Simbolism in Muz Hindusa

Aspects of Cosmological Symbolism in Hindusthani Musical Forms

Robert Simms

Asian Music, Vol. 24, No. 1. (Autumn, 1992 - Winter, 1993), pp. 67-89.

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Volume XXI V, number 1 ASIAN MUSIC FalVWinter 1992/1993

ASPECTS O F COSMOLOGICAL SYMBOLISM IN HINDUSTHANI MUSICAL FORMS

b y Robert Simms

Perhaps more than any other culture, Indians are renowned by both scholars and laymen for their explicit recognition of the relationship existing between music and the spiritual dimension.. This stereotypical view seems fully justified, judging from the role of music in Indian mythology and the devotional and occasionally gnostic passages found in classical theoretical treatises, through to the unsolicited remarks of contemporary performers. The integral nature of the Hindu tradition1 is such that virtually all aspects of Indian culture are founded upon knowledge of the transcendent, metaphysical order. Social organization, religion, and art, for instance, are all unified by an awareness of the cosmic hierarchy and are placed appropriately within its context. According to the Vedanta, these same institutions are all ultimately unreal, but participate in the Real to the extent that they symbolically point to various modalities of It. This is especially evident in the realm of the art, the ultimate traditional function of which is, precisely, to expand one's conciousness of the Real through the language of the symbols (see Guenon 1980; Coomaraswamy 1980; Schuon 1975:57-73). Sacred art such as temple architecture and iconography employ sophisticated and esoteric symbolic languages idiomatic to their respective mediums (e.g., see Kramrisch 1980; Burckhardt 1967). Traditonal art forms such as classical music, dance, and the crafts, while being "extra-liturgical," nevertheless hold the same ultimate function and possess their own "languages," due to the integral unifying nature of the tradition (see Burckhardt 1976; Schuon 1976:194, 197-199; Nasr 198 1:253-279).

As a manifestation or "bearer" of truth, art is a balance of form and essence; while aspects of the former in a given work of art symbolize specific principles and doctrine, aspects of the latter by- pass our thought processes and, along with (or rather "above" the accompanying) sentimental and emotional responses, offer us an intuitive reflection of Bliss (Ananda). While these two poles exist together in various proportions in all art, visual art is more naturally suited to formal expression, musical art to essential expression (Schuon 1987:37). We will look here at Hindusthani musical forms and

68 Asian Music, Spring/Summer 1993

observe the unusually high degree to which they exhibit a formal symbolism of Hindu cosmological doctrine.

Ethnomusicologists have recognized that this formal type of musical symbolism -- which indeed often reflects specifically cosmological doctrine -- exists in various diverse musical traditions around the world; some selected hermeneutical case studies and ethnomusicological theories dealing with the topic are cited and cogently summarized by Humphreys (198963-64). This type of study falls squarely under the discipline of the speculative music theory, speculative in the original sense of the Creek speculum ("mirror"), or music reflecting the cosmos, and the cosmos reflecting music (Codwin 1982:373-374) -- the traditional "science" of music that traverses history and various cultures. While the majority of speculative musical studies made by Western scholars rightly focus upon the symbolic role of sound, and by extension music, in Indian metaphysics and cosmogony (e.g., Rudhyar 1928; Danielou 1943, 1976, 1978, Schneider 1968, 1982, 1984, 198635-85; Singh 1980; Lawlor 19801, some have also dealt with the type of formal symbolism under consideration here.

While primarily comparing Western and Indian musical mythologies and conceptions of music, emphasizing their respective concepts of harmony and nada, Rowel1 notes that the "chain like" structural forms and the "expansive, organic development of melodic structure" characteristic of Indian music suggests the deep embedding of the concept of nada, along with its implicit cosmological extensions, within Indian musical form (1989:26). In a richly compacted passage from a separate study focusing on the nature of time in the beginning portions or introductions of musical pieces, Rowel1 notes in passing the cosmological symbolism of a "FreelStrict archetype" of musical fo rm along with other general observations of cosmological correspondence in Indian music (1981:207). Such and Jairazbhoy cite the structure of tala, the typical concert format, the "binary oppositions" of composed and improvised alternations of material in performance, and the raga's inherent tendencies towards the creation of symmetrical and asymmetrical melodic patterns as symbolizing cyclical Hindu cosmological beliefs (Such and Jairazbhoy 1982). Cottlieb has similarly noted the "juxtaposition of opposed and contrasting ideas" and principle of expansion found in various levels of Hindusthani performance practice (1985:24-28). He goes a step further by uniting the cyclical and expansive "threads" of musical fabric to symbolize the Vedantic image of weaving (1985:30), an image

Simms: Cosmological Symbolism in Hindustahni Music 69

Guenon explains as symbolizing "horizontal" and "vertical" states of Being (1976:65-70). The present study further develops these observations (especially Rowel1 1981) by detailing the correspondence of structural aspects of dhrupad, khyal, and instrumental alap-jor-gat- jhala forms with tendencies inherent in the Mahayuga cosmic cycle.

