Situation Analysis GENDER

8/2/2019 Situation Analysis GENDER

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A Situation Analysis Report

on

Gender (MDG 3)

Bangladesh

A Baseline for Needs Assessment and Costing

General Economics Division, Planning Commission,Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh &

UNDP Bangladesh


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A Situation Analysis Reporton

Gender (MDG 3)

Bangladesh


General Economics Division, Planning Commission,Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh &

UNDP Bangladesh


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A Situation Analysis Reporton

Gender (MDG 3)

Bangladesh


Conducted by

General Economics Division, Planning Commission,Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh &UNDP Bangladesh

This report is the situational assessment of the MDG 3 on Gender and has been prepared by Prof. Dr. Sadeka Halim, as asSocial Development Analyst (Gender) for the Project Support to Monitoring PRS and MDGs in BangladeshThe inferences from the study were utilized for the MDG Needs Assessment and Costing for Bangladesh through the ThematicWorking Group (TWG) on Gender.

The MDG Needs Assessment and Costing (2009-2015) for Bangladesh contains the detailed situation analysis, the challenges,proposed interventions and costs for implementing the interventions to achieve the MDGs in Bangladesh.

Disclaimer

The analysis, findings & recommendations of this situation analysis report on the MDG 3 (Gender) do not necessarily reflect theviews of General Economics Division, Planning Commission and United Nations Development Porgramme, Bangladesh, ratherwith which the duly author is concerned.


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Women in Bangladesh are becoming increasingly visible in economic spheres. Practically in allspheres of the development women are contributing to the growth of economy. Womens increasing

involvement in both agricultural work and in non farm activities has provided with increasedopportunities for wage work and certain economic independence. Despite the large-scale involvementof women in economic activities, women are ignored socially, politically, deprived legally, exploitedeconomically. It is against this context this inception report presents girls and womens socio-economic and political status in Bangldesh.

1. Achieving independence in 1972, Bangladesh home to around 150 million people. In February2005, Bangladesh presented its first MDG Progress Report which was prepared jointly by theGovernment and the UN Country Team in Bangladesh in consultation with other stakeholders.This report attempts to provide situational analysis of MDG 3 targets and examines the indicatorsperformance in order to achieve the desired gender parity by 2015.

2. Bangladesh has made considerable progress in terms of reducing the discrimination betweenmen and women. Bangladesh has enhanced number of laws at the national level to protect

equality of rights and opportunities. The Constitution of Bangladesh grants equal rights to womenand men in all spheres of public life (Articles 27, 28(1) 28(2), 28(3), 28(4), 29(1), 29(2) and 29(3)and has been supplemented by number of Acts and Ordinances to safeguard womens equalrights such the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1980, the Child Marriage Restraint Act (amended in1984) and the Family Court Ordinance of 1985. At the international level, Bangladesh has ratifiedthe UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against women (CEDAW)agreeing to the optional Protocol in 2000. However, reservations on articles 2 and 16 pertaining tomarriage, divorce and inheritance remain in force.

3. The Ministry of Womens and Children affairs (MWCA) established in 1978 has the mandatefor protecting womens interest and further the rights of children and working in 64 districts ofthe country. The National Policy for the Advancement of Women was adopted in 1997 andamended (2004,2008) includes commitments to eliminate discrimination against women in allspheres. A National Action Plan (NAP) for implementing the policy as well as meeting

commitments under the Beijing Platform for Action (PfA) was approved in 1998. Following thePFA Gender Focal points were appointed in all central government ministries and committeesas early as 1990. Bangladesh Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) finalized in October2005 and PRSP 2 in 2008 also provides comprehensive gender analysis with policyguidelines.

Millennium Development Goal 3Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women

Target 4

Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by

2005 and to all levels of education no later than 2015Indicators

9. Ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education10. Ratio of literate females to males of 15-24 year olds11. Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector12. Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament

INTRODUCTION


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2. METHODOLOGY

The preparation of this report is an outcome of a consultative process that included MWCA, GED,UNDP and other relevant organizations like BBS and BANBEIS. The reporting process also involvedGender Thematic Working Group (TWG). During the preparation of the report, there was considerablefocus on reaching a consensus regarding not only the data to be used to regularly monitor theprogress of the MDGs but on the identification of baseline or benchmark data against which progress

could be measured over the long terms.

