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Simple TruTh
bot t
Gender
pay Gap
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Foreword 2
Introduction 3
What Is the Pay Gap? 5
Is the Pay Gap Really about
Womens Lie Choices? 8
How Does the Pay Gap Aect Women
o Dierent Demographics? 10
Is Tere a Pay Gap in All Jobs? 14
How Can I Make a Dierence? 16
What Should I Do i I Experience
Sex Discrimination at Work? 21
AAUW Resources 22
Notes 23
Tb of Cotts
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I you take one simple truth rom this guide, I hope its this: Te pay gap isreal. Tis guide backs up this assertion with the latest evidence and presents
new ideas or what we can do about it.
Te American Association o University Women (AAUW) has been on the
ront lines o the ght or pay equity since 1913. AAUW members were in
the Oval Oce when President John F. Kennedy signed the Equal Pay Act
o 1963 into law, and almost 50 years later, we continue to lead the push or
policies and legislation to encourage and enorce air pay in the workplace.
Pay equity is a priority or AAUW, and it will continue to be until women
everywhere earn a air days pay or a air days work. In January 2009, Presi-
dent Barack Obama signed the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act into law, thanks
to the hard work and leadership o AAUW, our members, and our coalitionpartners. But in November 2010, the Senate ailed to pass the Paycheck
Fairness Act, which would have given women additional and much-needed
equal pay protections. Clearly, our work is not yet over.
oday, most mothers are in the paid labor orce, and about one-third o
employed mothers are the sole breadwinners or their amilies. When women
earn less money than men do, the whole amily pays the price.
Tis guide is designed to empower our members and other advocates with
the acts and resources they need to tell the simple truth about the pay gap.
Its real, its persistent, and its undermining the economic security o Ameri-
can amilies. We hope you will join us in the ght.
Linda D. Hallman, CAE
AAUW Executive Director
Fowo
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Did you know that in 2009, women working ull time in the United Statesstill earned just 77 percent, on average, o what men earn, a gap o 23
percent? Te gap has narrowed since the 1970s (Figure 1), due largely to
womens progress in education and workorce participation and to mens
wages rising at a slower rate. Progress has stalled in recent years, and the pay
gap does not appear likely to go away on its own.
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1971
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2009
60%
77%
itocto
Fg 1.Wos egs s pctg of ms eg fo F-t,
y-o Woks, 197120091
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Equal pay is not simply a womens issueits a amily issue. Families
increasingly rely on womens wages to make ends meet. In typical married
households in 2008, womens incomes accounted or 36 percent o totalamily income, up rom 29 percent in 1983. A large majority o mothers are
in the paid labor orce, and about one-third o employed mothers are the
sole breadwinners or their amilies.2
For the 34 percent o working mothers who are their amilies sole bread-
winnereither because they are single parents or their spouses are not in
the labor orcethe gender pay gap can contribute to poor living condi-
tions, poor nutrition, and ewer opportunities or their children.3 For these
women, closing the gender pay gap is much more than a point o pride.
Tis guide provides key acts about the gender pay gap in the United States,
along with explanations and resources. Inormation is organized around six
common questions:
1. What is the pay gap?
2. Is the pay gap really about womens lie choices?
3. How does the pay gap afect women o diferent demographics?
4. Is there a pay gap in all jobs?
5. What can I do to make a diference?
6. What should I do i I experience sex discrimination at work?
AAUW hopes this inormation will help you to eectively and condently
advocate or pay equity or all workers in your community.
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Wt is t p G?
Te pay gap is the dierence in mens and womens typical earnings, usu-ally reported as either the earnings ratio between men and women or as an
actual pay gap, as dened below. Te median value is the middle value, with
equal numbers o ull-time workers earning more and earning less; it is used
to prevent especially high salaries rom skewing the results.
Earnings ratio =Womens median earnings
Mens median earnings
Pay gap =[Mens median earnings Womens median earnings]
Mens median earnings
In 2009, median annualearnings in the United States or women and men
working ull time, year round were $36,278 and $47,127, respectively.
2009 Earnings ratio =$36,278
= 77%$47,127
2009 Pay gap =[$47,127 - $36,278]
= 23%$47,127
In terms o median weeklyearnings, the pay gap was 20 percent in 2009 and
19 percent in 2010, according to the U.S. Department o Labor.
W o t t co fo?