Cosmology, Sound, and Music

Cosmology (from the Greek kosmos, "ordered whole") refers to the hierarchical order of manifested reality, both micro- and macrocosmic, "order" in the broadest sense of the term. Since music may be fundamentally considered the ordering of sound, as a dynamic and ethereal phenomenon it is an appropriate and natural cosmological symbol. More specifically, all cultures are confronted with a "chaos" of sound -- the indefinite tonal space of the octave, the equally indefinite "spiral" of cyclical perfect fifths, the vexations of compromising for the imperfections inherent in all tuning systems, the indefinite continuum of rhythmic time durations and their organizational possibilities -- most of which must be brought into some kind of order before music can exist. There are compromises and decisions to be made, and different cultures employ multifarious systems or exercise various of these options. Traditions that maintain cosmologically symbolic systems do so because they are aware, either consciously (as with the ancient Chinese and the Pythagoreans) and/or supra-consciously, of the interrelationship and interdependence of all forms and rythms of the universe, and that music's unique nature is ideally suited for symbolizing micro- and macrocosmic order (see McClain 19761, channeling it "inwardly" as a mode of self-transformation, and/or "outwardly" as praise (c.f. with Schneider 1987323-521.

Before proceeding it may be useful to recount briefly the high position that the phenomenon of sound is accorded in Hindu cosmology. Some Indian cosmogonic myths describe the universe as being made manifest from the crashing of Brahma's cymbals, or from the beat of Shiva Tandava's (Dancing Shiva's) drum (Danielou 1964:219)--either way, the cause and composition of the universe (jagat, "that which moves") is vibration, variously referred to as Nada Brahman or Vac ("Word"). The universe is a vibrational matrix issuing from the primordial, "fundamental" vibration of creation. On the illusory level of maya, all forms are the result of novel vibrational arrangements or patterns within the matrix, which are in a constant


flux. Through the material agency of air or water in our earthly realm, these ethereal vibrations result in sound: each form therefore has its own unique correlate sound or "name" (nama), its unique vibrational essence. While many traditions regard language as being sacred, Sanskrit ("well formed") words are considered to be the aural representation of the vibrational form that the word refers to (Hopkins 197 1:20).

Hindu scripture is replete with references to (and reverence for) sound. A few examples from amongst this plethora include the first two chapters of the Chandogya Upanishad, which discuss the cosmological correspondence of mantric syllables; the phonological components of the mantra AUM are correlated with various hierarchical states of consciousness in the Mandukya Upanishad; while saman chant is equated to the universe in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (1.3, 22-28). According to the Manusmrti (1.20, 75-78), the five senses perceive corresponding elements in a hierarchy wherein a particular sense perceives all elements "below" it, but not "above" it-- earth corresponds to smell and is perceived by all senses; fire to sight, which cannot be smelled nor tasted. At the top of the hierarchy stands ether, which corresponds to sound: hearing is therefore capable of perceiving all the elements, which are vibrational differentiations of ether. It is thus that through sound and hearing, one can gain knowledge of the universe.

The ancient seers first "heard" the Vedas, revelation (sruti is "that which is heard." India, and traditional cultures in general, place great importance on oral transmission, transmitting knowledge through sound. It is significant to remember that the Vedas (v idya , "knowledge") are hymns to be sung, the occult power of their recitation is evidently of equal importance to their semantic content, as the practises of vikriti, "alterations," tend to suggest. Svadhyaya, the oral tradition which preserves and transmits Vedic, recitation remains "the axis around which the universe revolves" (Staal 1961:ll). The science of mantrayoga takes full advantage of the vibrational nature of reality and the efficacy and symmetrical properties of sound. Correct repetition of a mantra enables one to resonate the spiritual centres located in the body (an "alchemical" use of sympathetic vibration) and ascend the universal matrix through various states of being, to harmonize with the matrix, and, for a select spiritual elite, ultimately return and unite with the source of the primordial Vac, the absolute of Silence.


Returning to specifically musical symbolisms, the concept of raga alone is deeply imbued with cosmological implications. A raga is a distilled reflection of the vibrational prototype of a particular modality of manifestation, extending through all levels of being of that mode. Correspondences of various forms or "transpositions" of a particular mode (e.g., plant, animal, celestial body, emotion, deity) result because they share the same essential vibrational "genetic code" (Danielou 1976:19). The intricate features that characterize a particular raga are defined with extreme precision; the slightest deviation from this definition "loses the reflection" of the corresponding mode of manifestation. A raga therefore concentrates on one such modality and symbolizes immersion in the "vertical" depth of it, which the performer will try to exhaust or "ascend" through various means of exposition. Correspondences abound therefore between both individual pitches, as well as ragas, and the deities, COIOU~S, castes, seasons, times of day, etc. (see Danielou rasa, 1943:143-147). With the nature of these multiple levels of musical/cosmological relationships in mind, we may move on to review briefly the Hindu doctrine of cosmic cycles.

