ModernLoti nAmericaSEVENTHEDITIONThomasE. SkidmoreProfessorEmeritus, Bruwtl UniversityPeterH. SmithU"iversity oj C"lijomi", S"" Die>;"JamesN. GreenBrohlnUniversityNewYork OxfunlOXFORDUNIVERSITYPRESS2010OxfordUniversit}' Inc.. publishes works lhat furtherOxf(lrdUniversity'sobjective of excellenceinresearch, scholarship. :lmledllc:lti(ln.With offices inAUSlria I\r;\7il ChileIlungary Italy J;\panS\"it"erland ThailandOxford N\,w YorkAuckland C'lPC TownKualaLumpur MadridNewDelhi ShanghaiArgentinaGuatemalaSouthKoreaDar es Salaam Hong Kong Kar;\chiMelbourne Mexico City N;\irobiTaipei TM(lnloCzechRepublic France GreecePoland Portugal SingaporeTurkey Ukraine VietnamForDavid. ja11lrs, Rolw,.,andJonat/mll, ,",elcr. Snslw. AmalldaandSonyaCopyright1984. 19R9. 1992. 1997.2001. 200S. 2010 by OxfordUniversityPress. Inc.Published by OxfordUniv{'I'sity Inc1911Avenue. New Y(lrk, New York1(}()16http://www.ollp.comOxfordi" aregislerell trademark of OxfordUni\'ersit)' PressAll rightsre"('rvcd. Nopart of this pubHC:lliol\ 1l1;l.y be reproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem, or tr;msmilled. inanyformor by :lllYmC:lfltlf pulitil;dconJlict, uldsucial 1I""t' 1':vl'l1wllt'rt' IIIUtkrllhave struck, asint\J1cxicoR PART ONE ANn CONTEXTSAccordingtosuchviews, L.,tin Amcricacould not achicvedemocracybecausedark-skinned peoples (I ndians and blacks) were unsuited for it; because passionateLalintempers wouldnot stand it; hecause tropical climates somehow preventedit;or becauseRomanCatholic doctrines inhibitedit.E.,chchargehadits refutation: dictatorial rule nourishedin predominantlywhite countries. such as Argentina, as well as among mixed-blood societies. such asMexico; it appeared in temperate climes, such as Chile. not only in the tropics, suchas Cuha;it gained support fromnonCatholics and non practicing Catholics, whileIllany fervent worshippers fought for liberty; and, as shown byauthoritarianregimes outside Latin America, such as Hitler's Germany or Stalin's SovietUnion. dictatorship is not restricted to any single temperament. Such explanationsdid not merelyprovetobeinadequate. Whencarriedtoextremes, theyhelpedjustify rapidly increasing U.S. and European penetration-financial, cultural.military-of the '"backward" repuhlics10the south.Th" scholarly scene improvedinthe late1950s and early1960s, whenNorthAmeric"n social scientists formulated "modernization theory." As applied to LatinAmerica. this approach held that economicgrowth would generate thesocialchange thatwould in turn make possible more developed" politics. The transitionfroma rural toan urbansocietywouldbringachangeinvalues. Peoplewouldbegin torelate toand participatein thevoluntaryorganizalions that authentic(.lemocracy requires.Most important, a middle class would emerge-to play both aprogressiveand moderatingrole. L.,tin Americaand itscitizenries were not soinherently fromEurope andNorthAmerica. Insteadtheywere simply

Modernizationadepts thought thehistorical record showedthisprocesswaswell underwa), inLatinAmerica. OneoptimisticU.S. scholar maintainedinthe1950s that the"middlesectors"had"bccome stabilizers andharmonizersandintheprocess havelearnedthe dangers of dealing innbsolutcpostulates." Similarly.the;luthor ofa latc 1970s historytextbook saw"I.atin Amcrican historysinceindependence asmoderni7,ationgrowingslowlyagainst thcresistance of oldin."tilutions andReality, however. proved harsher. Instead ofspreadinggeneral prosperity,economic growth in the1960s and1970s generally made income distribution morelInequnl. The gapin livingstandards lJetween cityandcountrysidegrew. Themiddle strata, relativelyprivileged, forgeda sense of "class consciousness"which,in crilicalmoments of decision. ledthem to join the ruling classes in oppositiontothe popular masses. Politics took an authoritarian turn, producing militarygovernments. Andin stark contradiction of modernizationtheory.these patternsemergedintheInost developed-andmost rapidly developing-countries of thecontinent.Whathad gone wrong?Two sets ofnnswers came forlh. One group ofscholars focused on the culturaltraditions of Latin America and their Spanish and Portuguese origins. Theseanalysts argued, ineffect. that antidemocraticpolitics wasa product of aRomanCatholic and Mediterranean worldview thaI stressed the need for harmony. order,I" \Vhyl.llI1lAIIWI!t.IJ'/and Ihe elimination of conniel. I.atin Alllrric;l's Cflll ... lillllil'II'" WI'It' IUT('I .1'.demncnlticasthey appeared. parlypoliticswnsnol ;1" rt'l'n'''clll.ltin' :1" it IIlIgh!havelooked. TheNorth!\mcriC;1n and Ellrnpc;11l nculcllli(. (1l1l1l11111l1ty, :1(111\ It'dhy its ownmyopia andbi;1ses, hnd simpl)' misrcadIhl' soti;1ll.h I...A second group of scholars accepledlllodC'rnizat i(11l thel u'y ..lillk ing III ""NI"economiccauses wilh polilk";11 oulcomes hl11 turncd the;111"",n l1p..idc d"wl1I.atin Amcrica'seconomicdevel0plllC'llt W;1", Willi 1I1,1Il'ld thl' IUltillll \11' a slrongcenlral guvernll\l:.'llt ill c1use.tllt.trtU' \\'illtthl' C:lI hulic l :hUl dl, ,lIldl.ibt'rals, who espomel! limited ,1I111 [hI.' 01derical1:,II.:h Ihe othl,;'rul causingIh,,'I.nll,vl,tll;l:,>,:1 rdurntolisJli::.p,IJlil'traditioll. Spl'l:illcal1y illln'ded [u prumote aristucratic ideab.protect the1\'g,11 l'llvlkgn011I111il'll Yalld Ihl: lIltlrdl, andc",:aleacOIISli[utiulial llIOli.1,,,1,)' (I'l'rll.lll::' hy illlpIHlillg.1 ElIft'pl'i111 prillLe), III reply, Libl.:'rabarguedthat1\1l'.\ll"lIl'l'lkdIUl:lIlhr.lll the01 lll\h.ll'rni'l.alioll, nottradilioll.Till' .. l.lllllull lH11l illllni UIII ill lie Illid- Iwhell;:tSalll;t'\111',1'>Illlglll Ivrl'llli.'nbhtill' [rl'il::.ury (alldhispolitical by vft lor'!>IIJllldll"n V.tlle)' (tllday:'>tluthl'fll Nl'wMl'xiLuan,,1Ari'l.OIl:l), whichllll' UlIIIl'l1SI;11I.'::. W;lllll'.Ilor huilding a railroad10 newly acquired Cidilornia, '1'111:'dn.billilwas widd)' Lrilidz\,da::. a bl'lfil)':ll of nationalresolvl', :llll!it prompled tltl'Iqll)u::.i[ioll tilSanlaAnnafrolll puwt:rin 1855,'1 hi .. illili.llnl a IllIlIUItUUU:' I'l'riud relllt'lllbl,;'rl,;'d ill Mexi..:o as 1.11 Uefurlllll(111l' IklllJ'lIl), CiVilian k'd Libl'ral governmenls elwcled a St.:I';es of sweeping .tilllnl .11 buildinga Ill'Wsud,,1orda, (Joe key llIeasureabolishnl theIJ lilil"r)' dlldI'Lt.:k:.ia:'>1ic.. Ij/lt'f'US, Ille ::.pedal displ'nsations "kricsfrolll havingIv slandIrial ill eivilcourts, Anothl,;'J' prohlblh::d ecdeslastlGl1alld dvil institutiuns from uwning properly nut directly ust'd ill dayto-da),tllll'r,tlillll:>: litisIlll'aFlI that [hI.'chun:h (oulJkct:pits dlllrches, monaslerk,s, and.. ,'IHill.11 il's, hUI wuuld have [II ;uK"lion off the milssiw holdings lhilt II had,llCtllllubtt'dovnthl' It'lIlurks. (This wus not soci.. 1 revolution: Ihelands were.. oldIII wl'altllYhllt'I'willliv:;, llot landle:'>s pl'OIlS, Infact, thisprovisionwurkl,;'d10!II".l,llllllt:lJ[ ullhl' pUlIr, ::.inll' it rt''1uirl,dthe sa1l' ofpropt'rties held b), ('jidos,Ihl'\/\itEXlt'(':TllI'T,lllllllg4ol.ll{l'vultlli'lll 51LUIlllllLJllill Iandhuldings 01 Indian vilbgl,;'s.) t\ Ihird illitiil[ivt.' trallskrrnl [Ill' 01 rl.gistr), IWIIl Iht: church hi Iht: :-.Ialc: all hirth:'>. lllarriages, adoplions,alldWl'l'e 1I1'1ICdilrtii Itl IwIt'gisll'rnl by civil rUllcl jUlia IIII J1'157 1lillSI ofthl'Sl' provisitJlIs 10lll1 lclIllI,i1l}' dl'lll.'.1P'l':-.idcllI ill IH(lJ.Pt',lU' :;1 ill plOwdih thl' lOtlllllT lJ.lJlkruplcy, Ju.irodl'ddrnl a two-}'ear 1Il0raiuriullI IIll Mexicu':,> loreigll lkbl--[hll .. "arning tIl\'wlilthvI'lrt'ditors.Sct'kingtoit:-. t'lllpir\' ;llIdFr,llICl',undt'rj':l1Ipcror Napolt:oll III, cOlll11lellll:,d :l1)'l'.lf w.,r III oel-Up;ltIUll. (Me,,,, ka II klllporaril)' halh,dthe Frl'lh.hadv.tlll-l tow.lrd (V!l'xily[Ilis hdray;ll, r"laxillliliallill May IMb7. 1\11 111110rgiviJlg JU:'lfl'l. IIrdt'rl,d hi::. l'Xt'lllliOJl Ihl'folluwingIl10tlth, 'I'bus elldt:'dMexicu'sl'xllt'ril'llt.ewilhmOllardl)',Tltt' reMlInplioJl01pU\Vl'r b)' Liberabillwh.. [ h.ls (oHll' It) hl'knuwlI asthe "restoredrl'publi..:: ju;ira, amirqHluliLalll.ohurl::.alll'll1l'led10 Sl'lNkxiLo Oil lill' p:l\h of Hludernij'..1tiVtl, Ikdel..leottla tldrdlenJl .1::' presidl.'ut ill jul}'IJU:II't'Z prvlllOll'd l'XlellSivl' l:LOnUIl1IC i1lld t'duLativJlillrdonn::.,weill sowdllhathe rail for a fuunhtillie ill 11:0 I, ill une ollhe lilusillollydl'ctiollSor thl' nindeentll cell [ury, AsCongressst'all,;'dJu.irez's triUlllph, OJlt:'or Ihelosers,PorfirioDiaz, rt.