Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Volume 44 | Issue 1 Article 6

2019

Short-Term International Experiences in LanguageTeacher Education: A Qualitative Meta-SynthesisEmrullah Yasin ÇiftçiMiddle East Technical University, eyasinciftci@gmail.com

A. Cendel KaramanMiddle East Technical University, cendel@metu.edu.tr

This Journal Article is posted at Research Online.https://ro.ecu.edu.au/ajte/vol44/iss1/6

Recommended CitationÇiftçi, E., & Karaman, A. (2019). Short-Term International Experiences in Language Teacher Education: A Qualitative Meta-Synthesis. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 44(1).Retrieved from https://ro.ecu.edu.au/ajte/vol44/iss1/6

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Short-Term International Experiences in Language Teacher Education: A

Qualitative Meta-Synthesis

Emrullah Yasin Çiftçi

A. Cendel Karaman

Middle East Technical University, Turkey

Abstract: Short-term international experiential learning opportunities

can foster language teachers' multidimensional development. Even

though such experiences are considered beneficial for language

teachers’ development, educational reviews have scarcely

concentrated on a comprehensive synthesis of the impact of such

experiences on language teachers. This meta-synthesis of qualitative

research analyzed the role of international experiential learning in the

multidimensional development of pre- and in-service language

teachers. Besides presenting a number of research patterns in the

literature, this synthesis of 25 qualitative studies reported main

outcomes of short-term international experiences for language

teachers. These outcomes were synthesized under three main

headings: (1) professional, (2) linguistic, and (3) intercultural. Based

on this analysis, further research and practice directions regarding

international language teacher education emerged. These emerging

research agendas concentrated on the critical role of peer circles,

host communities, program types and structures, preparation and

post-program components, and guidance and supervision.

Introduction

Teachers are expected to grasp global interconnectivity, global nature of societal

dynamics, respect diversity, and embrace social justice (Phillion & Malewski, 2011; Sleeter,

2008). Researchers in the field of teacher education conceptualized this broad set of skills

with different terms such as intercultural/global competence (Sercu, 2006; Zhao, 2010),

global teacherhood (Karaman & Tochon, 2007), and culturally responsive teaching (Gay,

2010; Villegas & Lucas, 2002). With all these conceptualizations, teachers are encouraged to

embrace diversity in their classrooms and foster democratic learning environments. However,

in order to help teachers to develop intercultural/global skills, theory would not suffice. There

must also be experiential learning opportunities within diverse contexts (Zhao, 2010), as

different contexts are known to bring on different kinds of teacher learning (Putnam &

Borko, 2000). This has resulted in a number of teacher education programs around the world

integrating temporary study abroad or cultural immersion opportunities into their program

components (Smolcic & Katunich, 2017). Such programs may provide their participants with

international student teaching experiences and thereby could be an optimal way to foster

intercultural/global and teaching skills. These programs, particularly, can help language

teachers explore complex issues around language learning and teaching and develop more

confidence toward interculturality, language use, and professional development (Isabelli-

García, Bown, Plews, & Dewey, 2018). International programs may, overall, enhance

knowledge base and practical repertoire of both pre- and in-service language teachers in

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terms of language skills (Barkhuizen & Feryok, 2006), sociocultural tenets (Johnson, 2009),

interculturality (Dervin, 2016; Quezada & Alfaro, 2007) and culturally responsive teaching

(Gay, 2010) in addition to their multidimensional personal growth (Willard-Holt, 2001).

Although international experiences (an umbrella term that is used in this study to

cover all types of international experiential learning) are thought to be beneficial for a broad

range of areas in language teacher education, (Wernicke, 2010), a comprehensive synthesis of

the extant literature is needed to analyze complex and multidimensional role of short-term

international experiences on developmental processes of pre- and in-service language

teachers. Besides this main motivation, this study aims to present main research patterns in

the literature by scrutinizing short-term international experiences in language teacher

education.

To date, to our best knowledge, there is no meta-synthesis or analysis conducted that

combines these two outcomes. Although Smolcic and Katunich (2017) investigated the

impact of cultural immersion field experiences on teachers’ intercultural development, they

did not have a specific focus on language teachers’ experiences. This study aims to fill this

identified gap. A meta-synthesis of qualitative research on the topic seeks out answers for the

following research questions to gain insight into the complex and multidimensional role of

short-term international experiences on language teachers:

• What did the studies focus on?

• What were the profiles of the participants who engaged in international experiences?

• What type of programs were designed and how long did they last?

• What type of qualitative data sources were utilized?

• What were the major gains and challenges for the participants?

• What are the potential issues for further research and practice directions?

Methodology

This meta-synthesis focuses only on qualitative findings due to the individual and

multidimensional emphasis of recent study abroad research and theorization (Coleman, 2013;

Isabelli-Garcia et al., 2018; Kinginger, 2015). Additionally, quantification strategies through

quantitative methodologies often do not suffice in depicting the value and nature of short-

term international experiences (Bodycott & Crew, 2000). Although postmodernists critique

knowledge generation and believe a synthesis would sacrifice particularities in qualitative

research (Sandelowski, Docherty, & Emden, 1997), the synthesis of existing qualitative

research is a worthwhile effort because an isolationist approach may risk the benefits of

accumulated qualitative findings (Walsh & Downe, 2005), especially in the field of study

abroad which has predominantly included qualitative research in recent years (Coleman,

2013). This synthesis effort aims to reveal new interpretations with “the least damage”

(Sandelowski et al., 1997, p. 370) to particularities. In addition, this study designs an

environment where individual qualitative studies are synthesized into a more abstract level

(Zimmer, 2006) in which one can find more than a single qualitative study can provide

(Hammersley, 2001).

For the identification of the studies to be synthesized, a number of systematic steps

were followed (see Figure 1 for a summary of the selection process). First, in order to locate

and select relevant studies for the study aims, we generated a list of possible keywords. The

targeted experiences in this study were non-degree seeking, short-term international

experiences through which pre- or in-service language teachers were supposed to spend a

temporary period in another country at a different institution or school. Therefore, such

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experiences could be in different forms such as short-term study, teaching practicum, and

field and immersion experiences.