Puranic Cosmology

There is no "one" Hindu cosmology but rather a procession of related ones. The doctrine of yugas belongs to the period of Puranic cosmology, first appearing in the Mahabharata and Manusmrti and subsequently developed in the Puranas, notably in the Bhagavata and Vishnu Puranas. An older cosmology is based on passages scattered through the Rgveda, such as the famous Purushasukta (10.129). While Puranic cosmology includes vast and elaborate cosmogonic and spatial, cosmographic doctrine, we are here concerned with cosmic time and its concomitant tendencies.

The doctrine, well known to students of Hinduism and Indian culture, is essentially one of cycles of manifestation that devolve through time. Proceeding from unity with the Absolute (or God, if one prefers) at the moment of creation, the manifested cosmos "descends" through accelerating periods of increased "separation" from the Absolute; a preordained point of maximum separation marks an end of the descent and the cycle begins again. One could illustrate this by using the gravitational image of a dropping stone, which begins in one's hand, and while falling, increases in its distance from the hand -


-the further and longer it falls, the faster its velocity accumulates. I t stops on the ground with a relatively violent impact, after which one may pick the stone up and repeat the process again. Hindu teachings indeed refer to the cause and purpose of cosmic cycles as divine "Play" (lila, see Coomaraswamy 1977: 148- 158).

The complex hierarchy of cycles and subcycles is very carefully defined; we will review only its basic outline here. A fundamental feature of the doctrine is to divide a complete cycle into ten equal units distributed between four unequal yugas ("ages"). As in our gravitational image, the yugas descend in their succession -- the first age, the krtayuga, lasts four units, the second tetrayuga three units, the third daparayuga two units, and the kaliyuga that we presently live in, one unit. The cycle of the four yugas constitutes a mahayuga.. The elaborate numerical designations and mathematical procedures involved in transposing from Divine "years" of each yuga t o human years, and the " twi l ight /dawnH intervals (sandhyansa/sandhya) that occur between each yuga are described, amongst other places, in the Vishnu Purana (book 1, chap. 3). Still larger cycles are organized around the unit of the mahayuga:: the kalpa, consisting of 1,000 mahayugas, which is a "day or night in the life of Brahma," and the incomprehensibly large para, which is 100 "years in the life of Brahma."2

For our purposes here we may confine ourselves to the mahayuga. . The cycle, as mentioned above, is accompanied by a decline of dharma, or cosmic law and order. The meaning of the term dharma and its earlier equivalent rta covers the laws that govern the natural world "or simply the course of things. . . divine law, reality, or truth, what is fitting, proper. . . righteous. . . (indeed) the native term for the religious tradition that the West calls 'Hinduism' is Sanatanadharma ('eternal law')" (Long 1987:89). The decline of dharma can be viewed as a separation inherent in the descent of manifestation. Rene Guenon describes the decline in terms of a transfer from the broad metaphysical category of primordial quality (purusha) and "solidification" into that of increasing quantity (prakitri --from pure spirit into increasing materialization, essence to form, unity to multiplicity, intuitive intelligence to discursive rationalization (1953:140-148). This is a particularly lucid conceptualization that will be useful in the symbolic correspondences that follow.


The krtayuga (also known as the satyayuga, "age of truth") represents a state of virtually pure quality, though still separate and distinct from the Absolute from which it was manifested. This complete equilibrium of dharma corresponds to the primordial "Golden Age", its subsequent deterioration is described in mythologies the world over.3 This initial yuga is characterized by a paradisiacal serenity, simplicity, and timelessness, as it is an immediate reflection of the Absolute. Accounts vary from humans being immortal in this period, to that of having a lifespan of 400 years -- whatever the case may be, a sense of eternity and unconstrained fluidity pervades this yuga, which is the longest of the mahayuga cycle.

