06/07/2015 ShortNotesonCarbonCycle,NitrogenCycleandSulphurCycle(2158Words)

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Variousmaterialsincludingdifferentnutrientsandmetalsmoveintheecosysteminacyclicmanner.Themajorreservesorstoragecompartmentofthematerialsareknownasreservoirs.Whenthemajorreservoirofanutrientisintheatmosphere,itisknownasagaseouscycle,e.g.,nitrogencycle,whichhasitsreservoirintheformofnitrogengas(N2)constitutingabout78%oftheatmosphere.

06/07/2015 ShortNotesonCarbonCycle,NitrogenCycleandSulphurCycle(2158Words)

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ImageCurtsey:esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/education/carbon_toolkit/images/carbon_cycle.jpg

Whenthereservoirisintheearthscrustorsediments,itisknownasasedimentarycyclee.g.,phosphoruscyclewhichhasitsreserveasphosphaterocks.Sulphurcycleisanexampleofanintermediatetype,whichhasreservoirbothinsoilandtheatmosphere.

Movementofthematerialsfromonereservoirtoanothermaybedrivenbyphysicalagentslikewindorgravitationalenergy.Itmayalsobeduetochemicalenergy,e.g.,whenthewaterbodyreachessaturationthereservoirischemicallyfullandtherefore,nolongercanholditassuch.

Thenthematerialusuallyisprecipitatedout.Theaveragetimefor

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whichamaterial(moleculeofasubstance)remainsinareservoirisknownasitsresidencetime.

Nutrientslikecarbon,nitrogen,sulphur,oxygen,hydrogen,phosphorusetc.moveincircularpathsthroughbioticandabioticcomponentsandareknownasbiogeochemicalcycles.

Wateralsomovesinacycle,knownashydrologicalcycle.Thenutrientstomovethroughthefoodchainandultimatelyreachthedetrituscompartment(containingdeadorganicmatter)wherevariousmicroorganismscarryoutdecomposition.

Variousorganicallyboundnutrientsofdeadplantsandanimalsareconvertedintoinorganicsubstancesbymicrobialdecompositionthatarereadilyusedupbyplants(primaryproducers)andthecyclestartsafresh.

1.CarbonCycle:

Thecarboncycleisthebiogeochemicalcyclebywhichcarbonisexchangedamongthebiosphere,pedosphere,geosphere,hydrosphere,andatmosphereoftheEarth.Itisoneofthemostimportantcyclesoftheearthandallowsforcarbontoberecycledandreusedthroughoutthebiosphereandallofitsorganisms.

TheCarbonCycleisacomplexseriesofprocessesthroughwhichallofthecarbonatomsinexistencerotate.Thewoodburnedjustafewdecadesagocouldhaveproducedcarbondioxidewhichthroughphotosynthesisbecamepartofaplant.Whenyoueatthatplant,thesamecarbonfromthewoodwhichwasburntcanbecomepartofyou.Thecarboncycleisthegreatnaturalrecyclerofcarbonatoms.

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Withouttheproperfunctioningofthecarboncycle,everyaspectoflifecouldbechangeddramatically.Plants,animals,andsoilinteracttomakeupthebasiccyclesofnature.Inthecarboncycle,plantsabsorbcarbondioxidefromtheatmosphereanduseit,combinedwithwatertheygetfromthesoil,tomakethesubstancestheyneedforgrowth.Theprocessofphotosynthesisincorporatesthecarbonatomsfromcarbondioxideintosugars.