-fused 10acct:'pl the result alld angrily prociaillH:d thill indefinilt'reeleclion vI' the chil'ft'Xl'clItiVt: endangeredIhl' coulilry's prindplt's alldinslitu[ions,Tht' l1i:lzuprisingwasquicklypul dUWII, !lowt'Vt:r, andSd)ilsti,lll I.l'rdodlA 'I"'j"da suc of thenineleenth century. InMexico lhe writers. technocrats. andintellecluallyinclinedpolitician!> whonrticulalcdthe!>e doctrines earnedthelabelof the cicHtijiros, underliningtheir supposedlinktopositivist philosophy.Dinprovedhiscommandof politicsinthai mosl fundamental of w::Iys: heslayedinpower farlonger Ihan:lTlYwouldhave daredtopredict. 1:01'Ihree andahalf decades he held the presidency, with only one interruption (Manuel Gon1..;'le7.: liebelieved Ihat he was givingMexico the preciolls gift ofpolilicalslahility. which he saw as indispensable for economic growth. If that required SOlllerepression,it was (or a good cause. A shrewdpolitician. Diaz hadthe constilutionamended.time and again, so lhat he could be reelectedto the presidency-blithelycflntradiclinghis priordenunciationsofin office. Di,,7o knewhow 10 :lppenlln the privileged sectors. how 10 make thcmloyal. how toorche51ratetheirfor the economic schemes Ih"t would raise their country 10 n"civilized"level.Ecomllliicdevelopmen1 was Ibilro:hl .. WClC .ikin): 1':'. lIlIpl,ni:l7.11r!>llriedto huilcllhemwithpublk (umls,httl hy I.lte IXHO Ill' l'cg. '1 g,.IIIIIII)'.concessions toforeigners. InonlyfOil I' }'e:lfSIhe tr.ILk inopl'l.1111>1l gl('wIll .. "750 miles to )(,00 miles.Mexicoreached12.000 mile.. of 11',..., k hr''lOll.h l}:lIlllh(oreignhuilt, most railrondswerelaklil{'l";lll'.This highly unequal economic d,'c\\, rqw.llnl pInk... " lrn'lIworkers, hOlh llrh... "I l.lll..! 101111,11.11 I..! Irl"l.uuldapulky Ihe)'h...! ll,.lk,1 Ihl' lEu.I\1 dln'livl'I)' ll'l\tr,t1ized govCfllllll'lll Ihal lVkxicu had s\.'ell.. Ill ... Illdl-Pllllll-llll. IIll.lklllg h',ISl.-UlU.. -l'llll'.lh:d in tvkxicuCily. al Ihl.\ ... " ..11 ... "I 11I,.tIIIrlIwd,lIo). Poliliu..d ulfiet', t:'specially .Illhe fcd\.'r.llievei.\\.1...."ughI .tlkl hy Ihl.:' lughel Il'Vl'l 01whomadeit wen: envieu... III\l. ... t'II""lllll t-:.1I11ufkll re"'luilt'\llullt.ll.t withIht' gOVl'rtll1lt'llt. tll\lllllllllg .1" 1I U.. 11 "Iltlll,Illlt}llg til\.' yOllllgl."r dih:" whu w\.'r\.' l."xdud\.'d frumth.:1)1.11 \... against IJf;IZ, hut WllU couldhaveprl'dictedthefTHEMEXICANREVOLUTIONIn\ In.. lulltlll ...lllI"I... il'lIatnl1'.lr lIlore ulll'll 11I1')' b...gill with,I '1,111\\ IlhlllIitl' dUIlIIll.1I11 dlh'.I )I,gllllltlni frl.'llllllltly yuung, bel.Ullll.'.Illhl}""Il\lUgll I" .llt.I\kllil' IIIII l\lexiloin1910.\ 1111 .. 1111\'k.uhllgh.IlKbctJI. M,ldero. sciun01 .1 l.llllil)' th'll had11I.HI...-.1 1"1 hllll.III \.1111... .llId lllllllllg .Imf liI.lIIlllkcd10 D.,It' pOhtK,lImachint'oI \.HI .. I" f\1.ld"'lll, Il.lll\.b...... gr.llldJ.lthl'l. h.ld hl'l.'l1 govt'rnor 1-11 thl' 01\ .1,dUlI!.' lwlll tXXiJ \11 IXX I. .Illdthl'l\I.ldt'ftll.llllilyhad cultiv.ll...:d afrit'IH.1:>ltlPwilli )11"" Y. I.JlIl.II1tHlIr, Pi.li': Itlllgtil1ll' lillaJil.e minblc'f.gol thl'hI'''' ,.1 .1 htll'lgll ldu...lllllll, IIIalill ;II Iht' Ulllvl;'rsity (If California.I It.- I,'WI lll'dhI .lpl'l)' Ill ..III .. wkultlln:. t'::,pl'dally 011Ihl'\'ollllll1,1.11I1.llitll . I It.- W.l:>.1::.t 1tlllg hlll'l.tI illlUIIIUlllic::., whichfitthl.'!)iazt'ra, hut.11 .... llll'"hli....., wlll\lllhd11... ,1. bdldinpolitical d\'JlHKraty alicllalt'd him11 .. 111 Illl' Iiglditil'"III Ihl' 1.111.' I)i.li'lit' hl'lallll' anuUbpoken0PPOIlt'lit..1I!"lIlligIh.lt Il'.ldyluI' dl.cloralandIh"l if Di,IZ chus.:' 10lUll ItlrIII I')IU(.1::' I.Vll)'ulle t'xpcl"lcd). Iht'll Ihl' vke\.llhlld,lh' 11Ill:.1UIIlIt' lIolll ullblde1111'clique.111MW,I.. byIlIlWl.Jpllve ul own 'vVhy should hetakt'thl. 1.IJlI ...vJ .Ill and::.puiI\.'dyuungolig.uch?Wht:1l IhedictaturI,likd til Illld 1m.. M..d.... ru llld the unthinkablc: ht' entered the 1910 \.UlIp.tigll IlLe\.lllllidalt' uf IheAntilh:dectionist Party. Dhtz now!,IU.1ul'po::.illUIl lhall.11 .IIlY t ill I\;' ill dnades. His dt'cloral JIlachine produced,1I1t/llll'l \ 1\ I,,"y. hUI II \\'.1.. 1.11 InllllThl.' poli\'ehad 10j;lil 5000 of Iht'"Pl'o..lllulI.llldudlng M.llkru. Till' yOllng rd.>el.nuw c:mooldellt'd, reJused10 recog-111/ ...' 111\' kgllitlhl ... y .... 1I)i.li" 11.dldiUlI.Ill." (whilt' inj,lil-which .. ,,\IXIIagl.. W.I:>IIIIW::'1.:1lurIh.., wnting of Ih.. MexkanConstitution01I') 17, .1 jll ..ulle!' d".. UIIl":lll 01IlleM..Xh:.11I ItI.:volutiun.(:.lIf.lIl.l.1 hilllM:1I had Ill) fa..li..:al ide.13. lie draftl..'d a pJ.!I..' imitationof thc(oll ... liluli,,1l ul :X57, little mun: 111.111 a reslutclll ..ut uf principles ofclassicalIIb.., .II\II1. 'I'h..:I..l/rlVl"lltiulIllth:gJII..'3h.lduthl.'r thuughts. Theyluokcontrul and\\IUIl:.1 ..11,111\'1 Ih.11 W.1331arlliuglyr..ldkJI fvrthbpre UoishevikerJ. Arlide27"mlll/wI'I\'dIhl gllVl'f1l I1It'1l I tvr..dbtribuk land. Artid... 123 annuuncedrights for1.i1,ol 11t.11h.ld\lri .. lh'II:>, wllicll illll'u3I::d Ol virtu;11straightjacket. Sociali.)1 threatening 10 become.1 .... ,.. I.d11'\'1)111111 '11, II' Ih.,nge sigllili ....'llllythl.. pOWllip 01th...nutedilltdll:ctual1\,'01' V.I\",'II,dI13. III (Ill' ar....1uf 1.1LJUI, III .. Obrl.'gvII gOVt::flIllll:111bel heavily onIheII ..\... J) I"tllllbi (tII11 ..... k-r.I .. lull IkgiullJ.I Obn.:r.l tvkxicanidC:IKyviLaL,IfU Cardenas. dectt:din C;ird... lla3W.I:. ardalivdyohs...-Ul"" .lImy utli..:...1alldforlner governor frulll Miehoa"!11wllo SUl'pl i3... devc:rYOI1I', l'fOllljltly 3t'lldingthe 3tunn..d Calles ililo exile. Itwa3 the1i!'3101lIIany1IltJVl..'S proving Ihal C.;nk-II,I:-twa3 going10 behis ownman.Manypeasallts hadglowll qllic.11 abuul 1111..' -rl'volutiun,1IIaqicoioheganillll'orlingAflil.1I\,>1.1\'(''>. 1"0,111111"11,:1('\\slC:ldily over t he years Ilnel cxp:lndcdin I hr- dghh'cnt h {('nllli \". 'IheI )ll'lll11i, .111 '>"g,lIinduslry rC'ceivcd nsuhslalll ial hoo.'>! in tll(' mid llil1('I"('1l111 l 1'111111 ,..1" .1 I,'.1I1! ,.1three factors: dvil slrife in (:llha, whkh kd!lOllI('pl"olllilH'nl 1'1.111(('1...101 IIl',kl Illnl0pCl"WOI'>". Anli 11.11Ii.ll1. lillment oftcll lookIheuglyfnrlll of r:H i.dprClllclkc.Asinl.uha, Americaninv('slors"howingInlne.'>t ill 11"1111111' .11l "'"g,lIaround Iheturn orthecelltllfY. U.s. military illlcrvcnlilllllrlllli [(Jlt, 1,,1'/21.... dl'.1thishill 12 "6611),,,,111111,111 I') 1! jH"HI 'J',)Ito'I'I,I!I"111I"lIf'.h... , Ill'll! ::.1:l. llll.: I )UlIliIl1l.:111 l{t'publJt W;lS lilt.' secolld-1.1Ig, t I,,"dl",XI III III lhl' L.lIllJlw,tll. Ilardly :lllY III Ill, prufils Wl'reJ\lIn k,1 III klv. 1111... W" ... ,Ill ll\t!.tve t'\..VIlOJlI)' pal ,'x\.. ..II!I 11.1111..... wdlIhL' I)Ullllllll,lIl l{q)uhliL, rdiallt.,l0111111:'J\Jlleric:lIl Jlwrkd,.v,',t\'"ill T.dllL' '1.1, lltl' U.S.vf Il.titl.lll \.'xporbIldlll 11 !,adway thetWl'llIll'lllt.lIIlL'III.llll'lId.Abo mall)' lollt't' lllud,'::.t ill::.ize.lIldtht,y uwn..dh>'Ccntnl! i\ll1eri":LIl:-i. Foreign illvestur::. 