Federal agencies such as the Census Bureau, the Department o Education,and the Bureau o Labor Statistics conduct surveys o individuals, house-
holds, and businesses to gather inormation about peoples salaries and other
earnings.
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Most reports on national workorce participation, pay, and pay dierences
depend on data rom the Current Population Survey (CPS) (www.census.gov/cps), the countrys primary source o labor orce statistics. Te CPS is a
monthly survey o about 50,000 households conducted by the U.S. Census
Bureau or the Bureau o Labor Statistics.
Te estimate o the pay gap using weeklyearnings is based on the annual
average o weekly median earnings or the previous year, usually released in
January by the Bureau o Labor Statistics (www.bls.gov/cps). Te estimate
o the pay gap using annualearnings is based on the CPS Annual Social
and Economic Supplement data, which is published each September by the
Census Bureau and the Bureau o Labor Statistics. In recent years, this data
has been published in Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the
United States.4
Stt-v t
Te pay gap can also be calculated or each state (Figure 2). Te American
Community Survey (ACS) (www.census.gov/acs) is oten used to make esti-
mates o the pay gap at the state level because it includes more households
than the CPS. Te Census Bureau began the ACS in 1996 as the successorto the long orm o the decennial census. Te ACS results are released
annually in September, and bries based on the survey can be ound on the
bureaus website.5 According to ACS data, in 2009 the pay gap was smallest
in Washington, D.C., where women earned 88 percent o what men earned,
and largest in Wyoming, where women earned 65 percent o what men
earned.
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39 Alabama $41,331 $30,658 74%
30 Alaska $51,019 $39,017 76%
3 Arizona $41,916 $34,651 83%
15 Arkansas $36,465 $28,640 79%
2 California $48,389 $40,019 83%
11 Colorado $47,983 $38,058 79%
40 Connecticut $59,387 $43,900 74%
17 Delaware $48,038 $37,645 78%
1 Washington, D.C. $61,993 $54,698 88%
6 Florida $39,122 $32,109 82%
14 Georgia $42,667 $33,665 79%
18 Hawaii $45,911 $35,977 78%
45 Idaho $40,440 $29,122 72%
26 Illinois $49,336 $37,841 77%
44 Indiana $43,631 $31,762 73%
42 Iowa $42,634 $31,431 74%
31 Kansas $42,494 $32,341 76%
38 Kentucky $40,748 $30,481 75%
50 Louisiana $44,174 $29,350 66%
27 Maine $42,156 $32,314 77%
7 Maryland $55,116 $44,937 82%
12 Massachusetts $56,902 $45,062 79%
46 Michigan $48,066 $34,542 72%
16 Minnesota $48,492 $38,025 78%
32 Mississippi $37,528 $28,506 76%
25 Missouri $41,660 $31,993 77%
m Woegs
rtom Wo
egs
rto
47 Montana $39,830 $28,461 71%
22 Nebraska $39,516 $30,562 77%
5 Nevada $43,425 $35,691 82%
41 New Hampshire $50,837 $37,527 74%
29 New Jersey $57,738 $44,166 76%
23 New Mexico $39,562 $30,578 77%
4 New York $49,174 $40,584 83%
8 North Carolina $40,359 $32,576 81%
43 North Dakota $40,693 $29,742 73%
34 Ohio $44,563 $33,616 75%
35 Oklahoma $39,174 $29,413 75%
28 Oregon $44,572 $34,121 77%
33 Pennsylvania $46,747 $35,301 76%
10 Rhode Island $49,439 $39,248 79%
20 South Carolina $39,648 $31,010 78%
24 South Dakota $36,977 $28,515 77%
13 Tennessee $39,509 $31,222 79%
9 Texas $40,621 $32,578 80%
49 Utah $45,800 $31,186 68%
21 Vermont $45,234 $35,276 78%
19 Virginia $50,236 $39,354 78%
36 Washington $51,305 $38,521 75%
48 West Virginia $40,231 $27,855 69%
37 Wisconsin $44,812 $33,611 75%
51 Wyoming $47,828 $31,308 65%
United States $47,127 $36,278 77%
Fg 2.Stt m a egs egs rto, b G, 20096
* The small blue numbers indicate a states rank in the earnings ratio for 2009.
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is t p G r botWos lf Cocs?