Figure 1. The selection process for the final identification of the reviewed studies

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Second, we searched for each listed query within whole texts on different educational

databases. Following each search, the results were screened in order to ensure that their

participants were pre- or in-service language teachers. Here, language teacher means teachers

of second or foreign languages. From this point on, both pre- and in-service language

teachers are referred to as ‘language teachers’. If a need emerges to differentiate them, the

descriptive labels (i.e. pre- or in-) are added. Studies were also screened for whether they

reported any program outcomes for the participating people. After completing the search with

all the queries, the selected papers were screened for the studies that they had cited.

Following all these searches and screenings, 38 studies were selected to be synthesized.

Since qualitative meta-synthesis of qualitative research aims to synthesize qualitative

findings, the current study focused only on pure qualitative studies or studies that privileged

qualitative perspectives in mixed method designs (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). Even

though consensus is difficult to reach in terms of appraisal criteria due to the different

positions taken among qualitative researchers (Barbour, 2001), this synthesis also excluded

the studies which were too short to be a qualitative report or lacked indications for rigorous

and transparent data collection and analysis procedures (Walsh & Downe, 2006). Following

both the quality check and exclusion of quantitative studies, 25 studies were selected for the

final analysis, for which an analytic table (see Appendix A) was created in order to reach

patterns in terms of extant research. The following categories were outlined in the analytic

table: ‘study focus’, ‘type of the program’, ‘duration of the international experiences’,

‘profile of the language teachers’, and ‘type of the qualitative data sources’. Major findings of

the studies were also included as data in order to synthesize the role and impact of

international experiences. The main outcomes were coded through a template analysis (Au,

2007; King, 2004). Two templates were employed: initial template, main outcomes were

classified under four headings that were offered by Teichler (2004): academic (ACA),

cultural (CUL), linguistic (LIN), professional (PRO), and extracurricular (EXTRA) gains. As

different codes emerged, we added new sub-codes and formed a final template through which

we re-checked all the previous coded segments.

In the final template, since any growth can be interrelated with professional

development (Hamza, 2010), the code PRO was replaced with pedagogical (PED) and the

code EXTRA was replaced with personal (PER) to code any type of personal growth that was

not exclusively linguistic, intercultural, and pedagogical. Furthermore, the code ACA was

deleted from the main code list because these four main codes with their sub-codes in the

final template sufficiently synthesized all the outcomes reported: CUL, LIN, PED, and PER

(see Appendix B for the whole code list with frequencies of coded segments).

As the studies reported also a number of challenges that their participants

experienced, the final template was applied to the challenges as well. In this way, the final

themes were presented with a synthesis of both positive and negative aspects. The whole

coding, analysis, and synthesis procedures were conducted collaboratively on a qualitative

data analysis software, MAXQDA. At the end, the whole process yielded an analytic and

(critical) story of the literature under a number of broad themes.

Findings

Findings of this meta-synthesis are reported under two main headings: ‘research

patterns’ and ‘a synthesis of qualitative findings’. Under the former heading, the readers can

find research patterns presented under different sub-headings. In the latter heading, the

readers can find a synthesis of major findings that emerged from the reviewed studies.

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Following these two main headings, a critical discussion of the literature is offered with a

number of recommendations for further research and practice.

International Experiences and Language Teachers: Research Patterns

Foci of the Studies

In essence, most studies aimed to investigate outcomes of international programs for

participating teachers by either picking a particular type of research focus or concentrating on

overall program outcomes. 19 of the studies concentrated on gains and challenges in terms of

language ability and awareness, intercultural awareness and competence, personal growth,

and pedagogical development. Although the remaining studies also covered the program

outcomes or lived experiences, they had a number of particular foci. These were:

• the types of language and culture strategies which were used by student teachers in

study abroad contexts (Ma, Wong, & Lam,2015);

• the impact of international experiences on curriculum innovation and change in

language education (Li & Edwards, 2013);

• the role of international experiences on articulation and questioning of language

teaching pedagogies (Hepple, 2012);

• the role of international experiences on the development of empathy skills (Marx &

Pray, 2011);

• teacher identity construction during international experiences (Trent, 2011);

• conceptualization of global teacherhood through analyzing two contrastive cases

(Karaman & Tochon, 2007)

Due to its relevance to this section, Table 1 lists the journals in which the reviewed

studies appeared. The numbers in the parentheses indicate the number of the reviewed articles

that were published in that journal.

Asia Pacific Journal of Education Pedagogy, Culture and Society

Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education Profile: Issues in Teachers’ Professional

Development

Australian Journal of Teacher Education (2) Race, Ethnicity and Education

Critical Inquiry in Language Studies RELC Journal

Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching (2) Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research

Foreign Language Annals (2) Signo y Pensamiento

International Education Journal System

Journal of Education for Teaching Teachers and Teaching

Journal of Ethnographic & Qualitative Research Teaching and Teacher Education (3)

Language Teaching Research The Qualitative Report

Table 1. The list of journals (alphabetically ordered)

Profile of the Language Teachers

Among those participating people, there were differences in terms of their teaching

status and the languages they were teaching or preparing to teach. First, a total number of 317

people participated in all 25 studies. Among those language teachers, the number of pre-

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service English language teachers was 173 (15 studies), and the number of in-service English

language teachers was 70 (five studies). These numbers show that almost 77% of the

participants were either teaching English as full-time teachers or preparing to teach it upon

their graduation. The remaining participants were 56 in-service French language teachers

(Allen, 2010, 2013); three pre-service Spanish teachers (Karaman & Tochon, 2007, 2010);

and 14 pre-service Chinese language teachers (Tam, 2016).

Types of Programs and Their Durations

Similar to what the foci of the studies suggested, most of the studies (N=20) broadly

aimed to help participants develop personally and professionally in international settings.

Since the government in Hong Kong sponsors and encourages language teachers to

participate in overseas language, culture, and school immersion programs (Hepple, 2012),

these types of programs from Hong Kong (N=8) were the most visible ones in the literature.