At the outset, it is worthwhile to provide some methodological notes about the databases used in thisstudy. The salient methodological issues are as follows:

1. Primary enrollment: Data obtained relate to theperiod between 1995 and 2005. Trends have beenshown with a 5 year gap, namely for 1990, 1995,2000, and 2005. The annual growth rate shown fiveyear blocks, namely 1990-95, 1995-2000 and2000+05. Davison-wise data, due to non-availability,have been shown for the period since 2000. Theannual growth rate and projection of growth havebeen estimated using standard formula (shown in

Box).

2. Secondary enrollment: Data on secondary enrollment including junior secondary, highersecondary and intermediate college. Such data were available for the period between 1991and 2005. However, division-wise and urban/rural location-wise such data were available forthe period between 1995 and 2005. The formula used for the estimation of annual growth rateas well as to project future has been same as that shown in the box.

3. Tertiary enrollment: Data on tertiary enrollment were found for the period between 1997 and2006, however, no such data were found by male-female for 2000, 2004, and 2006. Theformula used for the estimation of annual growth rate and projected future has been the sameas shown in the box.

4. Adult literacy (15-24 years): Data on adult literacy has been found for the time between1991 and 2006 except for 1993, 1996, 1997, and 2001, with non-availability of urban-rural for1991-1994. The division-wise adult literacy rate was found for 2006.

5. Share of women in wage employment in non-agricultural sector: Time series data on thiswere not available. Data on this indicator were available for the FY 1991-92, 1995-96, 1999-2000, 2002-03, and 2005-06.

6. Proportion of seats held by women in National Parliament: Data on this indicator wereavailable for 1991, 1996, and 2001. This data show total number of seats held by womenwhich include both seats through election and through selection (proportional allocation of 30reserved seats).

Box: Population growth rate

formula

Pt= Poert

Or r= log (Pt/Po)/t

Where Pt= Current year population

Po= Base year population

t= Time interval

r = Growth rate


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3. PRIMARY EDUCATION

The target was set for 2005 to achieve gender parity in primary enrollment and it has beenachieved.

During the last 15 years, the primary school enrollment has increased 1.4 times from 11.9 million in1990 to 16.2 million in 2005. Total primary education enrollment was 11.9 million in 1990 with 6.6

million boys and 5.4 million girls and it has reached 16.2 million in 2005, of whom half of theenrollment was girls. The gender parity of primary enrollment has been attained in 2005.

Table: Primary education enrollment, 1990-2005

% of studentsYear Total Boys GirlsBoys Girls

1990 11939949 6574633 5365316 55.06 44.941991 12635419 6910092 5,725,327 54.69 45.311992 13017270 7048545 5,968,725 54.15 45.85

1993 14067332 7525862 6,541,470 53.50 46.501994 15180680 8048117 7,132,563 53.02 46.981995 17280416 9090748 8,189,668 52.61 47.391996 17580416 9219358 8,361,058 52.44 47.56

1997 18031673 9364899 8,666,774 51.94 48.061998 18360642 9576942 8,783,700 52.16 47.841999 17261713 8705001 8,556,712 50.43 49.572000 17667985 9032698 8,635,287 51.12 48.882001 17659220 8989795 8,669,425 50.91 49.09

2002 17561828 8841648 8,720,180 50.35 49.652003 18431320 9358757 9,072,563 50.78 49.222004 17953300 9046433 8,906,867 50.39 49.612005 16225658 8091221 8,134,437 49.87 50.13Source: Ministry of primary and mass education

Figure 1: Trends in primary education enrollment, 1990-2005

Girls enrollment in primary education in 1990 was 45 percent and reached at 47 percent in 1995. Insubsequent the trend shows that in five years a gradual increase in the girls enrollment whch is 49percent in 2000 and gender parity has been achieved in 2005. The achievement is largely the result ofThe First Primary Education Programme (PEDP-I) implemented in 1990 and the Second PrimaryEducation Development Programme (PEDP II) between 2004 and 2009 through several projects.