Critics charge that pay dierences between men and women are simply a
matter o personal choices. In 2007, AAUW addressed this argument in
our report Behind the Pay Gap, which analyzed earnings data or emale and
male college graduates one year and 10 years ater graduation. We ound
that just one year ater college graduation, women earned only 80 percent o
what their male counterparts made. en years ater graduation, women ellurther behind, earning only 69 percent o what men earned.7
In part, these pay gaps did refect mens and womens choices, especially the
choice o college major and the type o job pursued ater graduation. For
example, women are more likely than men to go into teaching, and this
contributes to the pay gap because teachers tend to earn less than other
college graduates. Tis portion o the pay gap is considered to be explained,
regardless o whether teachers wages are considered air.
Yet not all o the gap could be explained away. Ater accounting or college
major, occupation, industry, sector, hours worked, workplace fexibility,
experience, educational attainment, enrollment status, GPA, institution
selectivity, age, race/ethnicity, region, marital status, and number o chil-dren, a 5 percent diference in the earnings o male and emale college
graduates one year ater graduation was still unexplained.
A similar analysis o ull-time workers 10 years ater college graduation
ound a 12 percentunexplained dierence in earnings. Other research-
ers have also ound that the gender pay gap is not ully accounted or by
womens and mens choices.8,9
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how dos t p G affct
Wo of dfft dogcs?
Te pay gap aects women rom all backgrounds, at all ages, and o all levels
o educational achievement, although earnings and the gap vary depending
on a womans individual situation.
rc/tct
Among ull-time workers in 2010, Hispanic, Latina, and Arican American
women had lower average weekly median earnings compared with white
$669
$508
$592
$684
$773
$824
$560
$633
$850
$936
$0
$200
$400
$600
$800
$1,000
Total Hispanic orLatina/o
AfricanAmerican
White Asian
81%
91%
94%
80%
83%
xx%= women's earnings as a percentage of men's earningsWomen Men
Fg 3.Wk m egs of F-t Wg S Woks,
b rc/etct G, 201011
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and Asian American women. But within racial/ethnic groups, Arican
American and Hispanic or Latina women experienced a smaller gender
pay gap compared with men in the same group than did white and AsianAmerican women (Figure 3).
Using a single benchmark provides a more inormative picture. Because
white men are the largest demographic group in the labor orce, they are
oten used or that purpose.
Compared with the salary inormation or white male workers, Asian wom-
ens salaries show the smallest gender pay gap, at 91 percent o white mens
earnings. Te gap was largest or Hispanic and Latina women, who earned
only 60 percent o white mens earnings on average in 2010 (Figure 4). Te
smaller gender pay gap within their racial/ethnic groups among Arican
Americans, Hispanics, and Latinos is due solely to the act that Arican
American, Hispanic, and Latino men, on average, earned substantially lessthan white men in 2010.
Fg 4.rto egs fo Wo, b rc/etct, 201012
As a percentage of mens
earnings within race/ethnicity
As a percentage of white
mens earnings
Hispanic or Latina 91% 60%
African American 94% 70%
White 80% 80%
Asian 83% 91%
Note: Based on median usual weekly earnings of full-time wage and salary workers, 2010 annual averages
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$323
$445
$634
$709 $712$727
$602
$356
$479
$715
$916$967 $965
$791
$0
$200
$400
$600
$800
$1,000
16 to 19 years 20 to 24 years 25 to 34 years 35 to 44 years 45 to 54 years 55 to 64 years 65 years and older
Age
91%
93%
89%
77% 74% 75%
76%
xx%= women's earnings as a percentage of men's earningsWomen Men
ag
Earnings or both emale and male ull-time workers tend to increase withage, with a plateau ater 45 and a drop at age 65 and older. Te gender pay
gap also grows with age, and dierences among older workers are consider-
ably larger than the gap among younger workers.
