found in Datura metel shodhita with cow's milk, shodhita with cow's urine and shodhita with cow's urine and cow's milk
Dhatura
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respectively. HPLC analysis also showed the depletion of toxic alkaloid like atropine and hyoscine in the shodhitaDatura metel seeds as compared to ashodhitaDatura metel seeds(Vibhavari et.al. 2012)
(Gloriosa superba Linn.)
Rootsare the official part of langali(Gloriosa superba Linn.Liliaceae), and contains colchicine which has been reported for its toxic effects. In Ayurvedalangali is indicted for the management of aparapatana (removal of placenta), mudhagarbha (dead foetus), vrana (wound), agnimandya (loss of appetite), jvara (fever), grahani (Irritable bowel syndrome), kasa (cough), hikka (hiccough), kushtha (leprosy), shvitra (leucoderma) etc. (Bhide, Acharya, 2012).
Langalishodhana is done by immersion of its roots in cow's urine for 1 day(Parikh, 2007).In another practice thecut pieces of gloriosa are kept in takra (buttermilk) for seven days, in an earthen pot and washed and dried under sunlight(Chunekar, Pandey, 1999).In another method langali roots are mixed with saindhava lavana (rock salt).Langalishodhana also done through another method wheretakra(butter milk) and saindhava lavana are made into solution and pieces of langali are immersed in it for 3 or 7 days (Bhide, Acharya, 2012)
A study was conducted to assess the role of media on shodhana of langali (Gloriosa superba Linn.) roots (100g), kept for seven daysin a mixture of takra (butter milk) and saindhava (rock salt).The media was replaced every day by adding fresh mixture of media i.e takra -250ml (butter milk) and saindhava- 50g(rock salt).UVspectroscopy technique was used to assess the changes taking place in the media, during shodhana procedure. The resultwas analyzed by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) technique, using unscrambler software, every day for seven day. Analysis of the results of UVspectroscopy from the range of 200 to 400 nm did not show significant changes, in the media, after four days. (Bhide, 2013). Hence, langali root should be kept maximum for four days in media, for shodhana. This study suggested that percentage of colchicine in isolated alkaloids of the ashodhita and shodhita samples was found increased after shodhana procedure in some samples i.e. takra and saidhava (3 days – 0.416 % and 7 days – 0.384%), saindhava (0.76%) while it was found decreased in gomutrashodhita sample (0.28%) and it was found very low in water shodhita (0.0174%) sample as compared to raw sample (0.32%). This may be due to conversion of colchicine from its precursors present in the raw samples which increased the bioavailability of colchicine. So this may be helpful in extraction of more amount of colchicine from the plant. However, procedure should be
Langali
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repeated more times to confirm the results, the study concluded.(Bhide et al. 2012)
Pharmacological study on rats,revealed thatthere were no significant behavioural changes during acute oral toxicity study implicating that both raw and shodhita langali (with gomutra) are relatively safe at 2000mg/kg. However, in chronic toxicity study for 90 days, Raw langali,at ten times dose level showed decreased spermatogenesis whereas gomutra shodhihta langali showed moderate to good spermatogenesis. Antimicrobial study shows that Gomutra shodhita langali showed better antimicrobial and antifungal activity as compared to raw langali tuber (Bhargav, 2012).
(Abrus precatorius Linn.)
The seeds are the official part of Gunja(Abrus precatorius Linn, Fabaceae)and in Ayurveda it is used for the management of kustha (skindisease), kandu (itching), kasa (cough), vrana (wound), indralupta (alopecia), etc. It contains abrin, abraline, hypaphorine as the chief chemical constituents (Sudipta, Rabinarayan,2013).
Different procedures recommonded for shodhanaofGunja seeds; to be kept in Dolayantra and swedana should be done using Godugdha (cow's milk) for 6 hours; using kanji for 3 hours (Sadananda.2004);nimbu swarasa for 3 hours(Garga, 2004)
HPLC studies revealed that the process of shodhana with godugdha (cow's milk) and kanji (sour gruel), resulted in depletion of more toxic alkaloid hypaphorine and protein abrin, which is the chief poisonous constituent of A. precatorius Linn. Study showed that the percentage of abrin were 18%, 14% and 6.4% in case of ashodhita, shodhita with cow's milk and shodhita with kanji respectively and hypaphorine were 11.789% and 5.040% in ashodhita and shodhita with cow's milk sample respectively (Gautam, et al., 1998)
Study revealed that shodhana withgodugdha (cow's milk) alters the physicochemical parameters of Gunja seeds and also the Rf value of the sample in HPTLC. Numbers of spots were decreased under both 254nmand 366nm after shodhana such as 8 and 6 spots were found in case of ashodhita gunja seeds whereas 6 and 5 were found in godugdha shodhitasample under 254nm and 366nm respectively, indicating denaturation of some component after shodhana.(Sudipta, Rabinarayan, Shukla, 2012).