In addition, there was one transnational language teacher education program (i.e. Macalister,

2016) in which pre-service English language teachers followed a sandwich model of

international experience. They, first, received education in Malaysia for 18 months, and then

they maintained their teacher education in New Zealand for two years. Finally, they returned

to Malaysia to complete the program and receive a teaching degree. There were also two

other studies (i.e. Aydın, 2012; Kızılaslan, 2010) concentrating on the lived experiences of

Eurasian exchange students who participated in the Erasmus exchange program, which is the

largest international credit mobility framework for student mobility within the Europe.

Lastly, there were two studies (i.e. Viafara Gonzalez & Ariza Ariza, 2015, 2016) in which

participants received no institutional support but registered for different types of study abroad

programs for different periods. An important point regarding the components of the programs

was that they mostly included homestay (N=15) and school experience or student teaching

(N=15) components.

Hong Kong and the United States (the US) were found to be the top-sending

countries. Figure 2 presents the rest of the sending countries and their frequencies.

Figure 2. Frequency distribution of sending countries

When examining the receiving/host countries (see Figure 3), it is clear that the main

countries are English-speaking countries. This preferential attitude reflects the language

emphasis of the sending countries that were mainly Asian. An important point to note is that

Hong Kong-New Zealand partnerships (N=5) were the most frequently reported, which could

be associated with the Hong Kong government’s efforts to increase international experiences

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in language teacher education (Bodycott & Crew, 2000; Lee, 2009). Hong Kong also

established partnerships in two cases with Australia.

Figure 3. Frequency distribution of receiving countries

Another important point to highlight regarding the profile of receiving countries is

that all the European countries except the United Kingdom (UK) were Erasmus destinations

at which only language teachers with Turkish origin were placed (i.e. Aydın, 2012;

Kızılaslan, 2010). As for the duration of the international experiences, the most preferred

periods were six (N=5) and twelve weeks (N=5). However, there were a significant number

of other studies that engaged their participants in international experiences for periods such as

three (N=4) and eight weeks (N=4). Lastly, 5-week (Gleeson & Tait, 2012) and 2-year

periods (Macalister, 2016) were preferred only once. Figure 4 shows the frequency

distribution for the duration of the international experiences.

Figure 4. Frequency distribution of program durations

In addition to the time periods given in Figure 4, Viafara Gonzalez & Ariza Ariza

(2015, 2016) studied the participants who had different types of experiences that ranged from

one month to two years between 2004 and 2011. Aydın (2012) provided no data for the

program duration; however, his participants were previous Erasmus exchange students who

usually spend one or two semesters abroad. Larzén-Östermark (2011) shared the duration for

her two participants as seven and eight months. In Kızılaslan’s (2010) study, the international

exchange period ranged from two weeks to a semester.

0

1

2

3

4

5

3 weeks 5 weeks 6 weeks 8 weeks 12 weeks 2 years

4

1

5

4

5

1

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Qualitative Data Sources

Another critical issue that guided this study was the mediums through which

participants’ thought patterns, lived experiences, and program outcomes were revealed. The

most frequent medium was face-to-face data sources. The written and observational forms of

data followed these face-to-face forms respectively in terms of the frequency of use (see

Figure 5). 15 of the studies used more than one tool to counter concerns about relying on only

one source. For a similar reason, nine studies also included pre- and post-program

questionnaires in order to enhance qualitative data with the descriptive quantitative measures.

However, there was still one salient issue in the literature: a heavy dependence on self-

reports.

Figure 5. Frequency distribution of qualitative data sources

Another implicit qualitative issue was the scarcity of established qualitative

methodologies that have their own distinct and purposeful data collection and analysis

procedures (Creswell, 2012). Although the literature benefited from a qualitative flexibility,

they, with some brief sentences, referred to established data analysis procedures such as

grounded theory (N=7), narrative research (N=4), case study (N=2), phenomenology (N=1),

qualitative content analysis (N=1). The remaining 10 studies did not address their qualitative

orientation and data analysis procedures with particular references to research approaches.

This situation might have emerged due to word limitations imposed by the journals, or the

researcher(s) avoided an unconditional loyalty to one single methodology. Nevertheless, there

were two novel approaches to data analysis and interpretation. Karaman and Tochon (2007)

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constructed an ecosystemic framework to theorize global teacherhood concept within an

international student teaching program. The same authors utilized a computer-assisted

discourse analysis methodology as well as correspondence analysis to approach international

student teaching with a more complex, systemic, and dynamic orientation, and thereby

exploring linkages among narratives of experiences before, during, and after student teaching

abroad (Karaman & Tochon, 2007, 2010).

International Experiences and Language Teachers: A Synthesis of Qualitative Findings

In this section, main qualitative findings are synthesized under three overlapping sub-

headings: professional, cultural, and linguistic outcomes. Since every developmental pattern

can contribute to a language teacher’s professional development (Hamza, 2010), all

international program outcomes can conceptually fall under the professional development

category. However, in this section, only personal and pedagogical outcomes are treated as

sub-categories of professional outcomes. The cultural and linguistic outcomes are discussed

under different headings in order to highlight their saliency as conceptual categories. In the

final template, linguistic category corresponds to 61 coded segments. This most frequent code

is followed by cultural (N=46), personal (N=34), and pedagogical (N=31) outcomes. Since

personal and pedagogical gains and challenges are reported under the professional outcomes

(N=65), this category has the most coded segments and deserves to be the leading theme in

this part.

Professional Outcomes

Thanks to the period spent in an international context, language teachers reported a

number of benefits in terms of personal growth and pedagogical improvement. Before

elaborating on those benefits, one of the most crucial and frequent warnings in the literature

needs to be underscored: “You learn a lot if you want” (p. 64), as one of the participants

highlighted in the study conducted by Plews, Breckenridge, Cambre, and Fernandes (2014).

Active engagement or human agency was a critical factor in the quality and outcomes of the

program experiences (Plews, Breckenridge, & Cambre, 2010; Viafara Gonzalez & Ariza

Ariza, 2015, 2016). However, explaining all the varying outcomes only with the power of

human agency would be an incomplete analysis. Other potential reasons behind differential

individual outcomes could be given as language proficiency levels (Tam, 2016), cultural

differences (Marx & Pray, 2011), attitudes of people in the host contexts (Plews et al., 2010,

2014), presence of peers from the same country of origin (Karaman & Tochon, 2010), and

design or structure of the international programs (Viafara Gonzalez & Ariza Ariza, 2015,

2016).