The tetrayuga marks the end of the "Golden Age" and the beginning of the Fall: death and labour are introduced to man, cosmic equilibrium is disturbed, and the process of solidification through the exchange of pure quality for quantity becomes gradually evident. While separated to a larger degree from the Absolute, things are still "relatively pure" and in conformity with dharma (incidentally, it is during this yuga that the gods introduced music and the performing arts to man, according to the first chapter of the Natyashastra). The dvaparayuga begins to put the cycle in its decadent phase, in which the "downward pull" is markedly accelerated, evil and disequilibrium of dharma increases, human lifespan decreases -- quantity now "outweighs" quality. Since the end of the Mahabharata war (some believe this to be ca. 3100 B.C.)we have been in the kaliyuga ("age of strife"), racing downward into the abyss of solidification. The kaliyuga is the shortest of the yugas and is characterized by the breakdown of social order, the increase of transience, rapid speed, complexity, and large-scale human spiritual bankruptcy -- what Guenon termed the "Reign of Quantity" (of which the Vishnu Purana, book 6, chap. 1 and 2, contains a graphic description). A traditional image of the cycle symbolizes the stability of the primordial dharma as a cow or bull standing securely on all of its four legs, which subsequently deteriorates to three legs, to two legs, and finally teetering on one leg in the kaliyuga before its complete and inevitable collapse (c.f., Mahabharata XII . 232. 23-24, Manusmrti 1.80-82).

There are various phases and modes of the reestablishment of d h a r m a , transformations that take the form of a hierarchy of destructions or dissolutions (pralaya). These range from microcosmic cycles of human life and death (nityapralaya) to the destruction and recreation of the universe (mahapralaya), to the terminal "end of the


life of Brahma" (prakratapralaya), after which remains only the Absolute-Beyond Being (Vishnu Purana, book 1, chap. 6, and book 6, chap. 3-6). We can thus rest assured that the apparent disorder accompanying our precarious position in the kaliyuga nonetheless conforms to the overall cosmic plan and is perfectly "under control."

Harmonic Correspondences

Perhaps the most immediate and fundamental musical correspondence of this cosmology is with the harmonic series, which has a vast esoteric tradition in the West (see Godwin 19871, one that appears to cross many cultures and vast historical periods (McClain 1976). As lndian music theory has not explicitly recognized the harmonic series nor the relationship between tone and number throughout history, my observations are entirely etic. McClain, who takes the etic notion of harmonic esotericism in the Rgveda to its limit, acknowledges this discontinuity and believes

(Indian musicians) learned, early in history, that numerical definitions of intervals lead to great "strife" - a Rgvedic lesson - and they have preserved the mora l of the Rgvedic musical poets, not their materials. . .the Rgvedic lesson was preserved by abandoning "tone numbers" altogether. (1976:4)4

The harmonic series beautifully reflects the metaphysical principle of Multiplicity emanating from Unity, and the Unity implicit in Multiplicity: in theory virtually all pitches can be derived from a single given pitch. The first four ratios of the series (Pythagoras' Tetractys) correspond to the mahayuga ratios of 4:3:2:1. The intervals between the resulting pitches -- octave (2:1), perfect fifth (3:2) and perfect fourth (4:3) - are a musical symbol of equilibrium: the tonic is balanced above and below by a perfect fifth (or reciprocally, a perfect fourth). The lower partials of the series simultaneously symbolize both the cosmic "descent" (by their successive ratios corresponding to those of the mahayuga cycle), and the equilibrium inherent within it (the tonal "balance" of their resulting musical intervals).

The series introduces more new tones between each successive octave, corresponding to the increase in multiplicity or the


solidifying tendencies of the cosmic descent. The first octave, corresponding to the krtayuga, is an open, empty space; the pure reflected quality of the fundamental, free from intervening tones. The second octave introduces a single new tone, the first sign of pitch class set multiplicity, a "fall" from the pure quality of the fundamental. The acceleration of the fall increases markedly as we pass through successive octaves, each one introducing more partials than the previous one, just as the shift from primordial quality to solidifying quantity has a gravitational, nonlinear acceleration. As we ascend the series, more abstruse or "dissonant" tones, in relation to the fundamental, are introduced; by the third octave the occurrence of such "out of tune" intervals increases steadily, reflecting the loss of "dharmic" equilibrium. The distance between the intervals of successive ascending partials therefore decreases, corresponding to the transcience and shortening of human life characteristic of the cosmic descent.-'

It will be noticed that the tendencies of the harmonic ratios can be viewed in reverse order to those of the mahayuga ratios (e.g., "1" is the kaliyuga unit, but the first octave in the series (2:l) actually corresponds to the krtayuga; the yugas "descend" (4:3:2:1) while the harmonic series ascends (1:2:3:4), and that the multiplicity of partials encountered as we ascend the series, specifically the "out of tune" ones, interpreted here as symbolizing increased quantification, can also be viewed as introducing unique qualities with regard to pitch class. Two important factors must be considered. Firstly, that the term cosmic "descent" is a symbolic one, for the real nature of metaphysical dynamics clearly lies beyond the descriptive capabilities of language; our waking consciousness can only suggest or point to the reality that exists on a higher level, which can only be grasped through the Intellect (Plotinus' Nous, the lndian Buddhi 1. Secondly, that the principle of symmetry, inversion, and mirror imagery are all essential ones when transposing from metaphysical to physical orders (see Cuenon 1953:242-248; Burckhardt 1987: 1 17-123; Klostermaier 1978; for musical applications see Lawlor 1980; Rudhyar 1982:47-54; McClain 1976:5, 24, 65-69). While a proper development of this important principle would take us too far afield, it is worthwhile here to note McClain's fascinating observation that the lowest set of integer ratios that define the symmetrical octave species of the diatonic scale (i.e., with symmetrical tetrachords and interval structure: D E F C A B C D) in Just intonation -- apparently fundamental in both Creek and Indian music theories - are derived