10playall illlport,llli P.lrl ill \..onl.'eproduction ill NiGlraglia. andGt:rlll:lllS:Klluirl'dsubstantial alllUlIllbof growing Ialll!illC;uall'lll:lla. But in gcneral, coffce prutlud ionrt'lllalliedillI :t'111 ral/\nlt'ricilnllall'!::>.Though Libt:ral sought tueJll:ourage illlllligraliull. Celltral i\lllt'fkallever re.:l'ivetl Iht' kind 01 IllilssiVt', working-class intlux lhat wenl 10 SouthAIIll'riul alill lht.' Ullilt'd l.aUur Illr.. LultiV,lliuII iJl::.lt'ad ...:a Il It' frUllItlll'mostl)' Intliall and/I/l'sliztl peasanb. Intillll' tlleyl'dl ilJlutW11 groups:who lived 011 thl.: pl whik living IIOlllt' alld contrul01SIll:\11 plots 01lu nd. In eitlltT (ase Ihl')' l",'t'lilll'd dos\'with lilt','arlhami rclailwdOllilol...lks of traditiollal pt:as;lnts, roth..'r 111:111forgingcunsciousness asarural prolt'tarial.Althought'ulTt'e prodm:liol\ dOlllinaled Iht' agrkllhural sector III lh,' niH,' Ct"nlttry, th,' ball.lllatrade\VIlllldt'v"ntu,tllyht'(UIH\.',TJlbk'11I:ltJ( UfCl.:lllralAllleriGlJl ...:ulturl'. It had ,1J1 unlikd)' III IH70 a Ne\VEnglalJd :'>t'a Laptaillnamed Lorellzo Bakt:r bl:'gan::.hiplllents frolll Jalll,lica 10Ih\.' I:aslof tll\..Uniled Slall'S, alld years laler he IlJlllld a partllcr to IOJ III th,d Bustoll I:ruitCompany. III (lwJlI,'alltillll'. another investllleni groupbeg;ll1banallasluNewOrlean::. andcrt:atl'd lheTrul)it::!I Trading:IudTranspurt COlllpan)'. IIIIX")') tht' lwolll"rgedtoh,nn:l singulart'llt,'IVrisl'; til" Unitt'll FruitCOlllpany (UFCO). line began a remarkable chaptt:r ill lh\.' histury ul U.S.ilwt:stlllell(, penetratiun. and (untrol iJI C\.'11tral Allierka.UFC( >, or III jmli'l"lI (the fruih:ry), as Cellt ral AInITi ....l II::' (ailedIt, establishedavirtual Illollopolyull theproductiunandtliSlriblllioll ut" bananas. Throughgoverl1111l.'nt and ulher 1l1,'aIlS, the company a(,!uired vas I traL'ls ollalldiJllilt' hut. humid,::.parsd)'sl.'ulcdCaribbeanIll\vbnd::., I( duminatedtranspurtationIU:lwurks and owned a major curporaliun, IIl!t.'fIlalional Railways ur CelltralAmerica. It built dock::. and pun faciliti.:::., and theTropied I{adioand'I'degraph ttl jnllt'nt alargenumbL'r\II wi,k-lykllUWIIaslhl'.. t whikandit eXt:l'kdenorllluusinllul.'ll ....e unlllarkl'lillgill lheUnitnlStaleS. UFCO lokrated andeVt'll encullragt..'dsm:t1I-scale t'oll1pdilion, billit wasJlt.:vt'rst:riou::.l)' challl'llgl.'dinthe decltles afterWorldWar l.'I'll,' b.llwna trade (f(':Ltcd sucidks and enclaveparexcellence. UFCOsupervisors andmanagasellllefromth\.. UJli! ,'nl>f1lhHI::.-1ll:'VL'f acuHlllling1"1 1lllllt'lll,llJIlt'lll'ullll till' \yUlld:o.lIpply -hut tht')' havt' al\Y,IYshecll \Jl highqualityCl)llkid Ulll'UlI,llllSJJice itgro\vlI ill the LUtl!Illghl.llht ,dougtil" IIlUUJlt,lill II did Ilut lIecessarily rcquireu",ulll,lti\1I1 01 IalhlllOlll IOW1.11111 pl',l::',lnb. Tht'['e Wl're :'>uhstalilial l;lkl.:ovcrs inl ;lIdIL'Jllal.1:lIldEIS;IIV,ld"l,tllollgh dramatic thanwhat occurredinPorl1rianMI'X41. IIINkal :Igll:l, :II It! (:oslaRica, d i::.loGII ions weft' less C1llHlIHlll.9(1 PARTrwn ClIANr.[ oVEH TnlrllSU;lllyheohtnillcdonl}' hygnvernmelll concession. ;1 fnct which rcquircd thecompnllytocnler polilils. Thepiclureis cleM: UFCOprovided relativelySC;l1l1stilllUhllIll1t pl,'(t:" II100 "ART TWO e CAS ISTUPlfS: CHANGF. ()VFR'1111.11'POLITICS ANDPOLICY: NICARAGUA \Vhatever might portend, ollefOlet rell10linedcT)''''OlI-deal':1'00n:lma\: CC(lIlOIllYremainsIighllyinterl winedwiththOlt of theUnitedFormllch of itshistoq', Nicamguahasbeenapawn of olltside powers,especiOlllytheUnitedStales. During thenineteenthcenturyit receivedunceasingOltlentionfmlll Olvaricious advellturers. manyofwhomsought 10 huild Ol canOlI. and ilcndured the brief bUI ignominiolls presence of \OVilliamWalker. The pallernwouldcontinucillio thetwentiethWashinglondevelopedastrongdislike for JoseSOlntos Zelaya. the chelatorwhoh;1(1 slOlunchlyresistedforeigncontrol in ncgoliOl(ions over lIl and1>1'.111\11,11 II athre,ll IuIh.. Uniled,llldtotht>free\\.It Id.It 1.11lultl\,.llnl k.lr.. lh.11d..:k.11ill (;U.ll .... llWI.1 might k.ld 10"[,tk\'\lV\'1"II!ll 1',111.1111,1Colll,d, TIlt')' \'I.trlledlh.11if(iu.1lt.:malarell, thl'lIthe resl of( .. L1tl ,II :\llll'II\,1IIl1ghl ;..... h'dl (inkeqllllgwllhthe socalJ..:tI dominotheory).i'lL/I tIll' 1'1111\ 11',11 ,lgr.ln.111IduIIIl. as Danielor TIJI.'Nt'II' I,'"d,'/ w,t1I11'dtll,ll wouldll:.eIh.... programasaII. j.-, Lill lI11lllil ut (;11.1h:01.1I.1. \Vhaln'l.'r hisinlt'lItiollS, thl' United Statesinsisted,,\rlo\'111 W,I" ju.. t .1Ilir Ih", IIIIlJ:;1 tltl UIlJltddnidl'd tv I' whostuodto gainct:onomio.:ally andby Ihose whoprl"acht'dof ;1 U.S. lllis3ioll lureseu\,thl'CuhansfromSpanishmisrule.AlthoughI'rt'sid""lIl McKinleyn:sisll'dprcssun:toiJltl'!'Velle,l'Vt'llbIIveJ t0ukhilll. In April the USS Maille' Ill)'steriollsly exploded in II.IV,lIla harbur.The biaSI, which has never bet.:ll salisr.lclorily expJailwd, :-'Wl'I)1 aw.L)' dll' la.. lveslige3 01 .llltiwar senliml'nl, and COllgrl..'ss promptl). dcd.Il"l'd h'ar 011TIll'ill l"lluippedwellt duwnlu humiliating ddl:.ll. Till')'h,tdlillIe dlOkl'hut 10 gr'1lI1CUO.1ilidepl"ndeJl(eill IJt>celiloef I ( 11"-") l'l. 1111011 I)' UlH.ll'r tht' rigid pulidt'::> of the.... 1'.1111'11,,-UJ\"11lItlllllhclJourhlJll n.:fonll::> ufCharit') III (17SlJ-8X) pruvidt'dIhe""IIIUdi ,1 . 11IllI tu groh'lh. "'ht' nilll'll'C:lllh Cl'IlIUry saw a bridcuffee boom give way10 till' luJli".llioll vi tulxll'l..'o, whkh hCC:llllt: a major crop b}' midct"lllury-apU,>llltlll It :-1111 hlJld:-1) CUh.11I dg.,rs(jJllruS)l"tll1linut' 10hI..' n:ganlt'dasamongllll' lilll'..,t III thl' \YUill!.Hut tl ...: 1I11I)l 1I11I'UII,UII MJllI...X ul wl'.dlh was " (". r .f" H' I" h'" ,.Imn"(,111l11l\ lor 'Ill' I \lIllie: nf food imll A{jl" 1I11,rr.ll '., ,r", r', II", ,f'r.'1'" .111",,,1.> f. 11(1 I .".,WilkiP. ('It. III A/lI/IO( 1 t)f11/1," Wlr\ III I/>. /111111w,Llllnlll. kl'ql IIll'II1 Ill',11 IIll' 11lilb, ,IV,IlI,lbl.: luI' work, andfurIhisIhe)'J .... vised 1,llliL", ('Ill' 10pUrdl.lM.' ashareo(C,1I1\. fromilldt'pt'nd('lltgrl''''l'r.. 111',1111)'whIt would.. han:III ....of labor withIht'Ill,AIlolher was 10lel "'UI W) 11110 ddJl,::>oIlIl'ywouldft'III;'lill lliider oblighllllt upIll(lrC ;Illdllll)rl' ctlnlrolovt'rthl' Cubnnn'll1tltll)'. Nill nlll)' dId1\IllI'rit.LlIl:'apit.dlakl' IIVt'/'major ofplanlaliulls,Llld Inill ... , lltt' Unih'dSt;ltl'Sbl'clInl' h)' tar thccustomer fur Cuba'ssligar,.'(]lUl'" ll:lotL.dly7:. orXU pcn,enlllflhl.'lutal. Throughit all, Cubawasdq"'lltl"lll 111'\111 U,S.lUI 1111' 1,Ilt'ufit::> major indu::>try. And U,S. sugarilllplill IIl.llt yW,L::>lIIV,lri.lbly;l lupic vll,rulongeddebatl.' ill Washington,Nl'wl)' IlIdl'pl'llllt:lll CUh.1 1i,ldUriglllill Cullamight well havt'smiledovertheir goodfortunt', Thel'ltdul Wllrld W.lr Iholdbruught ui ng l.rbb h:lJ a dl'vOlstaling t'(fl'ct onIhe l'conomy, hilling especiallyIIIU:'I' I uI.d whust' exi:.lt:IlCl' pre(ariOliS eVt'ninbest of times.A steam-driven engine hauls wagons of sugar cane to themill in the early 1900s,(Courtesy of the library of Congress,)WithIht'ullhe world t',--onomy inCub.l::>uun::>ullt'rt'dluI' il::>(.:loOlIlt'what IIIvululllary) dl'pt'lldl'Il11' vnone: Inldingp.. rlnt'r, lilt' Congrn... ,trOlll tilt' ::>Ug.lIhl'dpruJu":l'r::>, p.I::>::>\:d thl'tanf! IIIbunlenlllg Cub,Ill, ::>ug,lrh'ith11I.:WdUlil'::>.ThblHl'rdy lilt' 011 lhc::>I,lgge:f1llg Cub.tIl ::>ug.lr l'... ImunlY. whith(UIIII.ldl'd:lol'vcrdy, Theunl), bright ::>pul ....tlllt: wilh Fr.lIlklill.13wlnlllil1ll 01 I'I)\VI'l" inill 1'-)33. Ruo::>.... vcll alldtht' IkllIU(falil.- (:ongrl'::>shruughtluwt'l" tariffs.In Congn:::>s mandalt'dflxt:d 2Mperl'ellt, :1 sharI' Ihal endured, withl1lodilkatiolls. unlil IY60. Thispl'UvisioLl g.IVl'Cuhaaprivill'gt'd:1l"leSStoIhl' U.S.markd, II abotit'dCuba It>lilt.' will ul 1111' U,S.whk-Ii lvuldlhallgl.' 11ll'It'gislaliuLl al allYlilllt', II.tlllhl'vullll'r;lbililywhil.hilldcpellllelKt' hadbruught Cubaintht' .... ra of AIl\t'ri(a 11 dominance:.In Stllll, the rdianct' onproducedIllixt'll blt's::>illgs for Cuba'sl'I..':OllOlllVandsocit'ty, It LJroughl I..':oll::>idcrabl .... pruspt'ril)' 10Ihl' t'slwdallyin uifra)'cars. bUI it abocrl'nlt:davolatilt-::>ocial SlnKlurt'. Olleill whichandurban e1l'lIlents 01;1 long-depnvell working class maintained Clllnlllllllic.lI ionwitheach olher. Tht'top of Iht' sodal pyramidwas uccupit'dnot bylandlords.asinclassic haciendas,but byfurdgnor Cuban ownerswho oftt'nlivedinHavanaor NewYork: IheUppl.'fclasswas absentee. Therl' wasasizablemiddle class, at k'as! by Latin Americanstandards, hUI it was all amorphous lhat lacked cohesion and sdf-t:"onsciollsness, A::> MauriceZt'lthnonceobserved, thiscombinationof (actors wasbound10IwwibdTeLt: entt'rpriseinIhe COUIlII')'sidt' theillh:rminglillg uf indmlrialand.'12S PART TWO. CASECIIANGE OVER TIMEPOLITICS ANDPOLICY: PATTERNS OF CHANGE:lq:;ricultuml workers in thesugar centrals pcrmc:lted Ihecoulliry largelywithcapit:lli!'t. nationali!'tic. sccul:lr, anti-traditional v;lluc!' :lndnormsof conduct. Inthis !'cn!'c. thecountry was preparedfor dcvelopmcnt-IheonlythingkIckingbcing thercvolulionCub:lngovcrnmentsinthe 1920sand 1930swcrc:lll1ongthcmost corrupt :lndhrulOlI of the repuhlic's hi!'tory. Gcmrdo Iv1OlchOldo gOlincd the prcsidcncy hyc1cclinn in 1925andsoon llscd his cxcculivc powcrs to make himself forcvcr\lnhCal:lhlcal thehallot hox. Machado's repre!'sive IllC:'I!'ures Olnd IhegrowthofnOli iOll:'llisl opposition, cspcci:llly among studcntslabor, broughl oul 1hcuglicr renliticsof the U.S. protcctoratc. Whenthcglobal Deprcssion hit. Cuba'sexport-oriented cconol11Y !'uffcredbadly. Thcbottol11 dropped oul of world !'ugarpriccsyct :'Igain, andthcCubnlleconomyconlraclc11"'111''''''asllSl1:'11. U.S. hegcmoll)1 was Sll ('!"Iain111:'11 Vl,l:-hillgltHl hadrill r1I'lIhle .lgrt(IlIJ: (.,abrogaletheI'lall Amcndmenl ill \93'1. The ll.:-O. 11:1\',,1h.l ... c.lI 1011.1111.111,1111"\'.1"lIol affClled.Fill lhcl1CXIIWCIlI)' fiveyc,II". ionaldy 1l:ltiOII:t1isl.hI,.' sto..:l.'red tak "'-:Illlt:" str,liglll uul uflhe Iraditiun ufrUlrHlIIlKLalin ;\Illt'ricanrevoilltionarie:..Itwa:. an "'1I"Kk ontilt'261hufJuly1953.ag.:liml tltt: provincial .trlny b..trra...