Te gender pay gap is smallest among the youngest workers. In 2009,
among ull-time workers ages 1619, women earned 91 percent o what
men earned. Among workers 65 years and older, women earned only 76
percent o what their male peers earned. In general, women earn about
90 percent o what men earn until around the age o 35, at which point
median earnings or women start to grow much more slowly than median
Fg 5.avg Wk m egs of F-T Wg S Woks,b G ag, 200913
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$382
$542
$674
$891
$1,126
$1,269 $1,243
$500
$716
$878
$1,200
$1,458
$1,772 $1,754
$0
$200
$400
$600
$800
$1,000
$1,200
$1,400
$1,600
$1,800
$2,000
Less than highschool diploma
High schoolgraduate
Associatedegree
Bachelor'sdegree
Master'sdegree
Professionaldegree
Doctoraldegree
76%
76%
77%
74%
77%
72%71%
xx%= women's earnings as a percentage of men's earningsWomen Men
earnings or men. Ater age 35, womens median earnings all to between 70
and 80 percent o the median earnings o men and remain there until retire-
ment (Figure 5).
ecto
As a rule, earnings increase as years o education increase or both men and
women. While more education is an eective tool or increasing earnings, it
is not an eective tool against the gender pay gap. At every level o academic
achievement, womens median earnings, on average, are less than mens
median earnings, and in some cases, the gender pay gap is larger at higher
levels o education (Figure 6).
Fg 6.Wk m egs of F-t Wg S Woks, ags 25
O, b G lv of ecto, 200914
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is T p G a Jobs?
Yes, in nearly every line o work, women ace a pay gap. Among the 108occupations or which the Bureau o Labor Statistics collects data that
allow or valid comparison, womens earnings are higher than mens in only
threecounselors, combined ood preparation and serving workers (includ-
ing ast ood), and stock clerks and order llers.15
While a pay gap exists in nearly every occupational eld, jobs traditionallyassociated with men tend to pay better than traditionally emale jobs or the
same level o skill required. And even in 2011, women and men still tend to
work in dierent kinds o jobs. Tis segregation o occupations is a major
actor behind the pay gap.16,17
In 2010, the U.S. civilian workorce included 139 million ull- and
part-time employed workers; 53 percent were men, and 47 percent werewomen.18 Almost 40 percent (39.7 percent) o working women were
employed in traditionally emale occupations such as social work, nursing,
and teaching. In contrast, less than 5 percent (4.5 percent) o men worked
in these jobs.
Forty-our percent o men worked in traditionally male occupations, such as
computer programming, aerospace engineering,and reghting, compared
with only 5.5 percent o women in those jobs.19 Overall, women are more
likely to work in proessional, oce and administrative support, sales, and
service occupations, and men are more likely to work in construction, main-
tenance and repair, and production and transportation occupations.
Although men and women still tend to work in dierent jobs, occupationalgender segregation has decreased over the last 40 years. Te reduction in
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gender segregation is largely due to women moving into previously predom-
inantly male jobs, especially during the 1970s and 1980s,20 and to aster
growth o more mixed-gender occupations in the 1990s.21
Increasing the number o women in traditionally male elds is likely to
improve wages or women, but it is unlikely to be a ully successul strategy
to end the pay gap. Women in male jobs such as computer science still
ace a pay gap compared with their male counterparts (see Figure 7), even
though they may earn higher salaries than women in traditionally emale
elds. It will take more than individual women pursuing careers in male
elds to ensure air pay or all.
Financial managers
Lawyers
Medical scientists
Computer scientists andsystems analysts
Pharmacists
Registered nurses
Editors
Secondary school teachers
Counselors
0 $500 $1,000 $1,500 $2,000
66.1%
77%
77.5%
78.2%
83.1%
86.5%
88.3%
92.9%
104.8%
xx%= women's earnings as a percentage of men's earningsWomen Men
Fg 7.T G p G fo Wk egs, Sct Occtos, 201022
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Te gender pay gap is unlikely to go away on its own, but there are manythings that we can do in our workplaces and in our communities to make a
dierence. Here are some steps that can be taken by employers, individuals,
and governments to ensure air pay.
ivs
Many personal decisions have proound implications or our economic
security. Pursuing a college education has long been viewed as an important
step toward ensuring a middle-class liestyle. But not all college majors will
provide equal oundations or uture nancial security. In addition, the
kinds o jobs we pursue early in our careers set the stage or an entire career
o earnings. Because benets and subsequent raises are based on our initialwages, a lower starting salary could mean a lietime o lower compensa-
tion and smaller retirement benets. Decisions about whether and when to
get married, have a amily, and the division o labor in the amily also play
important roles in our economic utures.
Developing negotiation skills can help workers earn air pay. Men are our
times as likely as women to initiate negotiations or a pay raise, according
to research by Babcock and Laschever.23 Because most employers have some
latitude when it comes to salaries, negotiating can oten literally pay o.