Animals,suchastherabbiteattheplantsandusethecarbontobuildtheirowntissues.Otheranimals,suchasthefox,eattherabbitandthenusethecarbonfortheirownneeds.Theseanimalsreturncarbondioxideintotheairwhentheybreathe,andwhentheydie,sincethecarbonisreturnedtothesoilduringdecomposition.Thecarbonatomsinsoilmaythenbeusedinanewplantorsmallmicroorganisms.Thefollowingmajorreservoirsofcarboninterconnectedbypathwaysofexchange:

i.Theatmosphere.

ii.Theterrestrialbiosphere,whichisusuallydefinedtoincludefreshwatersystemsandnonlivingorganicmaterial,suchassoilcarbon.

iii.Theoceans,includingdissolvedinorganiccarbonandlivingandnonlivingmarinebiota.

iv.Thesedimentsincludingfossilfuels

v.TheEarthsinterior,carbonfromtheEarthsmantleandcrustisreleasedtotheatmosphereandhydrospherebyvolcanoesandgeothermalsystems.

06/07/2015 ShortNotesonCarbonCycle,NitrogenCycleandSulphurCycle(2158Words)

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Theannualmovementsofcarbon,thecarbonexchangesbetweenreservoirs,occurbecauseofvariouschemical,physical,geological,andbiologicalprocesses.TheoceancontainsthelargestactivepoolofcarbonnearthesurfaceoftheEarth,butthedeepoceanpartofthispooldoesnotrapidlyexchangewiththeatmosphereintheabsenceofanexternalinfluence,suchasanuncontrolleddeepwateroilwellleak.

Theglobalcarbonbudgetisthebalanceoftheexchanges(incomesandlosses)ofcarbonbetweenthecarbonreservoirsorbetweenonespecificloopthecarboncycle.

Carbonisreleasedintotheatmosphereinseveralways:

i.Throughtherespirationperformedbyplantsandanimals.Thisisanexothermicreactionanditinvolvesthebreakingdownofglucose(orotherorganicmolecules)intocarbondioxideandwater.

ii.Throughthedecayofanimalandplantmatter.Fungiandbacteriabreakdownthecarboncompoundsindeadanimalsandplantsand

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convertthecarbontocarbondioxideifoxygenispresent,ormethaneifnot.

iii.Throughcombustionoforganicmaterialwhichoxidizesthecarbonitcontains,producingcarbondioxide(andotherthings,likewatervapour).Burningfossilfuelssuchascoal,petroleumproductsreleasescarbondioxide.Burningagrofuelsalsoreleasescarbondioxide

iv.Volcaniceruptionsandmetamorphismreleasegasesintotheatmosphere.Volcanicgasesareprimarilywatervapour,carbondioxideandsulphurdioxide.

v.Carbonistransferredwithinthebiosphereasheterotrophsfeedonotherorganismsortheirparts(e.g.,fruits).Thisincludestheuptakeofdeadorganicmaterial(detritus)byfungiandbacteriaforfermentationordecay.

vi.Mostcarbonleavesthebiospherethroughrespiration.Whenoxygenispresent,aerobicrespirationoccurs,whichreleasescarbondioxideintothesurroundingairorwater,followingthereactionC6H12O6+602>6CO2+6H2O.Otherwise,anaerobicrespirationoccursandreleasesmethaneintothesurroundingenvironment,whicheventuallymakesitswayintotheatmosphereorhydrosphere(e.g.,asmarshgasorflatulence).

Circulationofcarbondioxide:

i.Plantsabsorbsthecarbondioxidefromtheatmosphere.

ii.Duringtheprocessofphotosynthesis,plantsincorporatesthecarbonatomsfromcarbondioxideintosugars.

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iii.Animals,suchastherabbiteattheplantsandusethecarbontobuildtheirowntissues,chainthecarboncontent

iv.Throughthefoodchain,carbonistransferredintofoxes,lionsetc.

v.Theanimalsreturncarbondioxideintotheairwhentheybreathe,andwhentheydie,sincethecarbonisreturnedtothesoilduringdecomposition

InCaseofOcean:

Inregionsofoceanicupwelling,carbonisreleasedtotheatmosphere.Conversely,regionsofdownwellingtransfercarbon(CO2)fromtheatmospheretotheocean.WhenCO2enterstheocean,itparticipatesinaseriesofreactionswhicharelocallyinequilibrium:

i.ConversionofCO2(atmospheric)toCO2(dissolved).

ii.ConversionofCO2(dissolved)tocarbonicacid(H2CO3).

iii.Conversionofcarbonicacid(H2CO3)tobicarbonateion.

iv.Conversionofbicarbonateiontocarbonateion.