Although there were oftentimes significant differences among participants’ gains,

they had usually a chance to reflect on their new experiences. Consequently, these people

were endowed with an opportunity to analyze their inner personal dynamics, thus felt a

personal growth following reflexive thought processes (Larzén-Östermark, 2011). Their

personal growth eventually enabled them to feel more independent, self-confident, and

mature (Barkhuizen & Feryok, 2006; Lee, 2009, 2011; Viafara Gonzalez & Ariza Ariza,

2016). Since they also had to adapt to new working cultures or new educational settings, they

improved their adaptation and survival skills (Aydın, 2012; Kabilan, 2013). However, their

increased survival skills did not come with no cost. Some participants reported problems

related to socialization (e.g. contact with host families, local people, and students) and

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homesickness (Aydın, 2012; Marx & Pray, 2011; Lee, 2009). Those who took initiatives and

were persistent in professional development resisted socialization challenges and achieved to

expand their social and professional network that contained host family members, teachers,

students, and local people (Allen, 2010; Plews et al., 2010, 2014).

International experiences, overall, helped a number of participants renew their passion

toward language teaching profession (Kabilan, 2013) and helped them understand what

characterizes a good teacher identity (Larzén-Östermark, 2011). Trent (2011) similarly

revealed that immersion experiences contributed to pre-service language teachers’ identity

(re)construction with gains in teaching repertoire, cultural knowledge, and language

proficiency. However, Plews et al. (2010, 2014) showed that recognition of the teacher

identity or non-recognition played a crucial role for participants’ varied experiences. Plews et

al. (2010), therefore, claimed that language teachers in short-term international contexts

should be recognized as legitimate teachers, not as guests.

In addition to the personal growth, the participants in most of the studies availed

themselves of pedagogical opportunities. The most salient trigger for their pedagogical

development was the comparison of educational issues in home and host contexts. Taking

several academic courses and having a school or student teaching experience in another

international setting provoked the participants to compare educational systems, explore

distinct aspects of different systems, and learn different teaching strategies and

methodologies (Barkhuizen & Feryok, 2006; Gleeson & Tait, 2012; Yang, 2011).

Furthermore, such deeper reflective comparisons helped several participants develop

tolerance toward different teaching ideas and awareness and toward different educational

philosophies and ideologies that are embedded in different country contexts (Kabilan, 2013;

Karaman & Tochon, 2007).

With the influence of international experiences, language teachers, for example, from

Hong Kong critically reconsidered their home educational system and kept their eyes open

for different teaching practices in order to enhance their teaching repertoire (Hepple, 2012;

Lee, 2009, 2011; Trent, 2011). The same participants were impressed by student-centered

approaches in host countries and planned to try them out in their home country where they

thought that teacher-centered approaches dominated. Similarly, Li and Edwards (2013) found

that teachers from China exhibited many examples of transition from authority to facilitator,

guide, and motivator as they were trained for constructivist principles at a British university

during their transnational experience. Regarding this expansion in student-centered teaching

repertoire, Aydın (2012) also showed that previous Erasmus exchange students from Turkey

increased their awareness toward contemporary learner-centered approaches. Overall, the

international experiences in different educational contexts encouraged language teachers to

move closer to contemporary constructivist approaches (Macalister, 2016).

As well as developing an increased awareness of constructivist principles, participants

utilized the affordances for practicing their teaching skills, hence expanded their repertoire of

teaching activities through both teaching practices and observations of their cooperating

teachers and different classes (Kabilan, 2013; Plews et al., 2010, 2014). The role of

cooperating teachers was important because their effective feedback facilitated participants’

learning (Viafara Gonzalez & Ariza Ariza, 2016; Plews et al., 2010; Yang, 2011). On the

other hand, some participants believed that the authentic artifacts and documents that they

had collected from host environments would help them enliven their language teaching

activities back in their home context (Allen, 2010; Plews et al., 2014). Lastly, Harbon (2007)

and Kabilan (2013) approached their own studies with a critical eye and stated that teachers

may have acquired the same gains in a regular language class in their home country.

However, when they delved deeper into their participants’ perspectives, they found that

immersing in a different “habitat” enabled the participants to reside in a constant reflexivity

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state in terms of language learning and teaching practices as well as cultural differences and

similarities in home and host contexts.

Linguistic Outcomes

Since language teachers generally needed to draw on various linguistic resources

while communicating abroad, most of them reported improvements in their language skills

(Allen, 2010; Kızılaslan, 2010; Lee, 2009; Plews et al., 2014). When the studies inquired into

specific types of language improvements, they found that participants mostly developed their

speaking and listening skills as well as vocabulary repertoire (Aydın, 2012; Lee, 2011;

Viafara Gonzalez & Ariza Ariza, 2016). Furthermore, they expanded their repertoire of

classroom language thanks to their observation of different language teachers (Lee 2009,

2011). Likewise, participants reported a growing confidence in experimenting with languages

(Allen, 2010; Kabilan, 2013; Marx & Pray, 2011; Larzén-Östermark, 2011).

Along with developing confidence in drawing on their various linguistic resources,

participants demonstrated a growing awareness toward the essential role of vocabulary

repertoire (Allen, 2013), comprehensible pronunciation of words (Lee, 2009), different

varieties and accents of English (Aydın, 2012; Harbon, 2007; Lee, 2009), and the vital role of

context in intercultural communication (Allen, 2013). They also developed a deeper

awareness of language learning processes, teacher talk, learner characteristics, and language

teaching strategies (Harbon, 2007). One promising novel approach in tracking language

development in micro terms was the investigation into the language strategies that were used

by the participants (Ma et al., 2015). The most frequent speaking strategy was to seek out

interactional opportunities. The same participants also learned to nod and smile more, to use

formulaic language more, and to initiate familiar topics to facilitate their communication in

English (Ma et al., 2015).