76 Asian Music,Spring/Summer 1993

from the octave boundary of 432-864 (McClain 1976:61,73). The number 432 governs the kaliyuga (432,000) and the ten units of the mahayuga cycle.

Correspondence with Hindusthani Musical Forms

As the structure of Hindusthani musical forms has been thoroughly discussed elsewhere (e.g., Kaufmann 1957; Wade 1971, 1978, 1984, Srivistava 1980; Van der Meer 1980; Widdess 19811, I will proceed straight to corresponding common structural features of dhrupad performance with the cosmological doctrine. I do not wish to enter into the debate as to the origins of khyal and Hindusthani instrument forms, but, for the sake of concision, will organize the discussion around dhrupad, and qualify how it relates to the correspondences of the former, as many similarities exist.

The prototypical dhrupad alap begins with a long section in free rhythm with slow-moving, long-held notes. The melodies focus on a narrow range around madhya 'sa', the "center" of the tonal universe of the soloist. The improvised, drone-like exposition of tones actually focuses more upon timbral than melodicllinear interest. The beginning of the alap is a musical state of virtually "pure quality" -- tonal orientation is on timbre, rhythmic orientation is on free, long- sustained, unquantified motion (or lack of motion, statis). The resulting psychological effect and response of the listener is that of a serenity and a suspension of time (c.f. Becker 1981:163, 167-1691 -- a reflection of the primordial krtayuga state of near identity with the Absolute at the onset of manifestation. Rowel1 describes this portion of a performance as "pure becoming" (1981:207).

The alap, while remaining in free rhythm, increases the melodic range of tones: interest begins to focus on the arrangement of melodic shapes; notes grow less sustained and more dense in succession, successive melodic arches expand the number of tones being used--an increase in quantity -- an increase in tonal distance from the initial 'sa' (or in ascent from the low 'sa'). While the serenity characteristic of the alap is maintained throughout, formal dimensions begin to emerge and predominate (e.g., motives, clearly defined phrases) corresponding to the gradual building of cosmic momentum. The expansion or unfolding of melodic range from 'sa', which Cottlieb (1976) and Rowel1 (1989) both noted in connection with the expansive principle of Nada Brahman, ultimately corresponds to the emanation


or radiation of the Many from the One, from unity to multiplicity.6 The arch-like character of the melodic exposition (Widdess 1981) along with the mukhra cadence sectioning (Widdess 1981:146), forms smaller regular cycles within the whole of the alap and correponds to the indefinite cosmic hierarchy of subcycles - celestial motions, cycles of life and transmigration, seasonal, daily, breathing, heartbeat, and atomic cycles are a few examples of such various divisions within the yuga unit (c.f. Rowel1 1981:207). The nomtom section marks a gathering of momentum in the alap and a decisive shift to rhythmic, or at least pulsed, groupings of notes (though still free from tala) and the use of the complete range of three octaves -- perhaps reflecting the tendencies of the tetrayuga:: an increase in separation (c.f. with extended tonal ambitus) and solidification (rhythmic density) resulting in a faster pace of activity.

The composition that follows the alap marks the beginning of the cycles alternating between composed and improvised materials (Such and Jairazbhoy 1982:109). Gottlieb suggests that the composition corresponds to the fixed warp, and the improvisation to the woof of a symbolic musical weave (1985:30), which symbolizes "horizontal" and "vertical" conditions of Being, respectively (Guenon 1976:65-70). Thus we have entered a decisive shift towards solidification: the freedom and fluidity of the alap gives way to the relative rigidity of the composition. Rowel1 identifies this as a "FreelStrict" formal archetype that exists in various cognate forms in many cultures, symbolizing in Indian music a transition from Becoming to Being (1981:207). This shift is accentuated by the imposition of the metric order of the tala: time is no longer free, but quantified. The composition generates other musical subcycles, such as those mentioned above that symbolize cosmic archetypes, e.g., the repetition of components of the composition during its exposition, the repetition of the composition between large sections of the improvisation, and the repetition of the phrases and smaller components of the text during improvisation. Wade describes the khyal composition itself as being a microcosm of the development of the whole performance (Wade 1985:20), and is thus also a subtle reflection of the cosmic tendency of emanation by accelerated expansion -- the s thay i and antara sections are differentiated by their range and proceed from lower to higher ranges and from a lesser to greater density of text, symbolizing expansion and solidification, respectively. In general, these same observations apply to the dhrupad sthayi and antara as well (Van der Meer 1980:43, 62. Analogous to the gathering of density in the alap (from