Intheoceans,dissolvedcarbonatecancombinewithdissolvedcalciumtoprecipitatesolidcalciumcarbonate,CaCO3,mostlyastheshellsofmicroscopicorganisms.Whentheseorganismsdie,theirshellssinkandaccumulateontheoceanfloor.Overtimethesecarbonatesedimentsformlimestonewhichisthelargestreservoirofcarboninthecarboncycle.

Thedissolvedcalciumintheoceanscomesfromthechemicalweatheringofcalciumsilicaterocks,duringwhichcarbonicandother

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acidsingroundwaterreactwithcalciumbearingmineralsliberatingcalciumionstosolutionandleavingbehindaresidueofnewlyformedaluminiumrichclaymineralsandinsolublemineralssuchasquartz.

Thefluxorabsorptionofcarbondioxideintotheworldsoceansisinfluencedbythepresenceofwidespreadviruseswithinoceanwaterthatinfectmanyspeciesofbacteria.Theresultingbacterialdeathsspawnasequenceofeventsthatleadtogreatlyenlargedrespirationofcarbondioxide,enhancingtheroleoftheoceansasacarbonsink.

2.NitrogenCycle:

Thenitrogencycleisthesetofbiogeochemicalprocessesbywhichnitrogenundergoeschemicalreactions,changesform,andmovesthroughdifferencereservoirsonearth,includinglivingorganisms.

NitrogenisrequiredforallorganismstoliveandgrowbecauseitistheessentialcomponentofDNA,RNA,andprotein.However,mostorganismscannotuseatmosphericnitrogen,thelargestreservoir.Thefiveprocessesinthenitrogencycle

i.Nitrogenfixation

ii.Nitrogenuptake

iii.Nitrogenmineralization

iv.Nitrification

v.Denitrification

Humansinfluencetheglobalnitrogencycleprimarilythroughtheuse

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ofnitrogenbasedfertilizers.

I.Nitrogenfixation:N2>NH4+

NitrogenfixationistheprocesswhereinN2isconvertedtoammonium,essentialbecauseitistheonlywaythatorganismscanattainnitrogendirectlyfromtheatmosphere.Certainbacteria,forexamplethoseamongthegenusRhizobium,aretheonlyorganismsthatfixnitrogenthroughmetabolicprocesses.

Nitrogenfixingbacteriaoftenformsymbioticrelationshipswithhostplants.Thissymbiosisiswellknowntooccurinthelegumefamilyofplants(e.g.beans,peas,andclover).Inthisrelationship,nitrogenfixingbacteriainhabitlegumerootnodulesandreceivecarbohydratesandafavourableenvironmentfromtheirhostplantinexchangeforsomeofthenitrogentheyfix.Therearealsonitrogenfixingbacteriathatexistwithoutplanthosts,knownasfreelivingnitrogenfixers.Inaquaticenvironments,bluegreenalgae(reallyabacteriacalledcyanobacteria)isanimportantfreelivingnitrogenfixer.

II.Nitrogenuptake:NH4+>OrganicN

Theammoniaproducedbynitrogenfixingbacteriaisusuallyquicklyincorporatedintoproteinandotherorganicnitrogencompounds,eitherbyahostplant,thebacteriaitself,oranothersoilorganism.

III.Nitrogenmineralization:OrganicN>NH4+

Afternitrogenisincorporatedintoorganicmatter,itisoftenconvertedbackintoinorganicnitrogenbyaprocesscallednitrogenmineralization,otherwiseknownasdecay.Whenorganismsdie,decomposers(suchasbacteriaandfungi)consumetheorganicmatterandleadtotheprocessofdecomposition.