But negotiation skills are especially tricky or women because some behav-
iors, like sel-promotion, that work or men may backre on women.24
AAUW, in partnership with the Wage Project, oers trainings on eective
negotiation or women.
how C i mk dffc?
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Beyond their personal lives, individuals can also take steps to infuence
employers and governments. Tere are more ways to make your voice heard
than ever beoreletters to your legislators and local papers, blogs, andtweets are just a ew examples. Joining an organization like AAUW can
make all these activities a little easier, especially i you use our Programs in
a Box and other resources and connect with our ready-made network o
activists.
eos
Companies should know by now that paying workers airly is necessary or
legal and ethical reasons. Indeed, air pay can be good or the bottom line.
Believing that an employer is air improves workers morale,25,26 and employ-
ees are less likely to be absent when they perceive that their employer is air.
Work perormance has also been linked to the perception o organizationaljustice.27 In other words, a worker who believes that she or he is paid airly is
more likely to contribute her or his best eort to the job.
As U.S. Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis once noted, Sunshine
is the best disinectant. But not every employer has taken this lesson to
heart. Companies like Home Depot, Novartis, and Smith Barney have paid
hundreds o millions o dollars to settle cases o gender pay discriminationbrought by women employees under the Equal Pay Act and itle VII o the
Civil Rights Act. Wal-Mart has already spent billions o dollars deending
what could be the largest class-action lawsuit in history, brought by emale
employees alleging systemic pay and promotion discrimination.
ransparency in compensation is one example o a policy that can make
a dierence. A recent survey by the Institute or Womens Policy Research
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(IWPR) ound that about hal o employees said they worked in a setting
where discussions o wages and salaries are either ormally prohibited or
discouraged by managers. According to IWPR, pay secrecy is much morecommon in the private sector, where 61 percent o employees are either
discouraged or prohibited rom discussing wage and salary inormation.
In contrast, only 14 percent o public-sector employees reported that pay
discussions were either discouraged or prohibited. Tis greater degree o
transparency in the public sector may be related to the greater gender pay
equity ound in the ederal government. Federal workers can easily see how
their salaries compare with others at their grade level and geographical loca-
tion because the U.S. Oce o Personnel Management makes public the
DannyShanahan/TheNewYorkerCollection/www.cartoonbank.com
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salary and wage range or each level o ederal worker and additional locality
pay or areas where the cost o living is higher.28 Among ederal workers,
women earn 89 percent o what men earn, compared with 77 percent in theworkorce as a whole.29
Employers can also use audits to monitor and address gender pay dier-
ences. Te state o Minnesota requires public-sector employers to conduct
a pay equity study every ew years and eliminate pay disparities between
emale-dominated and male-dominated jobs that require comparable levels
o expertise. Employers use a job evaluation tool to compare jobs on dimen-
sions such as the complexity o issues encountered, the depth and breadth
o knowledge needed, the nature o interpersonal contacts required, and the
physical working conditions. Tis allows employers to identiy jobsor
example, delivery van drivers and clerk typiststhat, despite being dier-
ent, require similar levels o knowledge and responsibility. An analysis is
then done to compare wages or predominantly emale jobs with those opredominantly male jobs o comparable skill levels. I the results o the study
show that women are consistently paid less than men or jobs requiring simi-
lar levels o knowledge and responsibility, the employer makes the necessary
salary increases. For more inormation on the audits, visit Minnesotas pay
equity web page.30
Govt
In 1963, Congress passed the Equal Pay Act, which requires employers
to give men and women employees equal pay or equal work. One year
later, in 1964, the Civil Rights Act was passed. itle VII o that act bars all
discrimination in employment, including discrimination in hiring, ring,
promotion, and wages on the basis o race, color, religion, sex, or national
origin.
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Yet these legal protections have not ensured equal pay or women and men.