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Figure 2: Annual growth rate of primary enrollment (1990-2005)

The overall annual growth rate of primary school enrollment between 1990s and 2000 showsrelatively high rate for girls as compared to that of boys, 8.46 percent vs 6.48 percent. This highpositive growth rate of primary enrollment with higher for girls than that for the boys is most likely

attributable to the vigorous government emphasis on primary education for the girls aiming atreaching gender parity in primary education. On the other hand a negative growth rate has occurredbetween 2000 and 2005 with -1.2 percent for girls and -2.2 percent for boys. This declining growthrate in enrollment after reaching gender parity is attributable to the declining total fertility rate (TFR)and crude birth rate (CBR) which has changed the population pyramid of Bangladesh with therelatively less addition of new born babies every year.

Table 2: Projected Primary enrollment 2006, 2007(Base year 1995)

% of studentsYear Boys Girls TotalBoys Girls

2006 7997523 8128934 16123790 49.6 50.42007 7904910 8123436 16022561 49.3 50.7

The base adoption of year for the projected primary enrollment is 1995. Projection of primaryenrollment shows 50.4 percent and 50.7 percent girls in 2006 and 2007 respectively.

Bangladesh nationally has already reached gender parity in primary enrollment by 2005. Over theperiod consistently compared to boys girls growth rate has improved because of particular emphasison girls education. However, the division-wise boys-girls trend in primary enrollment shows adisturbing scenario (see Figure 3-8), with Barisal division has yet to reach the gender parity. Thisdisturbance further multiplies with the fact that the Barisal division possesses the highest literacy rateout of the six divisions in Bangladesh. The division-wise annual growth rate of primary enrollment hasbeen estimated for three different time periods, namely for 2002-03, 2003-07, and 2000-07.Interestingly, for 2000-03 period the annual growth rate of primary enrollment in all divisions hasexceeded 22 percent with highest at about 26 percent in Barisal and lowest at 22 percent inChittagong. However, in the next period, i.e; between 2003 and 2007, all divisions except Barisalhave shown a negative annual growth rate with highest negative growth rate of 48 percent inRajshahi. More interesting is the fact that the annual growth rate for a larger period between 2000and 2007 shows positive rate for Barisal (17.2%) and Khulna (7.9%), but negative for Rajshahi (-17.9%), Chittagong (-11%) and other divisions.


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Table 3: Division-wise annual growth rate of primary enrollment

Growth rateYear

Barisal Chittagong Dhaka Khulna Rajshahi Sylhet

2000-2003 25.69 22.15 24.07 22.97 23.58 23.122003-2007 11.11 -35.08 -18.23 -2.29 -47.64 -17.36

Figure 3: Trend in primary enrollment between 2000 and 2007, Barisal

Figure 4: Trend in primary enrollment between 2000 and 2007, Chittagong

Figure 5: Trend in primary enrollment between 2000 and 2007, Dhaka


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Figure 6: Trend in primary enrollment between 2000 and 2007, Khulna

Figure 7: Trend in primary enrollment between 2000 and 2007, Rajshahi

Figure 8: Trend in primary enrollment between 2000 and 2007, Sylhet


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In 1991, the total secondary education enrollment was 2.9 million with 1.9 million male and 1 milliongirls. This enrollment reached to 8.2 million in 2005 with 4 million male and 4.2 million female. Thesignificant increase in enrollment and higher completion rates at the primary level since 1980s, led tohigher enrollments at the secondary level in 1990s. The gender parity has been attained in 1999 dueto mainly to Female Secondary School Assistance Program (FSSAP) launched in late 1980s.

Figure 10: Enrollment (in percentage) in Secondary Level (Junior+ Higher Secondary +

Intermediate College) by sex, 1991-2005

The secondary education system in Bangladesh consists of two levels secondary education (grades6-10 of which 6-8 is junior secondary) and higher secondary education (grades 11-12). Between 1991and 2000, the secondary education enrollment for female students depicts sharp increase (34% in1991, 45% in 1995) whereas the enrollment of boy students substantially decreased (from 66% in1991 to 55% in 1995). In 2000, girls enrollment surpasses than boys (51% for girls and 49% forboys). The similar pattern of enrollment for both sexes could be seen in 2005. All these impressiveenrollment of girls in secondary school is the consequence of a government initiative the FemaleSecondary School Assistance Program (FSSAP) launched in late 1980s and nationally covered inearly 1990s. Under the FSS, the government provides a cash incentive or stipend to secondaryschool girls to cover a large portion of direct school expenses incurred by girls in grades 6-10. TheFSS programme also provides tuition assistance, through this part of the financial assistance is paidto the School where the girl is enrolled, rather than to the girls directly. The coverage of other costsrises with grade because extra incentive is needed in the upper grades to reduce high dropout rates.