06/07/2015 ShortNotesonCarbonCycle,NitrogenCycleandSulphurCycle(2158Words)

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Duringthisprocess,asignificantamountofthenitrogencontainedwithinthedeadorganismisconvertedtoammonium.Onceintheformofammonium,nitrogenisavailableforusebyplantsorforfurthertransformationintonitrate(NO3)throughtheprocesscallednitrification.

IV.Nitrification:NH4+>NO3

Someoftheammoniumproducedbydecompositionisconvertedtonitrateviaaprocesscallednitrification.Thebacteriathatcarryoutthisreactiongainenergyfromit.Nitrificationrequiresthepresenceofoxygen,sonitrificationcanhappenonlyinoxygenrichenvironmentslikecirculatingorflowingwatersandtheverysurfacelayersofsoilsandsediments.Theprocessofnitrificationhassomeimportantconsequences.

Ammoniumionsarepositivelychargedandthereforestick(are

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sorbed)tonegativelychargedclayparticlesandsoilorganicmatter.Thepositivechargepreventsammoniumnitrogenfrombeingwashedoutofthesoil(orleached)byrainfall.

Incontrast,thenegativelychargednitrateionisnotheldbysoilparticlesandsocanbewasheddownthesoilprofile,leadingtodecreasedsoilfertilityandnitrateenrichmentofdownstreamsurfaceandgroundwaters.

V.Denitrification:NO3>N2+N2O

Throughdenitrification,oxidizedformsofnitrogensuchasnitrateandnitrite(NO2)areconvertedtodinitrogen(N2)and,toalesserextent,nitrousoxidegas.Denitrificationisananaerobicprocessthatiscarriedoutbydenitrifyingbacteria,whichconvertnitratetonitrogeninthefollowingsequence:

NO3>NO2>NO>N2O>N2

Nitricoxideandnitrousoxidearebothenvironmentallyimportantgases.Nitricoxide(NO)contributestosmog,andnitrousoxide(N2O)isanimportantgreenhousegas,therebycontributingtoglobalclimatechange.

3.SulphurCycle:

Sulphurisoneofthecomponentsthatmakeupproteinsandvitamins.Proteinsconsistofaminoacidsthatcontainsulphuratoms.Sulphurisimportantforthefunctioningofproteinsandenzymesinplants,andinanimalsthatdependuponplantsforsulphur.

Itenterstheatmospherethroughbothnaturalandhumansources.

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Naturalrecoursescanbeforinstancevolcaniceruptions,bacterialprocesses,evaporationfromwater,ordecayingorganisms.Whensulphurenterstheatmospherethroughhumanactivity,thisismainlyaconsequenceofindustrialprocesseswheresulphurdioxide(SO2)andhydrogensulphide(H2S)gasesareemittedonawidescale.

Whensulphurdioxideenterstheatmosphereitwillreactwithoxygentoproducesulphurtrioxidegas(SO3),orwithotherchemicalsintheatmosphere,toproducesulphursalts.Sulphurdioxidemayalsoreactwithwatertoproducesulphuricacid(H2SO4).Sulphuricacidmayalsobeproducedfromdemethylsulphide,whichisemittedtotheatmospherebyplanktonspecies.

Alltheseparticleswillsettlebackontoearth,orreactwithrainandfallbackontoearthasaciddeposition.Theparticleswillthenbeabsorbedbyplantsagainandarereleasedbackintotheatmosphere,sothatthesulphurcyclewillstartoveragain.

i.Fossilfuelslikecoalandpetroleumareextremelyimportantenergyresourceswhicharegettingexhausted.

ii.Hydrocarbonfuelbasedresourcescreatepollutionlevelsandgreenhousegases.Theirmanagementisrelatedtoimprovedtechnologyandfindingalternativeenergysourcestakingthisintoaccount.

iii.Anoverallprudentandsustainableusesofresourcesbothatanindividualandcollectivelevelcanbenefitawidecrosssectionofsocietyaswellmeetthefuturegenerations.

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