the fluid drones at the beginning through to the subsequent pulsations of the nomtom ), improvisation usually focuses first on melody and is followed by a focus on rhythm. Improvisation on the composition tends to gather momentum, proceeding from utilizing few notes to many, from simple elaboration to complex, and from slow laya to fast, or from rhythmic sparsity to density (Van der Meer 1980:46) -- quite analogous to the cosmic transfer from unity to multiplicity, quality to quantity, from the serenity of the krtayuga to the speed and complexity of the kaltyuga..7

As the tala intensifies the articulation of the "descent" by imposing metrical order upon the performance, it generates still more subcycles -- avarta tala cycles (Such and Jairazbhoy 1982:105-1071, tihai cadences, and occasionally more elaborate structures such as chakradars.. As the performance develops, the soloist and drummer simultaneously superimpose subcycles of various proportions with greater frequency and intensity, thus "tightening the weave" of the performance and adding to the sensation of solidification. The distinctively Indian rhythmic procedures of pulse modulation (Hindusthani darja Iayal Karnatic nadai bedhum ), the mathematical gradation of cross-rhythmic relationship of the tala, display a symbolism of their own. The various relationships are somewhat analogous to the overtones of the harmonic series, symbolizing Unity in Multiplicity/Multiplicity in Unity; here the matra unit is the "fundamental" from which all is relative. These relationships offer the listener a most explicit experience of multiple cycles, allowing him/her to experience the tension and resolution of two (or more) modalities of the "One" simultaneously.

Features of this symbolic interpretation of dhrupad generally apply to khyal as well. The alap is shorter, however, and often quickly proceeds to bharhat (alap over a slow tala), which takes us more immediately into what might be considered the "tetrayuga" portion of the performance -- fluidity and serenity of the alap is superimposed upon a subliminal metric quantification. Indeed some authors suggest that khyal is a degeneration or watering-down of dhrupad (Van der Meer 1980:60-61, 69-70), one which is apt for our times, a musical/historical manifestation of cosmic tendencies (Sr ivestava 1980:8).* The treatment of the composition and the form of khyal is much more flexible than in dhrupad. The articulation and integrity of the text, traditionally a valued Indian aesthetic, is of little importance in khyal (Wade 1979: 173-174; 1985:23), although this emphasis on the

Simms: Cmmological Symbolism in Hindustahni Music 79

sound quality of the text (including the timbral qualities of sargam, improvisation) harkens back to deep-rooted "mantric" values and, viewed in this way, represents an inversion of the symbolism.

In many ways, khyal symbolizes the Mahayuga cycle in a much more explicit and overt manner than dhrupad. The introduction of a second composition (the chota khyal and different tala that frequently accompanies it clearly demarcates the shift from slow to fast sections, symbolizing the decisive "declining" phase characterizing the beginning of the dvaparayuga.. The improvised elaborations (tans are much more virtuosic and extreme in running the gamut from simple to complex, slow to fast, etc., and are thus more overt in representing those cosmic tendencies. Perhaps the most distinctive symbolic feature of khyal is the greater emphasis placed on the acceleration of laya (gradations that, unlike dhrupad, are not necessarily related to the laya established at the beginning of the composition); the sense of excitement created by the furious pace of the finishing tempo along with the accompanying bravura virtuosity, represents an extreme "tightening of the weave," of the fast pace, complication, and urgency characteristic of the "strife" of the kaliyuga.. Such and Jairazbhoy intepret this acceleration of laya as symbolizing the accelerated ascent of the Soul through various varna towards moksha 'liberation' (1982:107). Hindusthani instrumental forms (the successive expositions of alap, jor, gat, jhala) combine features from both dhrupad and khyal that most vividly articulate this cosmic symbolism: the long alap of the former and the virtuosic acceleration of tans and laya of the latter.

T o complete the symbolism we may note that, at least theoretically, every performance begins with, or proceeds from, silence -- symbol of the Absolute -- just as each cosmic cycle proceeds from the Absolute. Silence is (theoretically) broken by the drone of the tambura, which sounds through the entire performance, the thread that grounds and unifies it -- just as Ishvara is the DemiurgeICreator and the One which lies within and behind all, unifying the cosmic descent.9 Theoretically as well, a performance ends and is reabsorbed into silence, only to begin again after an interval of time at the next performance - artistic play. So too is the disintegrated universe reintegrated into the Absolute during the Mahapralaya, only to begin again after an interval of a "Night of Brahman -Divine Play.