The program with twin objectives seems to be successful-increasing the number of girl studentsentering secondary school as well as keeping them in school until graduation. Thus this type ofstipend programme which is pioneer in South Asia need to be continued for increasing secondaryenrollments and in addressing narrowing gender disparities at the secondary level.

Table 5: Annual growth rate of secondary (Junior+ Higher Secondary + IntermediateCollege) Education Enrollment by sex

Growth rateYear Male Female1991-1995 13.3 24.91995-2000 4.9 9.92000-2005 -0.9 -1.2


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Figure 11: Annual growth rate of secondary (Junior+ Higher Secondary + IntermediateCollege) Education Enrollment by sex, 1991-2005.

Although, there is declining trend of growth rate for the both sex is experienced during 2000-2005, thetrend for girl students is more discouraging than that for the boys. During 1991-1995, it was 13 and 25percent for boys and girl students respectively. For the both sex, it has declined by almost three timesin 1995-2000.

Table 6: Projected secondary enrollment 2006, 2007(Base year 2000)

% of studentsYear Boys Girls TotalBoys Girls

2006 4000850 4145009 8145798 49.12 50.882007 3965217 4095101 8060177 49.20 50.80

The base year of projected secondary enrollment is 2000. The projected enrollment status of girlsstudent is near about 51 percent for both 2006 and 2007.

Table 7: Division wise Secondary education (Junior+High+Intermediate College) enrollment

In percentage

Year Barisal Chittagong Dhaka Khulna Rajshahi Sylhet1995 7.78 20.13 30.37 12.87 24.53 4.281999 7.1 20.51 28.63 13.11 27.11 3.54

2005 7.04 19.49 28.28 13.94 26.73 4.53


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Figure 12: Percentage of division wise Secondary education (Junior+High+IntermediateCollege) enrollment.

The changing scenario of divisionwise secondary education enrollment is shown in Table 7. During1995 to 2005 the relative share of secondary enrollment has increased in Rajshahi, Khulna and Sylhetdivision, but it has decreased in Dhaka, Chittagong and Barisal divisions. A more vivid picture of thischanging situation is depicted in Figure 12 (see Annex Table 1).

Table 8: Annual growth rate of division wise secondary education (Junior+High+IntermediateCollege) enrollment.

Growth rateYear

Barisal Chittagong Dhaka Khulna Rajshahi Sylhet

1995-1999 10.28 13.19 11.24 13.19 15.22 7.941999-2005 -3.11 -3.82 -3.17 -1.94 -3.19 1.18

Figure 13: Annual growth rate of Division wise secondary education(Junior+High+Intermediate College) enrollment.

The division-wise annual average growth rates in secondary enrollment is shown in Figure 13. During1995-1999, the highest annual average growth rate was registered by Rajshahi division (15-22%)followed by Chittagong and Khulna (13.1% each), Dhaka (11.24%), Barisal (10.28%) and Sylhet (only7.94%). However, the situation has somehow reversed during the next five years between 1999 and


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2005, with Sylhet showing the only positive annual growth of 1.18 percent, and all other divisionsshow negative growth with over -3 percent annual growth for Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka and Rajshahidivisions (Figure 13).

Table 9: Percentage of secondary education (excluding Intermediate) enrollment by area/location (rural and urban) 1995-2005

In percentageYear Urban Rural1995 20.7 79.32000 17.26 82.742005 19.56 80.44

Figure 14: Trends in secondary education (excluding Intermediate) enrollment byarea/location (rural and urban) 1995-2005

The share of secondary enrollment, excluding intermediate college, in rural areas has increased from79 percent in 1995 to 83 percent in 2000. However in 2005 it declined by 3 percentage points. On theother hand, the urban share was 21 percent in 1995 which has increased slightly reaching 20 percent

in 2005.

Table 10: Annual growth rate of secondary education (excluding Intermediate) enrollment byarea/location (rural and urban) 1995-2005

Growth rateYear

Urban Rural1995-2000 4.4 8.892000-2005 1.85 -1.23


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Figure 15: Annual growth rate of secondary education (excluding Intermediate) enrollmentby area/location (rural and urban) 1995-2005

.