-k.. at MOlIl.II,.I,. in tht' city ofS'lllti.lgU. FlddIt'd a band of \65 who .. tort lied the Tile govt:rllmenlr....:lCllonW.IS swili ruthlt:":.s. Th.... policl' bq;;111 :>I.lllghlt'ring :>U:>Pt'...:h. Fidd ;'llIJ hbbrotherRalll wo..:rl't.-.lpturcd, trit-d, andselllellll'dIII liltel'lI )'e:ilfSill prison. !Juringthl' lrial Fiddgavealung, impassion....d. ramMing.. pt'r.:lhCHi.. tory WiJl AbsolwMc). little llolkt'd attht:time but later to belulllt:.1:>:I... redkxl 01 lht:"revolutlun.TheCaslrubrolhr.:r.. \'It'relucky. Thcy.. 1.I)'ed ill prboll unlyd...Wll llIo11th:.before Batbt ... granlt'd ;Hllllt'sty in an attempt Iu l'Ourt public upinioll and 10illlprove hi.. polilkul image. GiWll1rCI,.dolli , Fidd II II lIIt'dl:tt d)' lied 10l\!cXlt.:Otobeginorg:lIlizing alIewrt:'vulution:II'YInrll.In 1956Fiddsci oul wilha IIl'Wbandor ill Iltt' Grlll/tIIll, the first principleoftht' gllr.:rrilla: rt't.lIJ1 tht' ofthe: local nol only for but al:.u so they willllot bc:tray you to thl'132 I'ARTTWO. CASrSTUDIES:CIIANr.rOVERTIMEThe rehel band wasstill. however. primarily middle class. Afewpen"nntsjoined the rehels. but they never GUllCin Inrgenumbers. and they never heldpositions of lendership. This is hardly surprisi ng.Most revolutions in historyh:webeenledbyfl coulllerclite, This isnot to say lhat participntion nnd support frompeasants was unimportant. RUI the Fidelistn phenomenon was middlecla."s inoriginnndleadership. ItsInler directionswere nnolhermailer.Guerrill:l w:ldnre is :l lonely nnd dangerous business. Month nfler monththrough1957. the rebels l11anage{lthe e"senti;1.l-to survive,But they failedto scoreseriously against the enemy.Endy1958brought S(1me encouraging signs. In FebmaT)' theCUh;lll hishopsissued:l paslomlletler calling for a government of nationalunitr.Inr\'fan:hthe U.S.government. under pressurefor supplyingarmstothe repressive Batisln regime.placed;:membargoon:lrlllSshipmentstobothsides. This moveamountedtoapartial withdrawfll of legitimacyfor the established government. After i1 generalstrike f;lilecl inApril 195R.Fidcl decidedto hecome more i1ggrcssive. Ikltista's :lflllylauncheda"liquidationII11l... Olll'dI'l ."hlll.1I r 1'111. "e1ures in trying their victims. appealing In ... C't1lilllctlh"f""rtllll.lry 10'legitimi7c Iheir execulioll". V\'itllin six nIl1l1th"..Ihmll ';'>11 \\'1"(' pill I tlt'.llll.followingtrial hyv"riOtlSrCvllhltitlllary(llllrln Ihl'y Wl'rc.IS...ager as thepO!lUChlllStoII.\V.IIl:l ."" .1 11.... 1I I II IIt; "l U , .I' ' ,) 1\ urdin,' tufOfllll..'f St:'CUflIY Il1I111\1l..1.... 11U ItUllil II: :'ol..llll:. 1.-1.. 0 . . ' ", I "I,' IAtUlIk dill'llII!'11Illin:":1 pariin638 a::.:.aSSIIHltIUIl eCtort::. ag.lln::.t lUllIII .1\., Il , . . . .' I'I 1\ ",11'0 b rt'llUrll'd to Iwvl.' ::.aid, "II survlvlIlg assas::.lllaIon\lVl'!" \ II..' :'0 ...... :'0 ".I!h'lllpb\\,l'l'I..' allOIYlIlpi.. e\'l'III, I wouldwill thcguldmedal. .... ATill'hdtind Illc::,\.:' .11Ie.:l1lpb wa::. .IS tlawt."d a::. Ihe ... XClutIOIl:. I h,1:'"1',1"'11111.1111 'I::':'lUlllllll\JlI 1\';1::. IIl,II C.uba:'l rl.'vulutionary .. nl \vassI' "',.,.,,,I,,'Olll.htill' 1,II'(l' 01his dwr'l(lcr-unlrusl wOlthy, ruthless, andpl'!'>Oll,1 lll. . 0 ,.' .. \. Iht:' h.tdt.. kl'nhb cuuntryaw.tyImm.-ts1.11111111.111: hUll andI..'Vl1 )'\hlllgwouldCh.1l1gl. \Vhal II11SlogiCr.HIt'dto :h..knu,\ Inl 'I..', III 1\\'e.:\'l'l.WI.'II.'IIll' 1.lctufS uehindthc revulution: illCllu 1. HANI,IOVI.R1"11\11,\ltlltlllghIlll' l ...It... 1 11I1.d W;I::.dillilult IlIl.dull.lt(;', it probably lllll.lh:d :lbOUI um'-lIu.llkl"ltlll'l.uh.llI gru::.::. n.ltiun;"pn.u.llll.:t (c..;NP). Thl' ulwith111l.Illol 1.111::'l tuwl1.lt it Ihldvn\.cbel'nwiththl UnitcJStates. Had1. .lIb.11I1l1 d)' II.Hkd ulh: br.llld vI" dl,Jl:ull ... llcy lor allotlwr? Yl'Ithl" til's 10 the Sovietl Jllinll didllut produce thl' din:l.twhich had created a natiunalbt.lg.llmt l"l.."tJIIUlllh: pellltratlull befure1959.\\'h.lt \\'l'l thl uf thi .. neWd('>t'ndlllly?Wek..nm" that Fidel11... ll'lI1l Il,d Ill\' Sllvkt 111ll.'" t!l-IlUlh... l.ll iU11 It!Illl" Suhdarit y muvement inPoland and1'1 .llw,1Ihe....ovldIllkl VlII1 illll illAIgllall ist.1I1. Cuba St'nt Illort' th.1ll 30.000 Iroops1'1..1 .... lull Ilv.dlh l.lll,prt'vlJ1IIVl. (.trl.', has bCt'JI t'xtcndt'd tu Iht' 10wl'I":-.llllll I\kdll.d 11.L1I1IH!!, 1I.t:'> bl.lll l!,c.llnl II) publi( h... ;dth. l:lIvd distributivll,.11\\,1)' 1I11l III lhl IlIu;,>1 IcJll'diVll::' ufiJll.qu.l1ity.ll.lsbel..'n gllanlllkl..1h)' l,lliHIllll}!,. Thl Inull thdt likl.'Xpl.'ClaJl(yrust' trolll thrl't' ye.lrsinPU,I) IIIWWtll)' l"ight 11I1U07, andIhl' illl,tIIt llHHtalit),rate: fell b)'llHlft'lhantwo..Illud:,>III thl :,>.11lIl.'"1':',ltl Id.11 Hllh underwcnt1II.Ijur 1I1Ipruv\.11l ... nts\\'dl. IIICub.l, as dSl:wht'rl',die: Ilg.h)' III ::al.lver)' h:ld bnnl'xtt'lI::.ivt'prejudice. Whitt's occupied Ihe Jill rung'. IlIUl;ltIU....Wl'l t: in the middle, and bl.Kks were at the bottom.(IIVe-1I thl' ddlrnllnJtion tu rectif)' ::.oti.d injuslic.....I"iJdbla policies enabledtll .Il.lltllll"l'duGltioll and.ldv.ll\n: ill caret'rsull lhcbasbof m.... rit. Afro-dllllIJl'dIII 1I0Iilbl) highmnk::. withinthe armedfurces.of theseilllprUvlIIlCllb. thc blJck l:ollllllunil)' ill Cuba rt'mainedilS one of Fidel's most10Y:l1h.I:-.liulI:,> ul pulilicalThe lulc Ilr \\'Ollll'llhn'n'lIlutlll."'r afla of t:hangt', The traditionIIIpruvcdit 1I\"ljor10Ihl' ft:millist lliOVt:mt'nl. Tolakea::.t rikillg t,..;alllpk, b), mid ..198U 0111)' 1'-) pt'rel'nt of the Communist Partylllembers;lIld11ll" w ... rt: WOlllt:11. NOllethdes:., th(' Federiltioll ofCub.lIl WUlIIl'll (Fl'lllr.lcil'lllde01" FMC) h.l::' gUile aIOllgW.I)'luward ch.llIging upinionillldbehavior. Thl. Illllllba vf WOlllell ill higher ldueltion and prokssioll:.J1SdlUOlsmt'diline. whCo'rl.' klllall' sludl'lIbnow lIlall.'s) has imTl.'ascd::.harply. Tht' 1f\le\\'.ISIllSlnlml'nt.dll\ getting;l billa .lIld popular''Ilpl.II,hl' l'XPI":'>:'>l':,>.1rl,dbtil" ,1IIdpr"l)llwlk :::,t.use ofn3Iioll:tllh:eJs. l\lort' 10 thepuinl. lu,,;I...l'uhlh...dill ... lltulilln:::. m:lllagni tu ::.urvivl amajor (.'hallt'ngt'.Untill' ... idl. Ihe Sovid facilitalt:dtht' reupt'ning ufCuba':::.dlllit'lll.llit Id.IIIlIlI ... willI II,IIIUII:'>ul 111\: AIlll..'rici.I:,>. mosl ofwhich wt.'rl.:' citht.r1'.11 It. til llllh.,rketlllll path::. or dl'llluaalizal ion. Threl' n:ltiuns uf the hemi-,>!'!lVll' {.tJIOld.l. f\kXit:'lI. ,llldVllIlLUll.l-bt.(,lIlH: esplt:ially prominenlpartncrsIIIandinvl ... tllll'lli. (It didnut illll:rnation,11not iccthat Canadaandf\k:Olll W,,'l,,' loulldingNAIo'TAlIwrnlwr:::..) AsHugo eh,ivaintellsifledeffortstut"q.!,l' t \"l'1I1)' IIll'lllul y Vl'nl::Zut'la began providing Cubawith low- oil .Illd.IIJUlld:lllt turdgll .... x..:h,lllgeill rdurnfor thl.: Sl.'fvicl uf orh'.ldlll... ,tlldLlrgd)' " ....1 rt.:::.ult or tilt.' Chavisl,l sub:::'lllil::'>, in ract. Cubalol'g.lll III ... lt.1 VlT)' highr.lll::' tlf !J,ruwth. .j'igllie1),2 (llkr:::. ,I broadut Cuu,,'s oVl'rI:,>ll'lll ,Illd orgro\\'lh (sonu:tilllt'sovcr 5 percelll), And with :,upl'lIrt !10m Cub:t l'lIjO)'l'dabrit'f in2U05-7, as thehl'lh'lll I,Ill' "'\t.ll"It'd11. p"'rlt'111 III 20U(I, ()l1l' W..I)' or allothl'r, (:uh.1 1ll.luagingIt, II:'> \\,1)' Illrllughthi ... lr.1 ul tlll..:ert.lillIYNIII\vllh... l.llIdllll) till' t.lld ul thl' Culd \V..lr. the' UllIkJ St.ltl:'>cOlllillUt'd it:::.... llldl.:lli n.tllllld),vullll'r.lbk' 10 priLl' :>\\'ings ill thl'inkrnatiun:dlll:lrkd,111'\ tllll., IIIh,.:'yond il:>(otllrol. Third, IWClllieth-cl:lllury Pl'HI.111l ... "IJllllly \\11111 Vl'I)' lo..'