It is also important to explore whether there was any difference among the gains of

people with different language proficiency levels. Even though participants with high

proficiency levels tended to benefit more (Larzén-Östermark, 2011; Plews et al., 2010; Tam,

2016), most self-reports revealed that participants from all proficiency levels benefited from

the programs in terms of language improvement. However, as underscored before, human

agency and other critical sociocultural factors might have played a key role in varying

experiences and gains. One of the reasons for differing individual gains could be given as the

potential drawbacks of peer circles that may act as barriers to language improvement. This

solidarity issue could be observed in the studies conducted by Karaman and Tochon (2010),

Lee (2009), Tam (2016), and Viafara Gonzalez and Ariza Ariza (2016). Barkhuizen and

Feryok (2006), likewise, found that their participants were treated as a “discrete group” since

most activities and social outings were discretely designed for that particular cohort.

While peer socialization abroad is reported to have drawbacks, some studies drew

attention to some facilitative functions that peer groups performed abroad. For example,

participants formed a transitory community among themselves and confronted challenges

together (Lee, 2009). Gleeson and Tait (2012) argued that participants should be encouraged

to form a “strong transitory community of practice” with home country colleagues, as they

can more easily adapt to their new unfamiliar roles as non-expert English speakers and

newcomers in a new environment. Likewise, one participant from another study usually felt

better after talking to one of her peers as she found comfort in talking to someone from a

similar background (Karaman & Tochon, 2010). One should also note that this participant

had no one in the host family close to her age, so the characteristics of the host family also

had a critical role in shaping access to language resources.

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Host families’ perceived impact on the participants was another significant factor on

the quality of language gains. If it was not homestay experiences, some participants might not

have experienced any deep communication with locals (Barkhuizen & Feryok, 2006).

Similarly, Lee (2009) reported a significant impact of homestay experiences on participants’

language improvements since such experiences enhanced their English repertoire. However,

one participant complained about varying profiles of the host families some of whom were of

immigrant origin and, according to the participant, did not have a sufficient proficiency level

of the target language (Lee, 2009). Another interesting point was that some teachers of

English offered English practice opportunities to host families in return for their homestay

service (Harbon, 2007). Therefore, it is not unusual to observe a symbiotic relationship

between participants and host families. However, some participants sometimes had

communication problems with locals, instructors, and other students (Aydın, 2012), perhaps

due to a low contact (Lee, 2009), a low language proficiency (Tam, 2016), and a low

familiarity with the topics (Allen, 2013). Nevertheless, the challenges related to

communication, adaptation, and survival helped a significant number of participants develop

empathy skills toward the needs of language learners (Harbon, 2007; Marx & Pray, 2011).

(Inter)cultural Outcomes

As teachers were away from their familiar surroundings abroad, they often reported

negotiating their worldviews and cultural understandings. In that regard, there was no

guarantee that every sojourner would necessarily leave their ethnocentric views of cultures

and adopt an ethnorelative lens, thus individual differences were again prominent in

(inter)cultural learning. For example, two participants in Karaman and Tochon’s (2007) study

differed in terms of negotiating differences: one of them did not resort to a monological view

and realized partiality of perspectives among different human groups through her longer

conversations with local people and the cooperating teacher. However, the other participant

limited both her reflection and contact with locals. Even though individuals differed to a

certain extent in terms of their cultural gains, an important number of self-reports showed that

they increased their cultural awareness, tolerance toward differences, and respect for diversity

(Allen, 2010; Kızılaslan, 2010; Lee, 2009; Ma et al., 2015; Plews et al., 2014).

The reality shock was another observable phenomenon. Two participants in the study

conducted by Larzén-Östermark (2011) de-dramatized their views of the host environment

and acquired a more realistic and complex attitude toward the people who lived in the UK,

thus progressed toward becoming an intercultural speaker with a more open-minded

approach to cultural similarities and differences. Another intriguing point was the reflection

directed at participants' own cultural background. For instance, Finnish participants reflected

on their own personal trajectories and on the things that they had taken for granted in their

daily lives (Larzén-Östermark, 2011). Likewise, Australian teachers learned more about their

own cultural practices through reflecting on the stereotyped Australian image that was

prevalent in South Korea (Harbon, 2007). Turkish participants similarly changed their

perspectives both toward the European countries and toward their own home country (Aydın,

2012). Although most participants grew awareness toward cultural issues rather than

remaining ignorant, participants are also likely to complete an international program with

reinforced stereotypes, faulty generalizations, and ethnocentric views.

In one particular study, a number of North American student teachers of English

reinforced their stereotypical views of Mexicans (Marx & Pray, 2011). However, the same

participants faced stereotyped attitudes toward their own origin as well; as a result, they

started to question their pre-established views of “outsiders” in their own country (Marx &

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Pray, 2011). Therefore, a dialectical tension is likely to emerge between stereotyped views of

host and hosted people. Turkish participants also suffered from negative judgments of their

backgrounds (Aydın, 2012; Kızılaslan, 2010). Interestingly, some of those Turkish

participants reinforced their national identities upon confrontation with negative judgments

(Kızılaslan, 2010). Coming from a different country context, therefore, may attach an

invisible classifying label to participants since they may represent their stereotyped home

country image. However, some turned this into advantage for language learners in the host

setting by integrating more complex cultural elements from their home environments into

language instruction thus made lessons more enjoyable and motivating (Harbon, 2007; Plews

et al., 2014).

In addition to their important role in personal and linguistic outcomes, the host

families had a critical role in shaping intercultural perspectives and modifying worldviews

(Karaman & Tochon, 2010). The host families were particularly effective in helping

participants solve problems or misunderstandings related to cultural differences (Ma et al.,

2015). Likewise, with positive host family experiences, participants were able to fight the

challenges that were brought by the adjustment period to a new environment (Marx & Pray,

2011). Overall, an increasing importance has been attached to the role of host families and

cooperating teachers for intercultural journeys since they seem to have a remarkable impact

on intercultural experiences.