Between 1995 and 2000, the annual growth rate of secondary enrollment in rural areas was 9percent; however during 2000- 2005 it experienced negative growth rate at -1 percent. In urban areasbetween 1995 and 2005 it declined from 4 percent to 2 percent. Therefore, in terms of secondaryenrollment more concentration on rural areas is necessary.

Table 11: Percentage of secondary education (excluding Intermediate) enrollment in rural areaby sex 1995-2005

In percentage

Year Girls Boys

1995 46 542000 53 472005 52 48

Figure 16: Trends in secondary education (excluding Intermediate) enrollment in rural area bysex 1995-2005


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The secondary education enrollment of girls in rural areas has increased gradually, from 46 percent to53 percent during 1995 to 2000, whereas it has declined to 52 percent by the next five years. Boysenrollment has declined gradually from 54 to 47 percent between 1995 to 2000, however, it hasincreased by 1 percent in the next five years.

Table 12: Annual growth rate of secondary education (excluding Intermediate) enrollment in

rural area by sex 1995-2005

Growth rateYear

Girls Boys

1995-2000 11.54 6.282000-2005 -1.47 -0.95

Figure 17: Annual growth rate of secondary education (excluding Intermediate) enrollment inrural area by sex 1995-2005.

The figure 17 shows the annual growth rate of secondary education (excluding intermediate)

enrollment in rural areas by sex during 1995-2005. The general trends of growth for the both sex hasexperienced a negative rate. In 1995-2000 the growth rate of girls was 12 percent while it reached -1.47 percent in 2000-2005. At the same time, it was 6 and -1 for boys in 1995-2000 and 2000-2005respectively.

Table 13: Percentage of secondary education (excluding Intermediate) enrollment in urbanarea by sex 1995-2005

In percentageYear

Girls Boys1995 49 512000 51 49

2005 52 48


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Figure 18: Trends in secondary education (excluding Intermediate) enrollment in urban areaby sex 1995-2005

The share of secondary education (excluding intermediate) enrollment in urban areas by sex shows apositive trend for girls enrollment from 49 to 52 percent during 1995 to 2005. On the other hand the

enrollment rate of boys has declined from 51 percent 48 percent during the same period. The annualgrowth rate of secondary enrollment shows a declining trend for both the boys and girls during twotime periods, namely 1995-2000 and 2000-2005. However, the relative share of declining growth hasbeen less pronounced for the girls than that for the boys: the annual average growth for girls hasdeclined from 5.04 percent in 1995-2000 to 2.38 percent in 2000-2005, the same for the boys hasbeen 3.76 and 1.28 percent respectively.

There are several factors which could be attributed to the decline growth of girls enrolment. Socialand cultural attitudes still reinforce girls /womens subordinate position in the society. Various forms ofviolence , acid throwing, sexual harassment on the street & in educational institutions , early marriage(despite The Child Marriage Restraint Act , 1984 which raised the legal age of marriage of girls from15 to 18) are hindering girls to take opportunities to continue education smoothly.

Thus to maintain the gender parity the government secondary education projects need to becontinued. In addition important to ensure good quality education, improvement in the course curriculaand learning needs of diversified groups of students (taken as actions in PRS II, pg 400) need to beeffectively implemented.

Figure 19: Annual growth rate of secondary education (excluding Intermediate) enrollment inurban area by sex 1995-2005


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5. TERTIARY EDUCATION

The target was set to achieve no later than 2015; however only 24 percent has been reached by2005.

During the last ten years, the enrollment of students at the tertiary level has increased 4.5 fold from62,125 in 1997 to 280,516 in 2006. During 1997-2005, female enrollment in tertiary has increased 2.6

times and male 3.6 times. This implies low rate of tertiary enrollment among females as compared tothat of the males.