A study to assess antimicrobial activities revealed that chloroform extract of Kanji sodhita Gunjaseed is more effective against Bacillus subtiliswherethe
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zone of inhibition were found 9 mm and 13 mm in case of ashodhita and kanji shodhita gunja seeds respectively. Chloroform extract of Nimbu swarasa shodhita Gunja seed is more effective against the fungal activity of Helminthosporium oryzaewherethe zone of inhibition was found 17 mm in nimbu swarasa shodhita gunjaseeds,which is the maximum value in comparison to the other samples(Sudipta, 2012).
A study to assess the acute toxicity level of aqueous extract of raw and shodhita gunja seed with cow's milk following OECD guidelines 423 reported that raw seed causes mortality at 2g per Kg whereasshodhita sample shows no mortality at the same dose (Kalyani, 2013).
Rakta chitraka (Plumbago rosea Linn.)&Sweta chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica Linn.):Roots are the official parts of Rakta chitraka(Plumbago rosea Linn.Plumbaginaceae) and Sweta chitraka(Plumbago zeylanica Linn,; Plumbaginaceae).It contains plumbagin as the chief chemical constituent, which is responsible for its corrosive effects. The red variety (Rakta chiktraka) is considered to be more corrosive than the sweta one. In Ayurveda Chitrakais used for the management of agnimandya(loss of appetite), arsha (piles), grahani(Irritable bowel syndrome) etc (Anonymous. 2004).
Though not included in any of the poisonous group of drugs of Ayurveda but it has been advocated to use chitraka after shodhana only. Sweta and rakta chitraka roots,cut into small pieces and soaked in lime water for overnight (12 hours), then taken out, washed and dried. In another process, the crude drugs are dipped in lime water for three days consecutively and lime water should be changed every day.(Kalpesh, 2005, Sadananda, 2004)
A study conducted to assess the percentage of total alkaloid contentin the root ofsweta chitarka,ashodhita rakta chitraka and shodhita rakta chitraka(deeping in lime water for 12 hr)was found to be 0.005%, 0.106% and 2.3% respectively. HPTLC study showed that the percentage of active principles, plumbagin is maximumin ashodhita rakta chitraka which reducedafter the process of shodhana with lime water.
Pharmacological study conducted to evaluate the effect of Shodhana on chitraka root shows that LD of different sample were found 2700mg/kg, 50
10800mg/kg and 10800mg/kg in ashodhita rakta chitraka, shodhita rakta chitraka and shodhita sweta chitraka respectively. In chronic toxicity study, all the three samples sweta chitrka and raktachitraka( two and five time than normal dose) showed toxic producing potential. The potential is much less in sweta
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chitraka in comparision to rakta chitraka.Hence, the study concluded that Chitraka should be used after shodhana only and more caution should be taken during internal administration of rakta chitraka(Kalpesh, 2005).
(Nerium indicum Mill.)
Roots are the official parts of Karaveera (Nerium indicum Mill, Apocynaceae) It contains oleandrin as the chief chemical constituent and in Ayurveda, it is used for the management of krimi (helminthic disorder), kandu (itching), kustha (skin disease), vrana (wound) etc.(Anonymous,2004)
Karaveera roots, thoroughly cleaned,should be processed through swedana with cow's milk for 3 hours. Then roots should be washed with waterand dried.(Sarngadhara, Parasurama, 2008).
The total cardenolide content of pre- and postshodhana of Neriumroot extract was estimated andthe cardenolide present in pre-shodhana sample (31.61 %w/w)wasfound to be more than that of post shodhana (24 % w/w) sample. Preparative TLC and LC-MS showed the reduction of oleandrin peak in the post-shodhana sample. In pharmaceutical study prominentfeatures of cardio toxicity including tachycardia were noted in the pre-shodhanaNerium treated animals alongwith mortality. However, no such toxicity was encountered in the post-shodhanaNerium treated animals(Aryamitra et al. 2011).
(Croton tiglium Linn.)
Dried seeds are the official parts of Jayapala(Croton tiglium Linn.Euphorbiaceae).It contains resins, phorbol-12-tiglate-13-decanoate(I), tiglyol etc. as the chief chemical constituent and in Ayurveda, it is used for the management ofjwara (fever), udararoga (abdominal disorders), kustha (skin disease), krimi (helminthic disorder) etc.(Anonymous, 2004, Shastri, 2009).
Jayapala seeds are thoroughly cleaned and shade dried. Seed coat is to be removed and cotelydone should be separated carefully to remove the radicle, afterward Jayapala seeds should processed through swedanausing cow's milk as media for 3 hrs.,then seeds are to be grinded and dried properly (Sadananda, 2004, Sujatha, 2013).
A study was conducted to assess the role of shodhana (with cow's milk as media) on Jayapala seeds with removal of radicle in one group and without removing radicle in another. Result showed that the percentage of croton oil was increased after shodhana with cow's milk i.e. 32.187%, 32.2% and 41.08 in case of raw Jayapala, Jayapala with radicle after swedana and Jayapala
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without radicle after swedana respectively.The result showed that some of the peaks present in milk and after shodhanasample were common indicating the addition of component of milk to Jayapala.(Sujatha, 2013).