Discussion and Recommendations

This meta-synthesis investigated how short-term international experiences contributed

to language teachers’ ongoing development. In that regard, all the developmental areas were

conceptually subsumed under the main category of professional development since this

synthesis study acknowledges that any developmental pattern as part of the whole person can

contribute to a teacher’s professional acts (Hamza, 2010). As the sub-developmental

categories meet and interact in dynamic, non-linear, and unpredictable ways, the professional

development emerging from international experiences can be viewed as a complex system,

which self-organizes within the active, reflexive agent who experiences the world (Dervin,

2016; Henry, 2016). Based on our findings and interpretations, Figure 6 presents the

professional development as the main dynamic category that hosts the sub-developmental

categories. The figure also demonstrates the common positive outcomes of international

experiences that we synthesized under different categories.

We acknowledge that many questions may be drawn from Figure 6. While the

international programs clearly offer opportunities for personal, pedagogical, linguistic, and

intercultural development, such specific areas of growth are yet to be confirmed with

sufficient evidence in the literature. Figure 6, therefore, is just a modest attempt to

conceptualize professional development through short-term international experiences in

language teacher education and to help further studies conduct more systematic as well as

complex and dynamic inquiries. Further, researchers and practitioners may also need to

consider larger societal, cultural, political, and economic conditions including hierarchical

power relations in both host and home contexts, which are mentioned rarely in the studies

reviewed here but can have a significant impact on the acting agent. By including these larger

and possibly constraining conditions, researchers can attend dialectical tensions between

structural determinacy and individual agency (Block, 2013; Shim, 2012). Otherwise, a heavy

dependence on the rational and free agent could yield in a reductionist approach that would

ignore a “critical reasoning” (Tochon & Karaman, 2009). Informed by these complex and

critical ways of framing, the following points of discussion highlight key issues arising from

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the meta-synthesis with recommendations for future research and practice.

Figure 6. An overview of the developmental categories and positive outcomes of short-term international

experiences in language teacher education

Most studies reviewed within the meta-synthesis relied on self-reports in order to

document program outcomes. Even though such reports opened a window to the

representation of international programs in participants’ lifeworlds, these reports are still

subject to suspicion due to their potentially highly subjective nature. For example, it is still

possible for a participant to have an ethnocentric perspective even if this participant reports

becoming a ‘world citizen’. Therefore, future qualitative studies need to triangulate data

sources that make possible thick descriptions of each participant’s or cohort’s profile and

experiences. These studies, therefore, would need to document more detailed and richer

reports for the changes in language skills, interculturality, and personal growth by

considering broader social, political, economic, and cultural conditions as well. However,

pure qualitative methodologies may not fully be able to inquire into these complex

developmental processes. Therefore, future research designs would also benefit from diverse

and innovative investigations of complex gains or changes (De Costa, Rawal, &

Zaykovskaya, 2017; Riazi, 2016). Innovative mixed-methods designs may help the field

progress in comprehensive ways and allow us to explore some larger patterns.

Another new intriguing research focus could be on long-term effects of international

programs on the lifeworlds and teaching practices of the participants, as most studies seem to

have lost contact with participants after they completed the programs. For example, some

participants appreciated student-centered models in the host educational settings and planned

to try them out in their own classes in the home country. We found that there is a need for

follow-up studies to explore whether these teachers made any changes in their language

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instruction or not. In that regard, using a complex systems framework could offer

sophisticated analyses of changes in a participant’s life and teaching practices over different

timescales (e.g. Henry, 2016) such as pre-program, re-entry, first years of teaching, mid-

career, and so on. Such a longitudinal analysis may enable researchers to analyze changes in

nonlinear connections to other major episodes in language teachers’ lives including

previous/ongoing international experiences.

On the other hand, since the attitudes of host communities could also be a significant

force in positioning of sojourners in a new sociocultural setting (Jackson, 2016; Plews et al.,

2014), it is important to identify how participants are viewed by the host communities and

how participants position themselves in those new settings. In that regard, a community of

practice framework (Gleeson & Tait, 2012) could be of help in qualitatively demonstrating

the integration or marginalization processes in communities abroad (Jackson, 2016). While

explicating the role of communities in international settings, studies should also include the

voices of multiple parties such as host families, cooperating professionals, stakeholders,

program administrators, and so on. Among those significant people, host family members

draw a particular attention. More studies need to be invested in this area with an aim of

reaching an optimal homestay environment.

One of the salient themes in the literature was a tendency toward forming groups of

people who shared similar backgrounds during international experiences. As Karaman and

Tochon (2007) noted, pre-service language teachers formed “peer-circles” abroad. While

such a tendency sometimes eased adaptation challenges, it also caused participants to limit

their interactions with people from local communities. Therefore, some future studies may

explicate further the role of peer circle in sojourner learning, thus may offer new perspectives

on how program administrators can optimize its role. One novel approach could be mapping

of different individuals’ social networks and interactions throughout their sojourn period. In

this way, a more complex picture of the relationship between social networks and program

benefits could be offered within an innovative mixed-methods design.

Program types and structures can have significant impact on the interactions in a new

sociocultural setting and on the gains as well. Clearly, program structures need to be in

harmony across home and host institutions. This cooperation/collaboration between the

institutions should incorporate a team spirit. Programs may not always include homestay and

student teaching components; however, such experiential components would help participants

develop a deeper understanding of different views and experiences of the world, educational

systems, school cultures, teaching methods, and learning styles (Marx & Pray, 2011; Yang,

2009). Programs may also provide participants with a chance to observe teaching practices

also in the home contexts prior to or after their international experiences as Kabilan (2013)

explored in his study. By doing so, participants may reflect on and compare different

educational systems on a meaningful basis by experiencing the two.

One should also not forget the dynamic and complex nature of international programs,

and leave some room for flexibility. Otherwise, participants may not experience their

personal goals and may perceive the program as a work abroad program. Furthermore,

having strict assessment components may put participants under stress, and they may not

experiment freely (Harbon, 2007). Participants need to encounter less stress emerging from

academic tasks because they already grapple with the adjustment and intercultural challenges

abroad. Program designers should also pay attention to the timing and duration of a program,

which could also be an important factor in creating opportunities for the interaction with

locals.