\\1 pl"du":livl' hdwel'nIhl:.' capital-inlensiveMmodt.'rn"""... 1"1, 111.tllll), \Ill 1111,.' ... "a:-.I, alldIlll' labur-Illknsivl." Mll'adil iOlla!"SCCIUf, mainlyill lli-lUlijlJU lli7U IHMU IIiYU 190U IY:lO 193U IY-lU IYSO IYtiU IY7UFi9ure6.1 Exports fromPeru, 1830-1975: Indices of Volume andDollarValuet 1990 =100)J5R "ART TWO" CASI': CIIAN{;F ovrnTIMEfor SOpen:('nl nfllle world's lin.As aresull oflhis lransforrn:ltion, I.., I'm' eclipsedPotosi nsthefinancial andupporled Ihl' president-in for llncheckellIITheWar of the Pacificfbllltl,llo.: IJhldUUIUl1inthe Ui!U), ChileanIllIileownerscovetedthelit II rtwrVL')oWrlf'dbyUOllVld andPelU, InIH79, Chileaninvestors refused to pay!It:W1,IXt:) 011 Uohvio!l nitratt: reserve). Inretaliation, Bolivianpresident Hilari6n[).lld (1 H76- /')) ordered the seizure of Chilean-owned nitrate operations in!\lItul.ltjd)I,I, UUIlVl1J'ung state rok in Ihe t''':OIlOIllY. To cunstruct tilt' fatlwrl.llld," l.l.:glli;1undertouk avigoruusprugr:llil uf public works andpnJtl10kdfurt'igll iIIVtstlllt'nt.lie also1l10wdaggressivelyh) silellc"hisnities, dismissingdlssidt'nt fromuniversit)' chairsalldturningagainst stullt'nts. alliongthernayoung kadl'rbythename of Victor RaidIla)'III thet.lf Pl'ruviall socidy. \ lIldh.,,'ldls includt:d tOXIC water and mud. callYlllg highI,'VI+, 1.1 (.lIt IIU.KJl:Il':>.1I,dhedvymetdts. 1hecompany'ssolutionwas to dump11"'111III1.lly....ulllul",d d.lypit'>. (nvllunnlt:ntdlist,:> charge that. over theofIVll'IllyYL...I,.'illhilt TeXdCO tOlLIC wasteIII that Violated U.S. law.IlJt1llhilly IL'lullL'dlhdt II und cont ul (,)Il(02'r.,:>klll dl':>t:.l,:>e.mel utllel hCdlth problems Ihose liVing IIIII ... IL'IJlvrl IIll001ees IhisCd,:>eas d potentialw"I,'I.,lwd:..t ... kcd .1 l.OUp IvRodriguC:."Z Lara from power. Although Ihb dlort 1I1lIi.t1ly f.lileL!. ht..'resigned Ihe lll:."Xt Y('ar, anJ it triumvirateof ul'ply, rather 111.111 IuCOIl:>lllll,,-'r prdl'l'CllCCS, (Clll1::.ulll.... rs cuuld b....'\It11lll'd011; bythc th'l:lltiethcl'lltury, ('ofkt: hadbecomea basic product, Ilut aluxury,Ihal Vl:upk'jusl hadto haw-evell if tlll'ir inCOllle::. dedined,)Pl'filu.ll( bUI 1I11l'rl.:dklabk Ir,,-,,zl..'s in Brazil could bring sudden reductionsill pnldlll..lillll, lausingprit't's10risr.:-stilllulatillg growersinColombiaanddsc-\\'hnl,. III pl.lIll nlll,..... hu::.hl:'>. whidl wouldCOIlle: tomaturilyinfour orfiveyears,ltld ,hll::' ,,-n.ll,, .tll ("v,'Hlual uverproductiull Ihal would drive: price:'s duwll-",.Ild.lg.llli. f\luf,,uvl.:r, Lufll:ecould be:'nlilivalednol onlyinL.llinAmericabutill 111.111)' 1,.lIt .. III Ih,,' world, which illtroduce:'d thrl.:ats ufcompdilion; in facl, ::.1i.lll"01" wurldprodudionlIc.'vcr "-'culHl-largcst cuffer.; proJuc,,-'rin2002.A..-..:"JIIIlIlud'::. l'CUIlI1J11Ydivl..r::.itll.:d, Lulle:'t:'\ ill1purlilllCeAsshowliill hgUIl' 7.1, 1..01,,1..' drupped than 80 percenl of thelutal cxportsinlhe:Ilu .II"IHInd 1U pe:rl'cnl furIllo::.t uftheI\)90s and tu less than10 pcrce:nt by thl:"/Ill III Ih,' dl'l.",k-, IIIIhI,." c,JrlyI950s,accuuntedfor mure thanJ0 percellt ofIlll "-lIllllllY'''' (;iJP; b)' tilt' 19I)U::., itdOWll to only2pcrcellt.At ill p....t, th.... rclativlo: dc-clineillculfc:c was compclls,H.... db)'the growth",I IIOIlll.lditiuII.11 I..'xpun::,-clli l1uh'I..'I"::'.(again). ::.hnc::., tobacco. and"r""-"-..... nl 111I)d. A... urg.... ill pctruJI,.ulll productiuninthemid1980salso contrib-ul,,-'dII) cxpurte.lflling::..Bllt expon.t.:'wli bdort.:' the was illicit dntg..., especially cocaillt:.t)nl' ,,'stilnatl- hold::. that drug t raflicking brought $36 billion into Colombia between11)80:Iud 19')5.w"... I:quivalcnt tomorethan 5.3 percent of GOP, oVl..'rsha-d\lwiugltllllrihutiulI'"frulll buthl'olb:('15perccnt)andpl..'ll"OICUlll (1.9pcrcent).'I'll,, .dbOllll"-' voill/Ill,.' ,,(trafficking inll....asl,.'(l steadilyfrolllthl..' J98UstoIhe199Us,202 I',\HT TWO" CM:;I S'IUIH!-.S; CHANe,!: nVFn TlMI WorldOilnk ;lnd Economic forI atmLAmC'ICil ,mel lhe C:>lll1blal.k:) ,lIIdlIlulath,)es. TheI.:on-"l'V.lll\'\"l'I"\llll' ufA/ltlulluiil1..1..1 ,111"':>IIl"l.i.III)'dust.'connectiuntuthl'church."'",1.11, 1,.lllg' Illtll\llllk.... I'l':>nl.JIhl",.iltuIl", ..lilioll.ln1925 IhI;' reclurofa (hurchILIII ... Ill" ,1.,lk/nl.1 I.JIllelll ,lbOllt dill' youlh:> .Indc1mngcalJiJity uf tlwir spirit,II .. }'.Il1111lg lUI dl\'",r.:>IUIl:>, till.: hlllhty lall3nllJythetinl"lIla ... Ih... rebdliuusne:>s1h.1I"',1'1. IIIUI..., intill: nl..:>:> ululidisdplinell:>ludelllS, Ihanks10 lhe... ".I"II}d.... IIUlII\.llfe::>.)... Sl:lul,lriZ,ltHIII \'1,1:> :>prr.:ading through:>Ocidy.t.. .1lI'>l1 v.illverule W,ISh'l:akl'llnl LJ}' theufl:>dof Ihl' Gn:at Depn:ssion, anda..\\1111111 tl.e p,lrl}' Iliad..., il po::.sihll" fvr.1 nll.xJerdle Liberal, Enrique' OIaY.1I kll\:I,I, III IIl.'lUlllt:pn:3idc'1l1.inaugur.ill"dit f1ht...... n-year pl'riodknownasIherl'puhlk: Thi:>.:r,1 wuuld Willll':>:>considerablet:xpal1:>ion inthe roleand... Ltlllllllhi,I':> 1I,llion,,1 gllVernnl...lIl. ()II a1...':>$ posilive note, it would inereilsl'Ih, pt>hll' 1/,111011.)1 pulit..)'lIhlkillg pruc......andthusintensifyparti::.anrivalrks.l\lhhv,,) Ih...ughhl,>I..-rIll, UI,I}',lllmllul.Itc:J'1 vI5ionary propusal fur agrarianIdOl III .\ 1,1.. k lUlu' IIml.:" his .Iirl"ctlOn :>uggl'slcd areformba:>ed onprinciples of""ll,lll .. 1LII"1111'nl I rlII.11 1,Iw and un Ih... agrarian principles of the MexiGlnIk\ldulh'll ,tIl.! III. :'lp,tJII:>11 I{l'"lhli.. Itl'slablb,lll'daprl':>ulilplioll OWll+,/ .. 1III'.. I - .Ill 1J1l.1l111\ ,lll.'dl,llld" alld.J luroll.Jr}' principle Ihal public l.111ds couldI,, .. hl,lIllnl lUtl}' hywllo Wl'rl' workingun Ihclll. ThelInal stalull.',lj '1'1 U\ ...1 loytill' Iq.;bl.lt UI c.:: \\''-':> !lIU( II IIHJre lllllscrvative,how(;'vt:l", privilegingth........1111 II}' 1litll:' Ilv..r Ih... ,llJOI.:::illiul1 ollalld tupl:"I:'since the JIlllllllgll Ilu' l"IV.11\.' or guverllillelll divbiull uf large that \'It'rt.' besiegedbyIO/l/IW;, U)'IIIl' .ldjudil-alion01pllblk !;llhb Oil a cilse:-by-..-:asl-' basb. Vcrylittle.II,IllY, gll\Jd l.llldW,l" inf:KI.As a OVl'r Iandowllcrship.Illtl"11l>lli:r,lliOll wuuldU)lItillllt' lortlL.. Ill'XI halll:elltury.:-'Ulll'l'dIJlg Ulay.L ill lilt' pn'3id"IlCYIhe charislll.ttll: Allunsu Lope:zl'UIlhLll'j", \\'Iluplod,lilill'd Ihe illiti:ltiull l)1 a revo/llcioll ell f11lln/wJurillghisI')JX 1...'/111. A :>lrtHlgof UniUllil.atiull, h....bec,lllle the supreme arbikr,II wlllkn 11I,lllagl'llll'lll cOllnil:b. DirlctlycOllfrolltingtht' pakrnalisl cUlltrol ofIdh"r II II IIII I.:> hyilldll3trialbbill l\ledellin and olher cities,h....actively t:llcouragcd..h}' l.olll"lllar... ,llldthl'ir ljU...SI f.lr llllioniz,llioll. In 1936LopaalsuI'Vll ..awII,,eXIl'll3iuli uJlhl' vull.- Iv all,ldllit lilait's,aSll"pth..lllllovcdCulombiudltWIl tIlerv,ldpulilks.Ellll,lIduS,llItll:>a sud.1I modt:ratc. tvuk:>trongstandsoneeu-Ill/lidl P\!Ilt..)'. To IHumutellldu:>tri,lI devdopmelll-spc(.-il'k.t1ly, illlport-subslituIlllII 11"ILI ..ln.t1I1,ltlllll (lSI), .1 relipe: f'lllm\'l'li l'bcwhert' ill L:Illll AlII",riG.l-hel.Il.lll,... 1 Ih... Imtitutudl' I:UfllenluIndustri.d. IlisthusbuckedtheUlll:>lllldltlli vf aill f\'kJdlin (1\)-12) 1 rubber f.KlOf)' lIt:ar llogota(19'12).:1:>hipyardill Barralll)lIilla (194.3), :Jlld aSll'dplallt ill BoY,Il-,i.prornotl'd low-cosl huusillg and thl' dl'vdupllll'llt uf illlra:>lrlicturl', including,lquedllcb and st:wers. All such prugraliistl". autllOril}' sistanee lIndt'f the Allialll.l' furPrvgrl:>s. 1,llllh,hcJ ill 196 I. Initiallyht'r;dded of theAlliance.Coltlmbi.