(Acorus calamus Linn.)
Rhizomes are the official parts of Vacha(Acorus calamus Linn.Araceaea).It contains asamyl alcohol, asarone, eugenol etc. as the chief chemical constituent and is used for the management ofsula (pain), apasmara (epilepsy), swasa (asthma), kasa (cough), unmada (mental disorder) etc.(Anonymous, 2004)
The rhizomes of vacha should be boiled successively in Gomutra (Cow's urine), Alambusha(Mundi) and Panchapallava kwatha followed by bashpa swedana (fomentation) using Surabhitoya(Gandhodaka) (Govind, 2008).Vacha rhizomes should be soaked in appropriate amount of cow's milk for overnight, then washed in warm water and dried in sun. A similar method is followed in Ottappalam (Kottayam) of Palakkad district, Kerala statewhere Vachawas soaked in Dadhi mastu for overnight, then washed in warm water and dried in sun.
Acute toxicity test of raw vacha and shodhita (swedana with gomutra, mundi kwatha, panchapallava kwatha and gandhodaka one after another) was evaluated as per OECD 425 guidelines with 2000mg/kg as limit test. Test drugs were administered orally to overnight fasted female rats and detailed behavioral profiles were recorded throughout the study. Change in body weight,
thhematological and biochemical parameters were carried out on 14 day. At 2000 mg/kg dose both raw and classically processed Vacha did not produce any observable toxic effects and all animals survived 14 days of observation.
Pharmacognostical study of shodhita vacha showed marked changes in comparison to its raw counterpart in terms of starch grains, oil cells and other microscopical as well as macroscopical features. Phytochemical analysis revealed that certain active principles like cardiac glycoside are imbibed into the drugs after classical shodhana. Hence,shodhita vachamay be useful in the intervention of cardiac failure cases and gas chromatography revealed the little impact of reduction of ß-asarone.
Pharmacological study revealed that classical shodhitavacha showed enhanced sedative, anti-anxiety, anti- depressant and anti-convulsant activities than the raw Vacha. Classically shodhita vacha also showed relatively better effect in case of acute as well as chronic administration compare to the raw vacha (Savitha, 2011.)
Ayurveda lays emphasis on use of poisonous or the plants having a potential toxic
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effect after shodhana. These plants should be detoxified following approved standard technique/ procedures before administering to the patient either as a single drug or as an ingredient of compound formulations. Recent researches have proved the importance of Shodhana on the poisonous as well as drugs with toxic potentials. Scientific studies have proved that the percentage of major toxic chemical constituents have been reduced after shodhana with different media. Removal of aconitine from vatsannabha tuber is more when processed with cow's urine. Shodhana proved the reduction of toxic contents Strychnine and Brucine from kupeelu seeds. Changes of the Rf value in purified Bhallataka in comparison to raw reveals the chemical changes, toxic urushiol into non-toxic anacardol, after Shodhana procedure. GC-MS studies on Dattura metel and D. innoxia proved the reduction of the toxic chemical hyosciamine and scopolamine.Reduction of colchicine percentage in case of gomutra shodhita langali tuber and depletion of more toxic alkaloid hypaphorine and protein abrin of Abrus precatorius in HPTLC study showed the impact of shodhana.
Detoxification is also a technique to enhance the potency and efficacy of a drug in addition to the reduction of the toxic properties. Recent pharmacological researches, on different animal models, have proved that the drugs like Vatsanabha, Kupeelu, Bhallataka, Gunja, Dhatura, langali and Vacha etc. after shodhna are less toxic and pharmacologically more effective than the raw drugs.
Acharya Yadavji Trikamji (ed.) (2008) Sushrutasamhita, Kalpasthana, Chaukhamba Surbharati, Varanasi, 3/21, p 569.; 2/34-39, p 566; 2/3; p 517
Agnivesa, Charaka, Dridhabala (2008) Charaka Samhita, Sutra Sthana, 1/126, edited by Sharma R. K, Das Bhagwan. Charaka Samhita, Text with English translation and criticalexposition based on Cakrapani Dutta's Ayurveda Dipika, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series office; Varanasi,.p.59
stAnonymus (2011) The Ayurvedic formulary of India, part-III 1 edition, New
Delhi: Govt. of India, Ministry of Health of Family Welfare; p-495
Anonymous (2004) Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, Part-I, Vol-I. New Delhi: Govt. of India, Ministry of Health of Family Welfare;.p.85-87; p.39-40
Anonymous (2004) Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, Part-I, Vol-II. New Delhi: Govt. of India, Ministry of Health of Family Welfare;. p.181; p.20; p. 61-62; p.177-179
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Table-1 Medicinal plants with toxic potential as an ingredient of certain
important Ayurvedic formulations (Anonymous 2004, Gyanendra 2005,