Table 14: Year wise Students enrollment at Tertiary

Female/Male % totalYearTotal Female Male Female Male

1997 62125 19476 42649 31 691998 66611 15805 50806 24 761999 76535 15163 61372 20 80

2000 78192 NA NA NA NA2001 116079 28677 87402 25 752002 126584 32685 93899 26 742003 149340 33607 115733 23 77

2004 175183 NA NA NA NA2005 205066 50096 154970 24 762006 280516 NA NA NA NA

Figure 20: Percentage of year wise Students enrollment at tertiary

As shown in Figure 20, in general, the female enrollment in tertiary education has declined from 31percent from 1997 to 24 percent in 2005. During the same period the male enrollment has increasedfrom 61 percent to 76 percent. This implies prevalence of a huge male-female gap in tertiary

enrollment, gap being 82 percentage point against females. Although primary and secondaryeducation is free in the country, however increase enrollment in the tertiary sector is yet to reach thedesired gender parity. The experience of accelerated attainment of gender parity in secondaryeducation through implementation of FSSAP tells us that in order to reach such parity at the tertiarylevel of education, similar stipend-related interventions must be designed and implemented.


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Table 15: Annual growth rate of year wise Students enrollment at Tertiary

Year Female Male1997-2001 9.67 17.94

2001-2005 13.95 14.32

Figure 21: Annual growth rate of year wise Students enrollment at Tertiary

Although the annual growth rate in tertiary level has increased from 10 percent to 14 percent during1997 - 2001 to 2001-2005 however for male it has decreased from 18 percent to 14 percent. Ingeneral the annual growth rate in tertiary education for males was always higher than females during1997-2005.

Table 16: Projected tertiary enrollment 2006, 2007(Base year 1997)

% of studentsYear Male Female Total

Male Female2006 182092 56376 238080 76.48 23.682007 213960 63442 276408 77.41 22.95

The projection of tertiary enrollment by gender shows unacceptable situation. The projected tertiaryenrollment for females will be 24 percent in 2006 and further declines to 23 percent in 2007.


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6. ADULT LITERACY

By 2015 equal male female ratio is suppose to be achieved; however in 2005 the rate of maleliteracy is 58 percent and 48 percent for female.

Table 17: Adult Literacy Rate of population 15+ years and over

YearAdult literacyrate Male Female Rural Urban

1991 35.3 44.3 25.8 NA NA1992 NA 42 65 NA NA1994 47.3 55.6 38.1 NA NA

1995 45.3 55.6 38.1 42.9 63.51998 52.6 59.4 42.5 48.2 68.31999 52.7 60.7 42.8 48.4 68.92000 52.8 61 43.2 48.7 69.32002 49.6 55.5 43.4 45.3 66.52003 50.3 56.3 44.2 46.1 67.1

2004 51.6 57.2 45.8 47.4 68.32005 52.3 57.6 47.9 48.6 68.32006 52.8 58.2 48.4 49.3 69.4

Source: BBS report on Registration SystemBBS-2006

Figure 22: Annual growth rate of year wise Students enrollment at tertiary

The adult literacy rate (15 years and above) has increased from 35.3 percent in 1991 to 52.8percent in 2006. In 1991 the rate was 44.3 percent for males and 25.8 percent for females, i.e;an 18.5 percentage points less for females. In 2006, this rate has increased to 58.4 percent forfemales, gap being 9.8 percentage points against females. Therefore, despite the generalimprovement in school enrollments, a large disparity continues to exist between male and

female literacy rates. While no data for 1990, 1993, 1997 and 2001 is available for thesuggested global indicator - ratio of literate females to males of 15-24 year olds literacy ratesby age cohorts help to give an indication of the youth literacy rates. The literacy rate of 15 andover show substantial increase with male rates at 66 percent to 68 percent between 2002-2006and female 43 percent to 48 percent. From 1998-2002 the adult literacy rate was 53 percenthowever from 1998 onwards the gap between male and female literacy has increased from 16to 18 percent.


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Figure 23: Adult Literacy Rate of population 15+ years and over

The adult literacy rate by rural-urban shows a distinct urban bias during 1995-2000 (Figure 24). Thisshould be reverted through higher efforts and investment towards adult literacy in the rural areas (aspart of PRSP). Also, the division-wise adult literacy situation (Figure 25) shows relatively low literacyin Sylhet, Rajshahi and Dhaka divisions implying need for more vigorous public-private efforts in thesedivisions towards promotion of adult literacy.