\ got oil' 10,I:>Iart, hUI Iltt.'cull..lboralioll withthe: UnitedStatl'ssvonsour(d. Corruptiun,andpartisanpolilicsmarrt:dIht.' Colombi.tn....rrOrl, while preoccupationwithother parts of till' wurld IMI'IKularlythl' W.tf III Vit:lll,llIl-led tovirtual uoandonment oftht.' Alli.IIlC...,. DuringIh... I'JMOs till""" l'llIe:rgn! illColumlJia 01 Irn' tr,lde, .ILl.urdlllg ll.1 111.1Il}' a thm appearedto he hyIh....d... hl ultli.11lI,I. the:subst:llu""llt globalization of marhts, thl'l'xpt:llaliuns lrealnlby gruwinglIh.:UlIh:frompl.'lrulc'ulIl expons, andtheilllp:lci 01drugIr.tfficking.Gaitan, Reaction, andLa Vio/encioI'olilil.:> wa"rdaliv...!y peacdul during thl." Ir.lllsitlUIl IrUIII COll:>..'fV.IIIVllwglllIl)lI)'10 the Liber.1I repuhlic .lIId through Illlllh 01 Ihl' ,Llld 11Itll IIll' 1'.lHh.Ek'ctiollSb""GIllle freeand fair, ltller..lctcd wilh llI11tu,11 and Illlf...evidence of I>odal progrt:ss. Thi:>tranlillil inlclludl' wouldItotlurI.Ulg.'rhe init iallhnlkllge Glllle (nJln within-in thepl.r:>Oll ulJurgt:Elit-l.l"r (;.1 it,il I,a lllaVl'rick Libcral whocultivatld alollowillg .lIllOllg tl1l:":>l'cturs ufsucidy. Basedl of Ilis ownLib... ral Part),. G.lilan diJnot ('omt: frolll theelill'. 110: d""l\oullcedthl' vligarcby'sdhosofcivilityas 3charadefur the perpeluation 01 puweL110: lllubilizl'..I th...m.lsses. An elt:ctrifyingspeaker, he cuuld COllllll.IllJ l.'xtr,lOrdinary lo)'alty -to206 I'AI{ ITWO CAq !'iTliDIFS CIIAN(;F OVER T1MfhomHerbert Braun, The AHoHmorion or Gaitan: Public life and UrbanViolence in(Madison: University of WisconsinPress, 19851. pp. 102-3.III .legacy-hy inciting pOlrti, E;:lgcr10 dt'vdopmt'nt, Gomez also promotedIlit.',.\ 1',111"11111 til lh, ulunl 1")'':, inlt .I'>tlllttun:-dctt rirk,llioll,tran:.portat ion,;:I.lld\ "11111111111\ ,Itlllll".\ d t '"111.... 1r,tli .dulIl oj lin' mllit.1I )'. \Vh.... nhe'1lIl'lIlph,'lIturelllUv\:, C"'Ilt'ralt ,11,>1,1\ II 1'111111.1,I'> \OIlIIIJ.lIH.kr ul Illl' .Inned ill 1 re:>pondt't.!wllh,I "IHlp d'l'l.11. t )1I\'llllir:.t.ll'l'>wa:> til offer;:11110 guerriJlas. l11u:>tlyI Ibt.I,d,>. Ihll'> brillging Ihe111''>1ph.l:.e ill III Viu/t!tldato.1ll end(.IS W.bllIentione't.!\',1111,,'1 ..1 :.\:,\olldph.l:'l \\'ouhl :.lrdlh10 1piredbythet'X:llllplt:'of Juan1',",," III ArglAlltina, Roja:> .ttklllpl,,d 10 furm his OWI1 political base', the1\111\'11111\'1110 lkAi\u:ionNadoll.Jl,,lIldhi:. UWIl poliliL.ll pany. the ThirdForce-\"llIdl hulll 111"'01' pal'lle':' jler.. d\ ...d.I:." Ihr,'.I1. I1kl' 1'('1'011, Ro)":. sought to,ldv,lllll' 111\'of Wt II IlL'II , ill.. urporaling WOlllen into thc poli..:e furce.,II'I'IJIlIIIllg Ih\' 1i1:.1 \\'Olll.lll guvt'rnol .lu\1 Iho: fil':>t W0I1);:111 ... ;Ibilld Illinbkr inIht' 111'>1tll) ul 1111.: (;(Jlllllry. ,I lid:.u!fr.lgl' .Illd lull pullllL.ll rights luI'WIIIIII'Il III ).;'IIt. ..t1. MUI\:,UV..'f', Ill' alll'lllpkd 10tUlTY:.uppurt alllung WOl k'I".A...111 ....... Ullulllh.: ubb gripped lh.... LIIUlltfY, Columbia':> traditional dikslllllll"d,lg,lin:-.t hill!. III 1\)5halI),ditiulI uland .... rv;ltivl'Sfurmedall,1111,111\.\'h. lIlI .. t H.up:. !lOIIl pll\\'l.'r. Still OpP\):.itIUll muuntedfr0111 the dlllrchalldIllIlll Illdu:.tl1I1l."r... hallb, and banker:., whu 11l:1I1.lged 10muunl a gt'ul."ral'>llikl.. IIIl"11l:.11.111.:\11.... :.ignnllJ\lI11uffkl' ill 1:/\'01'uf ,I 11Iililary jUllt.lIIL,II ,,\\'1.. .1\'" ,I p',lu-(ultr,llI:-.iti'llIlu.1LOll:-.litutiull.dgUV"'rlII lll'llI.Tltl'wdev\'I"jllll\'lIb Slrv..' ttl highliglll lwu dlstinctivl' ,:h.ll.. h.::kri:>lits or... Ll,;'lIl11I')' l)olLtit":>.nlll' w..IIIOtlc:-.1eXpt'rkllLC' withmilitaryIllt .... IV'llli,ll!. 'l'lll' Rojas Pi.lilla dh:lattll':.hip wa:> llllquC:.tiullablyautllUritarian-IHlt it W.I:-'rd.lIivdy Illild andI>rid, tilt/II.:populist thall cOllsC'r\,;Itiveinido:ologicalIlfi,,'llt.ltioll. Unlik, toulllrk:. oftl1l: Southel'll CUlle, Colnmbianl'Vl'r hadto endUft'.1 MbUlc.luLr.lllCautlwritari,lll" fegillic ur .I :-.tatc-:>poll:.uret.!w"lr" againsl:t1lq!,.... d :.uhv..... III sub:.equL'1l1 Ihe Colombian military would exatiltllu\'IILl' 1)11 lhl' puliti..:alu!lnl Ii'll/II all 'llllil'ablt.- b.lfg.lill .Jlliung Iradiliol1.ll dites, Tht' process w;:t:>r.... lll.llk.t1lly:>1I11)oth. III rl.lnl:,pl'cl, il 111.1)' beentou :>llluOlh,The NationalFrontEmcrgillgfromtheanti-Uojascoalitionof1956 57, theNatiunal FrOlit reslllkdfrom.1 lormal pact between tht,;' majorities uf bothlheLibt:ral ;:IndCOllst.'rvativcpartie:>, Untkr the terms of the agr....clll\:'ut, the prl.:sidclicy would ,titanate bel wn:llLiberals and Conscrv;:I.tives, and allpositionsillth.... br.ulchl's of gOVt'rIllllt'lIt,Ihrollghoul Ihc(;ountry. wuuldbedislrilHltedevcnlybdwt'enIill. twopartks. Ineflcct il createdall automatic mechalli:>lll that wuuld rL'movc lIltLertaillt)' frumdeclOral politics. Endorsedb)' Ill'arly 95p..'rcent of th.... participantsina natiullalplebisciteinlate1957, the compact was scheduledtola:.t until IlJ74. III 1968tht'tWOpartiesre;lChet! a suppleml'nlaryp:l(t cdit'dth... tll'.sm(}lIt\'(ur Mt.!islllanlllllg""which confirmed an understanding th;:l.t therewuuldbe ,IllMrl/uilable"reprt.':>ellt.llionoftill' two partk:>in the nalional cabinet .Ifkr till' l'xpirallOtl ofIht' FrontIII 1')7,1.Tho: National Front had sewral gO.lls, ant' key purposc was 10 bring"l1... lId10tllc Vio/e"da by frl'l'zing thcof pu!itiGti.I:>sl'ls, A secondwastorestore constitutional dt.'lllocrai..'y andtht' (,tho:. pf ovilityorCOllvH'lmda. Athird, of (O\lr:>t', was toensurethat politicians of hothpartit.-:.wouldhave accesstopOWl.:(, As they learned during till' ROjasPinilladi.::t;:l.torship,all)' share of powerwouldbe muchmoreplea:>ing thnnnOIlt.'.Wilhaccess toofficeguaranteed, political , andtht;." like. Fourth, the drug lords Jisplayed a bra:tellof ililpunit y. Th.: weakllc::..')j 'S00.1I01l

Figure7,2 Coca leaf Production: Colombia and Other Countries, 1990 2000NOle: Estimate'!> of coca andyield figure'!> lor Colombia wcle revl'!>NI upward Int9'J9,beglnlllng wIlh dalafor 1995.I U OfII(\.' ul N.II"It",1[)IlJolJ ('M,lllo!',11,,1, h ':dl,,,,,,,11 lIu. :llld mountinghi .,I,IIL' .llIlhunl )'. OnL' .')Ullrc\:, ofd.lllga Glillc fromn.lfeo-trafficking 11t.11 1II,Idl'ClhJfllIUU.')plulltslrolll Iht'\:'xport of cocaine, principally10 theUniled"'1,llt':>'. bllnl.dlyprulle tu viul\:'IILC\\'.ISth,,' Medellincarld, ulld('r till,.'1.-.11 I\:'I ",I 11 PIII I',lhluE:>Lub.lr, who lin.tlly1lIl'1his dl.'alhina shoot-uut inIatC' 1993.Th,' U.S. gtlVClllllll'lIt W:I", dl'cplyinvolv"'d in Ihchunt for Escobar, JispatchingInllllil,;d and a l1lilitary IL'.lIlI. Andall Ihe while, Washingtunill::.bkd Ih.11 th.: L.IlI:>.e.: ufilHLiI drugIrafl'ickingcamefromproduction inSoulhJ\lIwriLa, I.IIIIL"th.tli consumptiunwithintheUnitedStales.,\It"" F:'Ltlb.lr's d,,'mise, Cilrldfromthecity of Cali Imetothe fore,vil/klll, IIIVIl.' :::.uhtl\:', ;alld murc 011 profits thail on thceliminationof,Ill.'llli,... WIl"'1I Ihi::. glllujJ W.I:> dbb.lJldnl ;,lIldbrokenup aresult of top-level,1111'''''', drug Ir.tllh king t:ullliIllIL'd-nuwill thl' hands of dozens of smaller c;.lrtels,I",,,,.') ulIlr.II,II:d, vi:>ihl..":tllllmurL' dill'icult 10 trace, Colombi.l Ihus confronted,I "lIupIL' 1.111: .1:' IOllg .IS Ihl'rc.: W..IS strungdemand for illicil drugs ill foreign11l.Ifkd.'), npni,t1I}' IheUnilc.:JSt:ltt'S, there wouldbe supply.;\.') drugL.trtds werc rbingand Colombia shifted its poSition in thcI'r\,duLlioli 01 l..ot.:aint..'-lIlade frumcoca Icavc..'S grown only in South Aml.'rica.Tr:tllilillll,llIy, ColumbianIrafllckl.:."rs rdied onBolivia andPerufortheirr.lW product,pill dhl.,lllg lIl,,1k.lVC's(til' l.ULilalld1r,.IIlslorlllingit illtu powderedcocainl' illd.ll1dL'.')II1'\' Iilhurallirks. In ..,frc\t, this gave Colombian traffickers aVit tll,t1I1H'llllplll)'Oilworld cocaillcShipping their goods to overseas markets21'1 l'AWrTWO" LA:-.E:-'TUI>rI:S:CIlAN(;EOVEHTll\IF"7 .. (\,lfll11hia: ( Iv,III\".1I1d\'",l"fl" 'I'of tll(' judicial syslem and pnlke corruptinll heGlme especially conspicuollS.At onepoint PabloEscohar. forcxample. hadsuhllliltedto delentioll only,lner lengthynegotiations wilhClutllOrilies; he thento conduct husiness ina special :lnd luxurious prison ofllis own design. from whkh he lalcr walkecl away.Inits confrontationswithdrugtraffickers, the government secmedpowerless.The seconcllhrc;lt Glme from guerrilla groups, which gained strength throughthe1980s ancl 1990s. TheFARe acquiredecon01llicleveragethroughits wilh n;'l!'co-lr;lffickers, and it moved directlyinto thecultiv./ I.UlllJlI;t, .."U IllJl \ N _\ h\1.. 