Conclusions

Several objections might be raised against the above-made observations, and indeed those made by Cottlieb, Rowell, or any other "outsider" (it is difficult to place the study of Such and Jairazbhoy in this context, Jairazbhoy being both a Western academic and an "insider"/performer). To what degree does such correspondence constitute a symbol, and for whom is it a symbol, if this is so? While one may prefer to view the correspondence as mere coincidence or analogy, the fact remains that it still exists notwithstanding its devalued status: doctrine says "x," musical structure/performance practise exhibits striking features of "x." The real issue would appear to be centred on the value of such a correspondence. It is in the nature of symbols that they are multidimensional and provide meaning at various levels of reality. If it is regarded as a mundane allegory, it certainly holds true at that level in the mundane order; traditional symbols, however, invariably appeal to the discernment of the Intellect (c.f. nous, buddhi and point to a higher order and remain eminently true there as well, where they fulfil their ultimate function. While the latter question of popular consensus may be of value to certain perspectives of anthropology and ethnomusicology, it is irrelevant from the traditional perspective, as esotericism (esoteros, "inner" meaning, the "deep" structure) is by definition relegated to a small minority within a community. Knowledge is assessed on its intellectual quality, not upon the quantity of those who share in it. As Becker notes, "(musical) expression is a repository of culturally specific ideas which come to us subliminally, thus unselected, unfiltered and uncensored" (198 1: 1721, a point of view undoubtedly shared by many ethnomusicologists. The doctrine is thus "collectively" embedded in the music, the question of who explicitly recognizes this is an entirely separate issue, one that I believe to be substantially subordinate. On the other hand, if one is interested in quantitative criteria, the impressive cross-cultural consensus found amongst various esoteric traditions, both musical and extramusical, is noteworthy and clearly shows that we are moving up the hierarchy from viewing "music in/as culture," to "music in/as humanity." It would, however, be interesting to interface the traditional perspective of "outside" observers (like Cottlieb, Rowell, and myself) with those of conventional ethnomusicological methodology by soliciting remarks on such observations from a cross section of "insiders" -- Indian performers, connoisseurs, and scholars. Responses to my own very limited survey have thus far been positive.


If the present study does not draw upon contemporary ethnomusicological methods influenced by semiotics and hermeneutics, it is because, from the traditional perspective assumed here, the most incisive interpretation of a symbol is that which reveals its cosmological and metaphysical significance. While the particular observations made here indeed are etic, I believe that the gesture of restoring a traditional sense of the sacred into our pursuit of knowledge and our view of Indian art -- devoid of current neo-Romantic or New Age superficialities -- reflects an eminently emic value. Such transposition of the surface structures of reality to their metaphysical basis, of the microcosm as a symbol of the macrocosm, is indeed scriptural and part of the Indian "world view."

Historical objections may also arise, specifically, the apparent paradox of a wholly Hindu doctrine being symbolized in the HinduIMuslim acculturated genres of Hindusthani music, and the immense lapse of time and intervening changes that separate the culture of Puranic India and that of contemporary India, which maintains the musical forms and performance practises wherein the symbolism is found. While the correspondence seems particularly clear in Hindusthani forms, it may well apply, at least in broad outline, to some Karnatic genres as well, in which one would expect to find the preservation of such symbolism, perhaps in the ragam-tanam- pallavi or the kritana and kriti. The gap may possibly be bridged by the fact that the latter two Karnatic genres show structural similarities and connections to dhrupad (Widdess 1981:145), suggesting a common pre-bifurcation formal prototype, possibly in the prabhanda (Srivestava 1980:7-19; Van der Meer 1980:30). Karnatic forms would appear to generate another layer of subcycles with their characteristic employment of various yati patterns, which appear as microcosmic manifestations of the cyclical expansion and contraction characteristic of Brahman and the cosmos. The relationship between visua1l"yantric" representation of these ya tis with traditional geometric symbols for purusha/prakriti are also suggestive. However these may be, the unique social dynamics of India, especially regarding the HinduIMuslim encounter, would still not preclude the historicity of the paradox. Hindusthani music developed in an environment that included much reconciliation between the two groups, and was in fact an important venue for such positive interaction to take place (Rizvi 1978:326-3

82 Asian Music,Spring/Summer 1993

28, 399).Even by this time, the dialogue between Sufis, Yogis, and Bhaktis had been a long established one. The Muslim tradition in Hindusthani music is to a large extent a tradition of Sufis, who were themselves often Hindu converts to Islam.