Systematic preparation prior to an international experience, which was not a common

practice in the reviewed studies, is another critical component to be considered in order to

help participants develop clear goals and expectations (Plews et al., 2014), grasp the

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opportunities during their international experiences, cultivate a reflective mindset toward new

challenging experiences (Larzén-Östermark, 2011), and avoid stereotypes (Çiftçi & Karaman,

2018; Marx & Pray, 2011). Post-immersion debriefing sessions are also recommended in

order to help participants reflect constructively on teaching and learning in different country

contexts (Karaman & Tochon, 2010; Yang, 2011). Ongoing guidance, supervision, and

scaffolding throughout a program are also needed to prevent superficial understandings of

language, culture, and pedagogy (Hepple, 2012). Under effective guidance, the participants

can develop critical understandings of educational systems, environments, and the Self and

Other (Ogay & Edelmann, 2016). Overall, programs need to ensure “critical intercultural

professional development” not “uncritical teacher tourism” (Plews et al., 2010).

Conclusion

Language teachers are key agents for change in an increasingly interconnected world

that seeks effective ways to increase communication, address diversity, and ensure social

justice. Short-term international experiences, in fact, can significantly contribute to language

teachers’ multidimensional development as discussed in this meta-synthesis study. Even if it

seems as an impossibility for all language teachers to experience an international context, the

increased efforts that document the substantial benefits and challenges associated with short-

term international experiences can increase the possibilities for more funds. Hence, one day

such programs could become a regular component of language teacher education worldwide.

From another perspective, future studies may provide evidence discrediting the value of such

programs. To assess both arguments, further research and practice are needed. The question,

therefore, should be: do short-term international experiences deserve to be a part of

mainstream language teacher education? If yes, why and how should researchers convince

funding institutions and policy makers? Nevertheless, taking into account the promising

findings in the literature, national and supra-national bodies need to invest more funding in

such international efforts in language teacher education.

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Appendix: Appendix A: Analytic Table

Study (chronologically

ordered from the newest

to the oldest)

Focus Duration Participants Type of the qualitative

data sources

Type of the program

(From… to…)

Macalister (2016) The impact of a trans-

national language

teacher education

programme on classroom

practice

18 months in Malaysia

(home country); 2

years in New Zealand,

final year back in

Malaysia

Two pre-service English

language teachers

Observation and field

notes in the classroom and

interview afterwards,

document analysis for

lesson plans and teaching

materials

A trans-national language

teacher education program

that included classroom

observation, too. (From

Malaysia to New Zealand)

Tam (2016) Pre-service language

teachers’ beliefs about

benefits of a short-term

study

abroad program

Three months 14 pre-service teachers of

Chinese

Pre- and post-program

semi-structured interviews

and reflective journals

during the sojourn

Putonghua Study Abroad

Program that aims to

strengthen the Putonghua

proficiency of the pre-

service teachers. The

program included homestay

and classroom observation

components. (From Hong

Kong to China)

Viafara Gonzalez &

Ariza Ariza (2016)

Student teachers’ self-

reported gains in terms

of their language ability

and pedagogical

development

From one month to

two years within 2004-

2011

16 pre-service English

language teachers

(Mixed design)

A semi-structured

interview

No institutional support;

participants made their own

program decisions (From

Colombia to the United

States)

Ma, Wong, & Lam

(2015)

The language and culture

strategies which were

used by the student

teachers in study abroad

contexts

Three months 10 student teachers

majoring in English

language education

(Mixed design)

Three semi-structured

interviews

A study-abroad English

immersion program. The

program included a

homestay component.

(From Hong Kong to one of

these destinations: the UK,

New Zealand, Australia,

Canada)

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Vol 44, 1, January 2019 114

Viafara Gonzalez &

Ariza Ariza (2015)

Student teachers’

professional and

intercultural

development in

connection to their

experiences abroad

From one month to

two years within 2004-

2011

16 pre-service English

language teachers

(Mixed design)

A semi-structured

interview

No institutional support;

participants made their own

program decisions (From

Colombia to the United

States)

Plews, Breckenridge,

Cambre, & Fernandes

(2014)

Lived experiences of

student teachers

One semester (three

months)

Two English language

teachers who taught

Spanish at a university and

in public schools

Two think-aloud sessions,

formal and informal

interviews

An international second

language teacher

professional development

program in Canada. The

program included homestay

and classroom observation

and teaching components.

(From Mexico to Canada)

Allen (2013) Teachers’ beliefs about

developing their own

proficiency in French

Three weeks 30 secondary school

teachers of French

Diaries

A three-week summer

institute held in France.

Teachers spoke only French;

stayed with French families,

attended French classes,

visited places of interest.

They were also required to

research a cultural topic

through interviewing the

locals. (From the U.S. to

France)

Kabilan (2013) Perceived professional

gains as a result of an

international teaching

practicum program

Six weeks Six pre-service English

language teachers

Open-ended

questionnaire, reflective

journals

An international teaching

practicum program in which

participants were placed in

three Maldivian schools

with a mentor assigned.

(From Malaysia to

Maldives)

Li & Edwards (2013) The impact of a UK-

based professional

development program on

curriculum innovation

and change

Three months 48 English language

teachers

Interviews, focus groups,

and classroom

observations

A British university offered

3-month courses for English

language teachers in

collaboration with a Chinese

non-profit organization. The

program included homestay

and classroom observation

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Vol 44, 1, January 2019 115

and teaching components.

(From China to the UK).

Aydın (2012) Student teachers’

perceptions of the

contributions of the

Erasmus exchange

program to their

development and the

problems they

experienced throughout

their international

experiences

No data were

provided.

23 pre-service English

language teachers

(Mixed design)

Interviews, essay writing,

focus group discussion

The Erasmus exchange

program (From Turkey to

Denmark, Spain, and

Poland)

Hepple (2012) The role of a

transnational school-

based experience on the

articulation and

questioning of language

teaching pedagogies

Eight weeks 16 pre-service English

language teachers

Video-recordings of the

pre-service teachers’

classroom performances, a

focus group discussion, a

stimulated recall interview

A government-sponsored

language immersion

program during which the

participants had also school-

based experiences.