1,,,.. ,, .. .\ ... ".....".11I h!lll.lIl1lu1'",-"", .. 10..11".,\,ul... N... '. ,\111111...,-'" .( OloMIlIl\"II IU" 'tit',,,,II 1"" .'IIt' lilt.L...FROM COLONY TO NATIONHOODV\.1 :.1.. , ......1....I 1 I,tl,1 I,\I,U'"'''/''', ,\1\ ...,1.>.11',.1 .. 11I.ld" I.llItilall un till"Canl>h,',lll coast illUII hbthirdvoyagl", th,lt h," 11,1,1 1e:.:adll".1 Indi.J" diu not urr("r a h:mpting luI' .. Ull,!ll''':'!. I'ht."u:1\0 lIlythic.11 kingJolll. no prosperous civilization,Itop .1 urV,Ulll. Early l'xplol't'l's instead a larg("1I11lllbl:r 01,',Ich with its own language. In contrast toI\IkXll"o '-Illd Pau. wlll'rl' lb," cOfl(llI;sltultJres struck at major urban centers,IIl, Iuuklunlrul uf Vt."lIe/.ul'!a at OJ gradual.and p,IU-l'xpnhtlull" hlt"fl' re:sbt,lIKI;' was d("terlllined, alld nativl' COI1l- Wl'rl' :'l:,llt,rt'd alld divl"r:'l".2::2 I'Mnn\'o ( ,\'1 "TlIPI!"\: CIIAN(,I OVI'R-111\11independence. N:ltioll.11 liher:llion IllllSGlIllC' :ll Iheexpelllru, will) guvl.'flll.'li witll illl il'Ol1 halldr"rulIl IM9910'rlle nlost Illt:ll1urablt:dl.'Vl'lUl'llIl'll1or" histl'llllrl' wuuldillust ratelilt:' d laded Iromlhl'..... ,Ill '\1ll1oil ,.1I1Iing... It'lldld 10 boblt:'r Ihl:' ... Ir('ngth of VCllezuda':.llllll'II,), Ih,' "Olil"/I, III,' \\'.1" 10 llln.lllr.lge impurts .llId 10discuuragt:','x 1II II h (\..1 I ...:11 b,',dllle il1l,Tt'.I .. illgl), l'xpl,'llsive in 01 olhl'r currencies).\'Vllldll of gl'lIeralioll, V"Il'l.Ilt'b-UII":l' 011" orIht: llIo,,1 PI'O"PI:'l'OllSagricllllllf:llIJludll'lt .. ill!\lllerica-...-uuld JlUIIJnger feed ils peoplealld wuuld star!Illllltllllllgllllld.. ltlll:. hOlli .duvall.IWltll Ih,' pfuJlli",' 01 "lllpll)yll1l'IlI, Ill, dl' elllpha... Oll agricllllillI' IIlIl'II:'lllnl prtlll"... 01 inlerllal migralivlI, as and (tllllpesil/os"'.I1lllnl 1\11 w\lrk ill jillbli...prugraills alld/ur the oilII/knll/.llilln '.1111,' IJlulh LII"I III VI'JI":luda than !I) nWlIYolher til 1.;,IIJl Aillt."ri,a, hUI it .tc.... d,ra1l'd .-.1I;lrpl)' uver tillll:'. By 195U uver 3U1'1'1'1,'111 01 111,' Vl-lle:lud.lll pupulalioll livl'd in St'ltll'nll'nb (II' 2U,000 orIlltill' IIlII.II,il.tllb; 1.,.)' 1975 Ih.1I pruporlivll would ri.-.l' 10 nearl), 64 percell I(Willi 1& I'l'lll'lll living ill cill:'''' III IUO.UOO or more). In Iht' meanlime.C.lr.ll,.t.... IIll' JOlllin.lJlI 1l1l'Iropoll.-., grew10 huvt: 1lI0re Ihan2 millionIllh.t1HI.I1II ...'l'lll' ... IlIfl I-volvl'd ill "'.1)' .... Theemphasis onoillendedItl 1"''''I"'"l' Illdu:.lll.t1ualloll: :.Illl.e..:ould bt: illlported. Iht."rt' "'..ISlillie 1','.1..011 lu iuili.lk lll'lIl11l;lt.:turing. As a resuh. urbaniz:'Hion in did Ilul I' lido\'>' the illdu.. lrial wurkingd:'ls.-. wilhsubstantial of puwe ... IllSll'ad il stilllllla1l'd Ihe (ormalilill ofa .... Ul11111erci;d alld profl':'-siunal seClor, a newandduminalll class withdo... e tit':. lu Ihe vii '-'l'(lor. JhL)'llll K:.arl has pul ii, Vellezuelat:d Udh,,t:'ll 1920;lIltl 1935Ih...p;lradl)xic:tl t:'lllcrgt:llce or urhan middl,' dasl's logdhl'r (and 10 a !t-S... lrexlenl) with working classes Wcft:' Vl'Sll'd bOlh ill Ihl' pI:'rIOrlllallCt.:' 01tltt' oil :>l'clor :'lI'ld ill a polt:1l1ially:'IJvl'fsarial rdilliu..... hip wilh III ulh...,.\\'onb, 111I:Sl' groups slood to bl'nl'fit from111,' uvt'l':.l1l devdopllll'lli hOlll Ih,' pt'lroll:'ulll hll( Ihey wuuld l,'vt:'nlll.t1I)' lOlli" 10 lhl'privilcges ac..:ruing to well-collllt.:'Ckd ditt..'s, 11 W;lSllllddk:'ll.l(lr", lh,' n'IUlJ) mafias, Ih.1I would l'\,(lIll1.llI)' ,.111 lor l'nlllUllli...- 1llIl'r\'l,'I1-lioll b)' Iht' slall:' inorder 10 r('cli!')' iIlJu... li(ealld illlllll.lllt)'.Iklllands for a ;In'" !Ilurt' 1I11"lhilil'd dllring \ VorldWar II. Ami in 1943, IIH.' Vt'nl'zuclan gownllnenl undl,rtookaladlell chang..: illpl'lroll:'ulIl poli..:y. shiningitsre\'t'l1lll' basl' Irolll 011lUlll',...... ioll:. 10illlOllh:'(.IX'... 011 Tht:' principlt:' de.lr: th,' Illghl'l" Iht' l"l)lllp.llIYprufib. lilt'grl',ltl:'r Ihe ... Ialt' Thi.-. W.I... tht.:' IIr... 1... iglliIK,lIl1ul .1 gtlWrlllllll1l.t1challellge lu Ihl' multinational firms..1 lllcilliS vi d,'fl'llding ibVl'IIt:'zucla would lalt:'r lIlCUUr:.lgl olhl'r pclrol"lllll-eXI)or! ill!; Arabia, Kuwail, and -Ivadopt Ihi ..pvl,,)'. ACOIllIIWll Iflllll wouldbt'l1ef'it all.)'I'hl' bOllanzacOlilinuedIhrullgh11", .llld 1950:.leMlh01 illk/II.\liulI.lll.KIOI ... : pl'Jll-Up dl'lllandill Iht:' WoddWolf II jlll"Iud,.1ill Iran(urll' or thl,' world's majur .Illd .. 11'lllpurary vfIhl'SUl'/Canal(whidl cut off Europt.:'\ fWIll Ihe Middle V,'Ill'Zlll'la skpl'",1inloIlibsilualion ownpersonal destiny.HI,l .. h, IIlIbpokt"lI. IIlluulvl'nliullal anddown-to-earth, thel'x-paratruoper suc-\ll... d\d III huildlllg p\)werlul gra:.:>roobsupport amonggruups th'1t had beenIh'j.!.I\",lnl hyI!lt" P.IL! I.JI ('uutuFijo-lIlo:>t nutably, tht: middleclassesandtheIIIh.111 1'1'111'WhoIs This Guy?11\1IJ" (lI.welc1asslflCdtion. SUPPorlershimas d",,111.)1, d plUlL'l.lOl, ,)anddlto'volUtlonary; denouncehimasatill I"tlll, all oppUllwmt, e(.,lllt: d TUIlIJISt. WithVelasco, I becdrnt:' aVelasquist. AndwithPinochet (inUuk'l. I Lt:'I..1111t:' llional ('lIld, it was said, under pressure fromthe,lflllnllllrl.l'', 111:.1 uvt'r aYl"'..lf J.lkr. he: :.ublllitll'JkdCh.ivl'Ztu drcamfor tht' Iwenty.flrst cCIlIU/"( with ,,:ollsiJerable effect. One ke:yfactor was a steady rise of oilprices, whiandmandolinstotheinstrumentation, MU.. lcianst..olllpo..ingand publishingtangos for piano. ending the ei.l01loose improvl ...:ltlon. 1he lan90also acquiied a wider audience as it rnoved into more re..pt:!(table dall,t' 11t Ilue S!.Tango now entered its Golden Age.Jt hOtlK', III cafes and (dbaret'>, where elitemenpaidtodancewithlower-class women. MusicIan-. Wl:"11:' Inu\:.'ed,I lidt.l!lgU band..shrJnk;11size, facingcompetitionfromanew gene"Ition of folkrnu:'lcians, whoclljoyedinClea)irlg airtirnto' 011 Argt::ntineI"UIU.J Ill:" t.::lngu rl(::vt::ltllde.... :,u!vlved, Inthe19805 and1990s, it enjoyed a resUlgence of popularity in Ille Unitt::d S"lll,') ,mdEurope, suggeslingthat thetanyois, altel jau, theAmenca,>' sE'loml glto'.:I1(Utl- to internationall1lu.. K.,!',..' 1':\1(1 I\V\I" I i\"'I. "I1I1J11."(\Ifl... III 1111' l"lrlytWl'lltkthCl'ntur)'. AmJ abllllt ofIll(' workingdass,III tUftl, ulIl ... bll,d ul illlllligrallts who retained citizenship in Ilal)' Spain.TIll' firsl drlll'Is al organizing Argt"lIlinr.: labor inllllt:llced by Pll'll'lkllt:-.. III tIll' 1870:t alld 1880s, Ellropeall :.lliarchist and'oIh.. i:di'll l'xill':' bl:'gan vigorous ofganizing, and ill 1895 Argentina's Socialist1'.Llly w.,:-. ({JuIILln!. TIll:':'I' Sodali:'ls molded 011 thl:' European lIlodel: a1",r1,.II11I'IlI.tt'y P:lIty, ck.lrly (Ollllllittcd to all e1cctornl (Jlld evolutionary... 1"Ikg>'. A" III IlJUUIJlll' Illigllt havr.: t'xpc:clt'd the Sodalbt Parly to bl'COllll;.L IIl.l;1I1 puillil:d Vllll.l' luI' till' Argl'ntilll' workingclass, Yet il failed toattractlltt.> lllllJllgr,lJll \\'\lrh.er:..Till' IJrh.lJl wurkillgcia:.:. provedreceptivetoanolhermessage:; il camefrom1111:lllardlbts. Theil l.'l:'dl'nKiull Obrl'ra Rt"gional Argentina(FORA) caught theWl1l h.l'l:" illl.lgillatiull witllit:. ulll furaction. The FORA-sponson::dlocal andgl'lll'l-.1I:-.Ifikl'swvrrkdthegllVlTllllll.'llt. whichassumedlhat anylaborproblemsII It 1;.,1 111' IllI: work 01 fllrdgn ,Igitators, Congress therdorl:' passed tht: Ley del{c... idelh.i.l Clksidl'llLe Law") ill 11)02, which ,'mpowered the government tollqIllr t ,Ill IIJll'lglll'rswho:>1:'Ul.'klViorcOlllprolllisednationalsecllrit y or disturbt'd!,lIhlll lJl,kl" byI):lrticip.llinginstrikl':', fortX'lIllplt",TIll ,lllafl!tbi l.Hllp,ligll r,';lLhed a climax in 1910, the n'lItellnial of tht'dl'lJ.I,,,dhlll 01 Argeillilll' indl'l)I'lltit'lICe, when a great publk ce!lbratioll wasI,l.llllll'd 1\1 gillrily Argl'lItill,I'S As militant opponents of the liberaldill', Ill,' .1 11.1 l'dJi ... t kadll:,>w.lnkd torabl' their prolest again:.t Ilwfarceoftill'1.lIl'lIlll.11l IIlll'lltl'" IlltHld01 progrl's:,. Till'prutestorsfilledIhe: :.treds andplazas,hlll \WI, llU:.hl'd .lm1 :.clIll'led by lllses of police. Till' reaction against tht:l'l\oI\':.tl!I'" "Vl'r ill!tl tIll' COllgre:.s. whi.,:h npproved a newlaw(Ley dl.'III"Il'II"',1 Slh.i.d, lIr MSod:d Ih'li:mt" I..