As for the lapse of time between Puranic and contemporary India, it is not at all surprising to see Hindu tradition recast into a new, contemporary context. India has excelled in maintaining its Hindu identity throughout centuries of acculturation with various diverse cultures; the popularity of the traditional Epics currently being produced in the film industry (and the accompanying Filmgeet) is a recent example of this adaptability and resilience. In the case of the symbolic interpretations presented here, the cosmological myth is being maintained and transmitted through its enactment in musical performance; its survival in face of such an historical interval is all the more significant and stands testament to the contemporary maintenance of the traditional function of art. Aside from these considerations, however, we should not reduce the function and existence of a symbol to the historical/temporal, "horizontal" realm, but realize that its ultimate nature transcends the same. The sages who transmitted and eventually transcribed the Puranas did not need to understand the details regarding the physical existence of the harmonic series in order to transmit the symbolism noted above. Operating on a higher level of consciousness, micro- and macrocosmic realities were intuitively sensed as being vibrational transpositions of one another and were expressed in terms of myths and symbols whose ultimate origins are primordial.

While this particular doctrine of cosmic cycles is relative to Indian culture, as an expression of the "devolution" of manifestation, it is one among many similar traditional doctrines that tell of this cosmic tendency (see note 31, all of which are the Many expressions of the One. Though clothed in the relativity of Indian culture, the mode of symbolic expression -- which by no means "tells" us the truth, but rather points to the direction in which we must climb intellectually -- is universal. It is all the more remarkable that, being music (and immensely moving music), this formal symbolism is combined with a high "resolution" to "reflect Essences," an intuitive appeal for the Intellect to experience, and ultimately become one with, Bliss (Ananda). Indian music, like other Indian art forms, is grounded upon the knowledge of a higher order of reality and is structured so as to include and reflect this in its form and expression, or more precisely,

-- - - --


the art is made to conform to this higher order. It is a gracious junction of the relative and the Absolute, one that provides us with a most indispensable bridge.

York University, Toron to

1 '&TraditionH is used here in the sense it acquired from Guenon, Coomaraswamy, and Schuon, i.e., the transmission of principal knowledge of the nature of reality; it is synonymous with the so-called "Perennial Philosophy" (the medieval prisca philosophia), or is rather a culturally defined branch of it. The classic work on defining the traditional perspective is Guenon (1945).The most accessible account of the definition, principles and history of the traditional perspective is found in Nasr (1981),which contains a wealth of bibliographic references to modern traditional writers. This perspective informs the interpretive stance of the present paper.

2 McClain (1976) has observed an elaborate symbolism existing between these numbers, Rgvedic scripture, and tuning theory, suggesting that such musical/cosmological allegory was integral to Indian and other ancient cultures.

3 These include the Biblical "Fall" of man from the Garden of Eden, the Golden Age of Hesiod and its subsequent debasement, the Chinese "decline of the Tao," Germanic, Babylonian, Iranian, various Amerindian mythologies, the oral teachings of both Buddha and Muhammad. Considered cross-culturally, Western notions of evolution and progress appear to be exceptions rather than the rule.

Exactly what McClain means by "the Rgvedic lesson" is a complicated matter that requires careful study of his entire work, which has not been adequately reviewed, given the immense interdisciplinary importance of his thesis. "Strife" refers to the inevitable conflicts that are inherent in any tuning system; the "lesson" involves "the sacrifice of all limiting and partial perspectives, a ceaseless activity whose rationality is protected by respect for plural norms" (1976:197)-- the compromise and omniperspective orientation that characterizes harmonic analysis and Indian philosophy.


5 See Rudhyar (1982:55-73) for other related esoteric features (largely numerological) of the series.

6 In connection with this symbolism one should also note the acoustical reality of concentric expansion characteristic of sound waves.

7 It goes without saying that the correspondence infers no negative connotations with regard to the musical qualities of rhythm, speed, use of many tones, complex elaboration, etc. To maintain that it did would be an inappropriate confusion of categories and would remove matters from their symbolic context, which alone concerns us here.

8 Again, the "degeneration" does not necessarily infer aesthetic inferiority, but merely points to an historical and symbolic relationship.

9 An interesting example of the multiple meanings inherent in a symbol and their possible inversion or opposition is found in Coomaraswamy's remark that the tambura symbolizes the "timeless Absolute" (1957:112). While perhaps finding this formulation useful in explicating a particular point of view, Coomaraswamy was also well aware that the Absolute is clearly beyond all of the limitations that such a symbolism suggests. He had elsewhere treated the relationship between the manifested Word and Silence masterfully (1987:117-123), showing how both perspectives contribute to the totality of the truth. I , like Rowel1 (1981:207), prefer to dwell on the predominantly demiurgic significance of the symbol.


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Simbolism in Muz Hindusa

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