(From Hong Kong to

Australia)

Gleeson & Tait (2012) Language teacher

professional

development during a

short study-abroad

program

Five weeks Nine English language

teachers

Pre-program and post-

program goal setting

templates and pre and

end-of-program focus

groups

A five-week immersion

experience commissioned

for the experienced teachers

(From Hong Kong to New

Zealand)

Larzén-Östermark

(2011)

The effects of

international experiences

on the participants’

intercultural, linguistic,

and professional

competence

Seven-eight months Two pre-service English

language teachers

Semi-structured in-depth

interviews

A language practice abroad

program

(From Finland to the UK)

Lee (2011) The benefits of

international field

experiences

Six weeks 15 postgraduate English

language student teachers

(Only six of these students

participated in an

individual interview)

(Mixed design)

Reflective journals,

individual structured

interviews

A six-week language

immersion program with a

host family. The program

included classroom

observations and teaching

practice in a primary school.

(From Hong Kong to New

Zealand)

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Vol 44, 1, January 2019 116

Marx & Pray (2011) The experiences of

American student

teachers of English in

Mexico and the impact

of these experiences on

their empathy skills

Three weeks Nine English as a second

language teachers

(Mixed design)

Daily journal entries,

instructors’ observations

A three-week summer study

abroad experience at an

intensive Spanish language

school. Participants lived

with host families and took

a language teaching

methodology class and

Spanish-language classes.

(From the United States to

Mexico)

Trent (2011) Teacher identity

construction

Six weeks Eight pre-service English

language teachers

Semi-structured

interviews

A six-week immersion

program in Australia with a

host family. The program

included classes on teaching

English, cultural visits, and

a 2-week teaching

placement at a secondary

school.

(From Hong Kong to

Australia)

Yang (2011) Student teachers’

perceptions toward an

overseas field experience

Eight weeks Seven pre-service English

language teachers

Semi-structured interview

in the form of a group

interview, fieldwork logs

A partnership between a

Canadian university and a

teacher training institute in

Hong Kong. Participants

taught either at a primary

school or at a secondary

school, and they shared

accommodations in an

apartment.

(From Canada to Hong

Kong)

Allen (2010) The impact of study

abroad on the

professional

development

Three weeks 26 French language

teachers

E-mail responses A 3-week sponsored

summer institute that took

place in France. The

participants stayed with host

families.

(From the United States to

France)

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Vol 44, 1, January 2019 117

Karaman & Tochon

(2010)

International student

teaching within the

narratives of a pre-

service language teacher

Eight weeks One pre-service language

teacher of Spanish

Semi-structured

interviews, observations,

focus group interview

A university-based

international student

teaching program that

involved teaching English

and conducting interactions

in Spanish. The participant

stayed with a host family

and worked with

cooperating teachers.

(From the United States to

Ecuador)

Kızılaslan (2010) Student teachers’

perceptions and

descriptions of their

experiences

From two weeks to a

semester (four or five

months)

10 pre-service English

language teachers

Semi-structured

interviews

The Erasmus exchange

program (From Turkey to

Poland, Holland, Portugal,

Belgium, and Austria)

Plews, Breckenridge, &

Cambre (2010)

Lived experiences of

student teachers

One semester (three

months)

Two English language

teachers

Two think-aloud sessions,

formal and informal

interviews

An international second

language teacher

professional

development/Spanish

language monitor program.

The participants taught

Spanish at a university and

in public schools and lived

with a Canadian colleague

or family. (From Mexico to

Canada)

Lee (2009) The multidimensional

impact of an overseas

immersion program on

student teachers

Six weeks 15 pre-service English

language teachers

(Mixed design)

Mid-program evaluation,

field observation,

reflective journals

A 6-week immersion

program. The program

consisted of academic

studies, field experiences,

homestay, and sociocultural

activities. (From Hong Kong

to New Zealand)

Harbon (2007) The value of a short-term

international language

teaching experience for

teachers’ professional

development

Three weeks 12 pre-service English

language teachers

Reflective journals, focus

group discussion

A three-week international

language teaching and

homestay experience during

which pre-service language

teachers taught

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Vol 44, 1, January 2019 118

conversational English to

college students.

(From Australia to South

Korea)

Karaman & Tochon

(2007)

Theorization of global

teacherhood concept

through analysis of two

contrastive cases who

participated in an

international student

teaching program

Eight weeks Two pre-service teachers

of Spanish

Semi-structured

interviews, observations

A university-based

international student

teaching program that

involved teaching English

and conducting interactions

in Spanish. The participant

stayed with a host family

and worked with

cooperating teachers.

(From the United States to

Ecuador)

Barkhuizen & Feryok

(2006)

Student teachers’

perception of a short-

term international

experience

Six weeks 15 pre-service English

language teachers

(Mixed design)

A reflective journal

A short-term international

experience program, which

had four main components:

academic, school

experience, social activities,

and homestay.

(From Hong Kong to New

Zealand)

Australian Journal of Teacher Education

Vol 44, 1, January 2019 119

Appendix B: Code System (Final Template)

Main and Sub-Codes Code frequency

LIN (Linguistic) 61

Increased language proficiency 14

Peer-circle and language 13

Homestay and language 11

Increased language awareness 6

Mentors or cooperating teachers and language 6

Increased confidence in communication 5

Increased empathy toward language learners 3

Language-related challenges 3

CUL (Cultural) 46

Increased (inter)cultural awareness 12

Homestay and culture 11

Stereotyping or discrimination 7

Mentors or cooperating teachers and culture 6

Increased cultural knowledge 5

Increased tolerance toward different cultures 3

Challenging worldviews 2

PER (Personal) 34

Human agency and gains 10

Individual differences 4

Teacher identity construction 4

Increased adaptation and survival skills 3

Expanding professional network 3

Increased self-confidence 2

Adaptation challenges 2

Renewed passion 2

More independence 1

Increased empathy skills 1

PED (Pedagogical) 31

Comparison of educational systems 14

Improving teaching repertoire and skills 7

Benefiting from authentic documents 3

Mentors or cooperating teachers and teaching skills 3

Embracing constructivist principles 1

Increasing students' motivation 1

Integration of culture 1