Figure 24: Adult Literacy Rate of population 15+ years and over by sex (Male and Female)


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Figure 25: Adult literacy rate of population 15+ years and over by area (urban and rural)

7. WOMEN IN NON-AGRICULTURAL EMPLOYMENT

During the last ten years population aged 15 years and above engaged in non-agriculturalemployment has increased 1.4 fold, from 17,999 in 1995-96 to 24,431 in 2005-06. During the same10 years the increase in male engagement has been 1.5 fold while the same for females has not beenchanged and remained at low level (estimated based on data in Table 18).

The male-female ratio of engagement in non-agricultural employment has been 80 : 20 in 1995-96which went up to 85.4 : 14.6 in 2005-06 implying relative decline of females share in the non-agricultural employment (Figure 27). The more revealing anti-female bias is evident in the annualgrowth rate: for males the annual growth rate in engagement of non-agricultural employment hasincreased from 2.15 percent during 1995-99 to 4.94 percent during 1999-2005, to the contrary, for


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females this has decreased from 3.62 percent to 2,39 percent during above two periods (Table 19).Therefore, in order to expedite the process of women employment it is imperative to undertakevigorous economic empowerment efforts for the females.

Table 18: Population Aged 15 Years and Non-Agricultural Employment

Year Total Male Female % Male % Female

1995-1996 17799 14231 3568 80 201999-2000 19636 15510 4124 79 212002-2003 21558 17486 4072 81 192005-2006 24431 20859 3572 85 15

Source: Report on Labour Force Survey in Bangladesh, BBS, 1996, 2004, 2008

Figure 27: Population Aged 15 Years and above Non-Agricultural Employment

Table 19: Growth Rate of Population Aged 15 Years and above Non-Agricultural Employment

Growth rateYearMale Female

1995-1999 2.15 3.621999-2005 4.94 -2.39


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Table 20: Projected population aged 15 years and above non-agricultural employment 2006,2007

% totalYear Total Male FemaleMale Female

2006 25217 21672 3572 85.8 14.2

2007 26029 22517 3573 86.3 13.7

The projection of women in non-agricultural employment (using 1995 as base year) shows muchdiscouraging situation (Table 20). The share of women in non-agricultural employment is projected todecline from the current 14.6 percent to 14.2 percent in 2006 and further down to 13.7 percent in2007. This declining share of women in non-agricultural employment implies that in order to ensurefurther improvement in the livelihood of women and empower women their share in non-agriculturalemployment, especially in various income generating activities and wage employment should bepursued by the public and private sector as proposed in the PRSP II and in the National Policies forthe Advancement of Women 2008. In other areas of decision-making such as the bureaucracy andhigh level jobs, which entail visibility and exercise of authority, womens presence is negligible

2.

8. WOMEN IN PARLIAMENT

The situation of women empowerment and gender equality is most deplorable when one looks intothe share of women in the highest policy making elected body the National Parliament. During1991-2001, there have been 30 out of 330 seats in the National Parliament reserved for women. Theother (non-reserved) seats (300) are those where either men or women can contest the election. Thesituation of women in the National parliament in terms of their numbers in the parliament shows a low-level static situation with only 42 seats (out of 330 including 30 reserved seats) in 1991, 43 in 1986,and 41 seats in 2001 (Table 21). In fact womens share of seats in the National Parliament depicts adownward trend during the last three governments of parliamentary democracy with 12.7 percent in1991-95, 13 percent in 1996-200, and 12.4 percent in 2001-06. Attaining gender equality in theNational Parliament will mean necessity of increase of elected women parliamentarians from 11 to150, an about 14-fold increase. This is a subject of unprecedented political and parliamentary reformin future Bangladesh.

Figure 28: Proportion of female member in the parliament

2 Millennium Development Goals: A peoples progress report, BANGLADESH,

Overview, September 2005


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Figure 29: Share of female member in the Parliament

Table 21: Proportion of female member in the parliament

Year Female member Total seats Percentage1991 (30+12) = 42 330 12.731996 (30+13) = 43 330 13.032001 (30+11) = 41 330 12.42


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Challenges

National level primary enrollment shows that Bangladesh has achieved gender parity by 2005.However, regional variation in terms of primary enrollment exists; Barisal is yet to achieve desiredposition while negative growth for Rajshahi and Khulna exists. Thus more concentration is required tostrengthening primary education projects, programmes in above mentioned divisions. In addition,strengthen opportunities for post primary education for girls while meeting commitments to universal

education.