Te rst piece o legislation signed into law by President Barack Obama, the
Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act o 2009, restores protection against discrimi-nation. Te law claries that pay discrimination occurs when a pay deci-
sion is made, when an employee is subject to that decision, or at any time
an employee is injured by it; employees have 180 days rom any o those
instances to le a claim.31
Tis is an essential law, but it is by no means sucient. Additional legisla-
tion is needed to provide more eective equal pay protections. During each
session o Congress since the Equal Pay Act was passed, bills designed to
update it have been introduced and sometimes voted on. Most recently,
in 2009, the House o Representatives passed the Paycheck Fairness Act, a
comprehensive bill aimed at updating the Equal Pay Act by closing loop-
holes, strengthening incentives to prevent pay discrimination, and prohibit-
ing retaliation against workers who inquire about employers wage practicesor disclose their own wages. Despite widespread backing rom the American
public, the strong leadership o AAUW, and the diligent eorts o our mem-
bers and coalition partnersnot to mention the support o a majoritiy o
senators and the White Housethe Senate deeated the Paycheck Fairness
Act in November 2010 in a procedural vote (58-41).
AAUW continues to advocate or strong pay equity legislation, regulation,and enorcement to protect employees and assist employers. AAUW also
works to educate the public about this persistent problem and its eect on
working amilies. Tese eorts are critical elements as we work to close the
gender pay gap.
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1. pt t wtg. Always put everything in writing so you have a record
and a timeline.
2. do o owok. For more inormation on your rights, call the
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) hotline at
800/669-4000.
3. Sk . alk to your supervisor or human resources representative at
work to learn about the grievance procedure.
4. avo oos s. While the desire to talk about your case is under-
standable, the threat o countersuits or deamation is real.
5. Gt g vc. alk to a lawyer who has specic experience with sexdiscrimination in the workplace. For a reerral in your state, e-mail the
AAUW Legal Advocacy Fund at [email protected].
6. act qck. Tere is a statute o limitations on ling complaints with
the EEOC.
7. Wtc o cks s. alk to a lawyer or an accountant
about the nancial burdens o a lawsuit.
8. Vst o octos, o octo. You may experience a physical
and emotional toll that should be addressed and documented.
9. p fo t og . Filing a discrimination lawsuit is a long
process, but others have succeeded in ghting discrimination, and you
can too.
10. F sot twok. Te AAUW Legal Advocacy Fund can con-
nect you with women who have gone through similar experiences.
Wt So i do f i exc
Sx dscto t Wok?
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VisitAAUWspayequityresourcepageontheAAUWwebsiteatwww.aauw.org/payequity or current inormation on the status o legislation,
ederal policies, and actions that you can take to narrow the pay gap.
Join AAUWs Action Network to keep up with equal pay advocacy
and receive great opportunities to tell your legislators what you think:
capwiz.com/aauw/home.
Visit the LAF resource library to learn more about pay equity and what
you can do i you believe youre being paid unairly: www.aauw.org/act/
la/library/payequity.cm.
Get ideas or programming and advocacy with the AAUW Pay Equity
Resource Kit: www.aauw.org/act/issue_advocacy/actionpages/payequity.
cm.
Visit AAUWs $tart $mart salary negotiation page on the AAUW website
at www.aauw.org/learn/LeadershipPrograms/StartSmart.cm or the Wage
Project website at www.wageproject.org to nd out how to attend a salary
negotiation workshop.
Read more about the pay gap in AAUWs Behind the Pay Gap report at
www.aauw.org/learn/research/behindPayGap.cm.
Join AAUW and help ensure pay equity or all: www.aauw.org/about/join.
aauW rsocs
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1. Source: DeNavas-Walt, Carmen, Bernadette D. Proctor, and Jessica C. Smith. (2010).U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports. Income, Poverty, and Health InsuranceCoverage in the United States: 2009. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Oce.
2. U.S. Senate Joint Economic Committee. (2010) Invest in Women, Invest in America: AComprehensive Review of Women in the U.S. Economy. A Report by the Majority Sta othe Joint Economic Committee, Representative Carolyn B. Maloney, Chair. jec.senate.gov/public/index.cm?p=Reports1.
3. Ibid.
4. U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the UnitedStates: 2009. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Oce. www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/income.html.
5. www.census.gov/acs/www/data_documentation/acs_bries.
6. Sources: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey, 2009, and PuertoRico Community Survey, 2009. Reported in Getz, David M. U.S. Census BureauAmerican Community Survey Brie ACS BR/09-3: Mens and Womens Earnings orStates and Metropolitan Statistical Areas: 2009. (September 2010). www.census.gov/prod/2010pubs/acsbr09-3.pd. National data include workers ages 15 and older and are
based on Current Population Survey data, U.S. Census Bureau. Source: U.S. CensusBureau. (2010). Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2009.Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Oce.
7. Dey, Judy Goldberg, and Catherine Hill. (2007). Behind the Pay Gap. Washington, DC:AAUW Educational Foundation.
8. Blau, Francine D., and Lawrence M. Kahn. (2006). Te U.S. gender pay gap in the1990s: Slowing convergence. Industrial and Labor Relations Review60 (1): 4565.
9. Bobbitt-Zeher, D. (2007). Te gender income gap and the role o education. Sociology of
Education 80, 122.10. Correll, Shelley J., and Stephen Benard. (2007). Getting a job: Is there a motherhood
penalty? American Journal of Sociology, 112 (5), 12971338.
11. Source: Current Population Survey, reported in U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureauo Labor Statistics (January 20, 2011). Usual Weekly Earnings Summary Economic NewsRelease, USDL-11-0062. www.bls.gov/news.release/wkyeng.nr0.htm.
12. Ibid.
13. Source: Current Population Survey, reported in U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureau
o Labor Statistics. (June 2010). Highlights of Womens Earnings in 2009. www.bls.gov/cps/cpswom2009.pd.
14. Source: Current Population Survey, reported in U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureauo Labor Statistics. (December 2010).Women in the Labor Force: A Databook. www.bls.gov/cps/wl-databook2010.htm.
nots
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15. U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureau o Labor Statistics. (January 2011). Employmentand Earnings. able 39. www.bls.gov/opub/ee/empearn201101.pd.
16. Reskin, Barbara F., and Denise D. Bielby. (2005). A sociological perspective on genderand career outcomes. Journal of Economic Perspectives19 (1), 7186.
17. Institute or Womens Policy Research. (September 2010). Separate and not equal?Gender segregation in the labor market and the gender wage gap. IWPR Brieng Papers.www.iwpr.org/publications/all-2010/separate-and-not-equal-gender-segregation-in-the-labor-market-and-the-gender-wage-gap.
18. U.S. Department o Labor, U.S. Bureau o Labor Statistics. (January 2011). Employmentand Earnings. www.bls.gov/opub/ee/empearn201101.pd.
19. Institute or Womens Policy Research. (April 2010). Te gender wage gap by occupation.
IWPR Fact Sheet. Retrieved February 7, 2011, rom www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/the-gender-wage-gap-by-occupation.
20. Blau, Francine D., Marianne A. Ferber, and Anne E. Winkler. (2006). Dierences inoccupations and earnings: Overview. Te Economics of Women, Men and Work, 5th edi-tion. Englewood Clis, NJ: Prentice Hall.
21. Institute or Womens Policy Research. (September 2010). Separate and not equal?Gender segregation in the labor market and the gender wage gap. IWPR Brieng Papers.www.iwpr.org/publications/all-2010/separate-and-not-equal-gender-segregation-in-the-labor-market-and-the-gender-wage-gap.
22. Source: U.S. Department o Labor, Bureau o Labor Statistics. (January 2011).Employment and Earnings . able 39 Annual Averages 2010. www.bls.gov/opub/ee/empearn201101.pd.
23. Babcock, Linda, and Sarah Laschever. (2003). Women Dont Ask: Te High Cost of Avoid-ing NegotiationAnd Positive Strategies for Change. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UniversityPress.
24. Reskin, Barbara F., and Denise D. Bielby. (2005). A sociological perspective on genderand career outcomes. Journal of Economic Perspectives19 (1), 7186.
25. Cohen-Charash, Y., & Spector, P. E. (2001). Te role o justice in organizations: A meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 86, 278321.
26. Kim, H. (2009). Integrating organizational justice into the relationship managementtheory. www.allacademic.com.
27. Colquitt, J. A., D. E. Conlon, M. J. Wesson, C. O. Porter, and K. Y. Ng. (2001). Justiceat the millennium: A meta-analytic review o 25 years o organizational justice research.Journal of Applied Psychology86, 42545.
28. www.opm.gov/oca/10tables/indexGS.asp.
29. www.gao.gov/new.items/d09279.pd.
30. www.mmb.state.mn.us/comp-pay-equity.
31. Te law came in response to Ledbetter v. Goodyear ire & Rubber, which overturned 40years o EEOC policies and precedents on statutes o limitations in discrimination cases.
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