Girls increased enrollment in secondary schools has been a significant phenomenon in Bangladesh.The challenge is to sustain the twin objectives of the FSSAP in keeping increasing number of girlstudents in secondary schools and retain them until graduation. Regional and urban rural variation interms of secondary enrollment requires special attention. To maintain the impressive enrollment ofgirls in secondary school effective continuation of secondary education projects are required.

The accelerated attainment of gender parity in secondary through successful implementation ofFSSAP points us that in regard to achieve such success in tertiary level of education the majorchallenges is to initiate similar type of stipend programmes to reach gender parity by 2015.Despite much improvements in primary and secondary school enrollments a large disparity exitsbetween male and female literacy rate more in rural areas, and division like Sylhet. The challenge isto narrow the gap through intensive public and private initiatives. Extensive social mobilization

programme need to be as well implemented. In addition various forms of violence need to be reducedto ensure girls safety while taking opportunities of FSSAP.

The situation of women in non agricultural employment depicts much discouraging situation. Thechallenge is to involve women more in to productive income generating work to ensure improvementin livelihood to empower them. Further, actions in regard to womens employment mentioned inPRSPII need to be effectively implemented.

Womens engagement in political leadership is also not encouraging. In the national arena, majoritywomens network lobbied throughout the 2003 for direct elections for women for Parliamentary seats.Mobilisation around the issue took great impetus after the existing provision for women members(allowing for 30 women to be nominated by elected members of parliament) lapsed in 2001. However,women demand for direct election was turned down and 45 seats have been given to women throughselection by the majority in the parliament. The other factor which is hindering womens effectiveparticipation in politics is limited leadership positions; there is still limited involvement of women inparty hierarchical structures. Female members are conveniently used during election campaign,organizing meetings, rallies, etc. The challenge is to have farsighted policy interventions. Thereforeawareness, mobilization programmes to encourage direct involvement of women in mainstreampolitics is needed. Holistic policy interventions may include amendment of laws, promoting womencandidates nominations by political parties.

Conclusion

MDG 3 recognizes that the advancement of womens right to gender equality is critically necessary.The target of MDG 3 sees empowerment of women as an effective pathway for attacking theproblems of poverty, inequality and gender discrimination and for stimulating truly sustainabledevelopment.


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Reference

Educational Institution Survey (Post Primary), 2003, BANBEIS, December 2004

Millennium Development Goals: Mid-Term Bangladesh Progress Report, December, 2007

Millennium Development Goals: A peoples progress report, BANGLADESH, Overview, September 2005

Statistical Profile on Education in Bangladesh, BANBEIS 2006.

Bangladesh Educational Statistics BANBEIS 1991

Labour Force Survey 1995-96, BBS December 1996

Labour Force Survey 2002-03, BBS December 2004

Labour Force Survey 2005-06, BBS February 2008

Moving Ahead National Strategy for Accelerated poverty Reduction 2009-2011,GED, Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, May 2008


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ANNEX

Table 1: Division wise Secondary education (Junior+High+Intermediate College) enrolment

% of students

Year Total

Barisal

Chittagong

Dhaka

Khulna

Rajshahi

Sylhet

Barisal

Chittagong

Dhaka

Khulna

Rajshahi

1991 2943473 NA 728351 746462 738576 730084 NA NA 24.74 25.36 25.09 24.80 N

1993 3371087 339027 174090 1282010 574494 1001466 NA 10.06 5.16 38.03 17.04 29.71 N

1994 4692388 364880 967506 1449527 604266 1109053 197156 7.78 20.62 30.89 12.88 23.64 4

1995 5313735 415882 1069435 1613753 683881 1303359 227425 7.83 20.13 30.37 12.87 24.53 4

1997 6370198 480018 1212779 1877439 791371 1758033 250558 7.54 19.04 29.47 12.42 27.60 3

1999 8836896 627483 1812744 2529669 1158956 2395562 312482 7.10 20.51 28.63 13.11 27.11 3

2003 9575591 676614 1862753 2704006 1269023 2693355 369840 7.07 19.45 28.24 13.25 28.13 3

2005 7398552 520561 1441688 2091945 1031313 1977692 335353 7.04 19.49 28.28 13.94 26.73 4Bangladesh Educational Statistics 2006.

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