\W"). makingthe arn:st andproseculionof1.lblll 1'1t',.IIIIZll:> l'Vl'lll,I:.ier.Till'" \\'.1:> tltl' lkathkill'll lill Arglntith.-' anarchislll, but notof urbanproleSI.:'111ikl' ,11.1IVlt)' ill Blll.'llil:' Airnft".,POLITICS AND POLICY PATTERNS OFCHANGE'lhe liberal politicians were known as the "Gelleration of (so Iabdcdfor thdrt'mcrgcnce that year). Theywere themsdvC's membersof, or veryclose [0, thelandowning classIhal produc('dArgentina'srichcs, The)' Illanagedto controlthearmy (Jnd the eleclions. resorting to vote fraud whennecessary. They also .... tedahighlyeffectivepolitical machine, 'rhemost imporlant natiunal decisionsweremadebyaCllerc/o, an informal agrt-eillent between the presidl'nt andoligarchiCpower brokers. InthisrespecttheArgl;nlinelibc..'rals ignvred one kl.'y aspect ufthe13ritish/U.S. example-the central rokof thelegislature, whichinArgentiltahadbeenrenderedinconsequential inthisperiod.2:;'1 I'ARTTWO e (:ASJ:STUIlIE'>:CIIANCI.OVERTI""lEAIglance thi .. political seems to have admirably scrvcd the agro_exporl inlereststhat profitedfromthepost-I R80exp;lIlSiOIl. But theari!Hocralsin control l' krocioLlslyandcontinul:d hI;,"/"l'xhaLl.'>tillgschcdule, InJuly1952 Sill'finally dkd,dt::privillgPeron of apolilical partnn wltohadbeColl1efuJly a.'>important ashc.Evita1IOW UeGlllle largl'rinde:lththall shl;.'had ever bl'l'll ill life.Till' gUVl:fll-ml'otSllspendt'd allfunctions fortwo days, andthclaborullion cunfederation, till'eGT(Confedcracion Gcneral del Trabajo), onkrl'd its ntl'llIber:. 10obserwamonth's mourning. The outpouring of grief was astounding. Tht::rc wereimll1l'diatcplanstobuildn mausoleum15Ufedtalll'r tl1;ln thl:" Statul' 01 Libat)I,Dead atthe age of thin y-thrl"t:', Evila beGll1ll' a powerful mylhbindi ng togl'lher till"Peronisl 1:lithful.,I\JIIll, gaunt, andnonetheless compelling, EvitaPeronwaves to the crowdduring amotorcade for the inauguration of her husband into his second presidential term in June1952; she died the following month. (Corbis/Bettman/UnitedPressInternationaL)2112 I'AWrT""/)"The goodnews of 1952\WlSlll:ll thetoughaustcrityplan of Finant t,h:ltlce to sulvC' Iheir prnhlcill" hy ""ll1t'lhitlj-: .. hllli ,01 "'111111110',1naked forcc.Evell so, the odds for ... 1I(l..e....." \\,er(' HilI high. l'olitit,t1 "I"kllll' W,I" 11\111):steadily, asgl,errilb for(e... rcjcLlcc! the IIt'Wl'cHlIli,,1 regime ;1I1d 1I1,d. lhl"ll):llkidnappings and ass;'Issinations, to dt:is,thcysoughl the viuknt overthruwof 1111.' gOVl'rJIll1Clll and lhl' ill:>tallaliull ofarevolutionary sucialist rcgime Muxist-Lcllinbtline:>. Prcdoillill.lllll)'Illiddicclass and deeply alienatedb), the merry'goI'l\llnduJArgcntine'pvlitil.:', theywcn:caught lipinapas:>ionulcrd>dliunag.til1:>t .1 :>ol.iueLVllOllli\.th.lt W.I:>,irOlliGllly, one of the IllOStinAlIIt:'fica. OIIt.'C IUl knlillb.lttlc, was no exit fortht:'guerrillas, It wasaw.lr 10Ihe dl'alh.'rhe war :>huwed Ihal a well-equippeJ ,II III dl'tl.'rlllilIClI g'lvclllrllclll ":.111,barring all)' majorsplit alllonglhl' society':>ruling di!l':>, ddcat aguarill.1llILH'C-mell\. A keyfacturwas Ihl,tacit(anclOftl'llt'xplicit) suppllrt uftlle middlelortheUlIH.:Jollllt' .1:>thePt"ronbts werebillerl)'squabbling,'111l'1" \V.I:>;Ill :>..:ralllbh: tuilltlul'ncc ovt'r thefrightenedWOlllan\\ Illl 11,..1..... n'dl'dluth,' I'rL':>ldt:llti.ddUIIC:>,I lit: ,tdvbcrwiththt"illfluencewas lIlini:>tt:T of social wdf;\re,1t vil.'w::.. J.OPl'L Ilrst hclpl'dcOllvilll:e topurgeher,.lllllll'l ul 1I101L' JlH,,!t.-l.lll lllilll:>kl:>inOl"tobcl' 19711, tht::ll pcrsuadt::dherto'1.1.. 1.. tlU\\1l1J1llhl,ldl- IIH.luding Idl-wingPC"ronists. Thisbet.:alllt' tht:' directionIIIillb\.:galllWgoli.llillg1lt.W conlracts wilh100 percent wageIIILI,',I:",':" 1I1 1IIllr,'. lllUUllkdaL-uunlc:rGlIllp:.lign, annullingthehugewagt'..... lIlllllt:lIb. hut 1.ltt:r, alh'r ,I :>,'ric" 01lHa:.:>ivt:' Slrikl':>, rl'instating them. Lopl'z Rcga1t:,IWI\d III .1Ilt! Ih\. .. bo hcr 3:>tltl' 1'1..'1 VIII:.t dC!t.-g.ltitJll :>pJit aJl.lrl.I'Ill' gueJrill,ls (olllillunllht:irprlJvo..:ativl'"llacks011 tl1l..' pulke andmilitary,hllllglliglilt '0111,' dr.1l11atit'" Therightthruugh l'CJu.. lly\'1,,!t.-1I1 org.llll/allulI'. Till'v.dul' ul 1lI01ll.'yrallk daily, aimusl hourly, as inllatiunf tl.. l..dl'd h)' .\3:; 111..'1'lnt ill )1)75, F".lf ut krrorisls, whctht'r of thl' right orldl, tookIhllt! 'JIII1"lhlptll,llC, till.: llrb.llliliilldlL' Cl.l:>:>. -I'lll'prl':.idl'ntwas tt=rrificd,!llklly Ulhlhll' to h'idd'Ullllllillld. Olll.C again.111 dcdl'dgovdlllllt:'nt disappeared1111111 III ... C.....I III l\l.lr,h 1')7fl. ill t\q;,lItlll.I' ... bc... l.prnlicll.:d 'Ullp. llll' 1I111itary placedJ .... dIVI 1','n"ll utldl'r IHHlSI' arrcst, a yl'ar bl'l'ul'chl'r termwas 1I1', \I'l/h)' hadthe1111111,11 y w,lllni :>0 lung? bl..'l.t'" thl..'Y did lIut walll tu takl' UVl'r101111,11fur govl'rningulltil tht' nationalhad :>0\'loll'lIl .lIld IIll' l't:llIlOIll)' so chaotil.' that no Olle could knowll'dgc, Virtu;JllyllOlll' of theabductedwereevcrhl'.lfdflUlll .Ig.dll.- ,.',-,The Mothers of thePlazalhe Argentine milit.uy jUlHll..utiunsbugged ... n,humanrights..10Ihc l.lilur(' to pursue theof other cases.;\111111 ... 111 .. fl,.plied th.ll nu olher LOitin Allll'riGlll government had\'\\'1tl)II-. olfiLl'rl> furduringa militar)'r,' 1\'Illlllhnl.j\kdlligp.I)'lIllII1-. UII tht' 1I1.ll>SIVI: SSUbilliunlordgnllt-bt \\'.130 illllllediall'\..IIII' /\IIUll::'1I1gUVl,.l"Ill11Lnl. AlfonsinhadtuIIt'W hUI 111\' Ill"ll l.' \\1.1::'.Ill Ij\ 1F-dl:"lgllnl au::.tcritypolicy athOllle. Inlbtioll ruarl'dlip toI.!.:' ill I'JXI .\lId7UU ill 1985. Withits back againsltht'\\'.tll. liteAlh'll-.lll go... allllwlII UIl\'lt1nl aw.lgc-pricl' frel,.'ze. 11I1iatiun druppedtok ..... 1110111 100 hut;1 allda ::.harpinwages also occurred,(>ad)' lll,lknllifl IlIl'.IM1!'l:::' thc gOVl,.rHlIllllt Iu avuid dt-f.ndtillg on IheIl!ldgllddt!.'I hl:lIIIllllr>lvded. By early19H9 price::. \\'erlC' al lllOrl..',11.111 JIJ plrl.l'1l1 amut/I";wUllldrl'adl morelhan IOUpercellt monthbyulid)'l''''. Till.' grusl> dOIlllC'stil,.pruduct by Jpercent in1988 and 6 percent illI'JX'J (lIw..III, imOllll' fur Argt.'nlinesdeclinl,.'d by nearly 25 percellt J ')gU::.).I'lWlIi .. l,!, M."I/,l,.'d Ihe uppurtunity, In the presidentialof MayI'JXl) , 11ll' ("lalc ul Sil'gl'", thcn anllouncl'dIhat lit'wuuldrl'l>ignfromoffice sixmonlhs of schedull',Argentina's persistent financiill ured1'" ,I Pt:'I .. llIt.lgl' 01l'XpOII th;11uebtw:.\s Ihe highe::.t of all major count F"'I'lll.III), dl:-.tft:'>:'>Lllgthc tlrup ill trade:: in M ERCOSURoftltl ,Idv,llll,ll!,eIh"t Br.lzil hOldguttenflUIll its 1999dcv;Jllialioll. Argentina, tIll' h'I."dthk:-1 1.llld in I... lill Alllt::rit:.'a,llOW;J shuwt:.::Jsc 01 :.lndJllditit:.,dII:tllknll'lcy.'1Ill' t:. Ulllll 1')'till II'> UWII. Thc IMI', initially tu Cav;.lIo's I'"llid..!'>, grcwdbt:.nt:.:lJanku with swdling public sectorddkil'>. TheIlewl)' inaugumledlie::orgeW. L3ushadminislration in WashingtonW.I ... t:.VtUIl ... ::. "')'lllp;HhdL... II di!'>lllb!>cdArgt:lltin;J.\Sa::.c::If-madt:.' disaster of only:-t:.'t:.ulldal)' ililportaLI ....t:..wouldhavetuCIHncIromwithin.TIll' kl'Y lu lurtha rt'luwry lay with Ihe political leadership. Folluwinga phasetil illtt:.!bl l'ulili ...t1 .. l1nfu::.iUl1, Ihl' 20t).\ presidl"l1tial dcctiollcrucial. 'rhe'J .. Argt:.llllll.l: .lIld.... 1.ltt:.lIJ,lh' 277willllcrNestur Kirchn....., aminor I'l'runbt l"X"UVt:'f!lor D "'1'" I . I.1 '.1,", 0 It ll!>lllOlc:>1crel e::nll.1s, KLrchncr prumplly camed pupular :>ul'IJurtby ,. , I If. I).' . . 0 1t l'PClltl'IKCrom Ill' I eloJ1lslmldelll, Kirchner reslrucluredArge::ntin.l's hillio I I . I II'.llscounlOlllllOSt bonds,paidofT loans10 theIMF (allh I ., d:. .. '. oug111111 III1ll;IlIY pnvalcU.S. ,m LlIIOP(;.1l1 holdt'rs 01 Argl'Il11JlCbumb.) alld I," """,,1" ,. J " .Cl ::.Ulliepn'VIUIlSypnvallzt'dcnterprises. lieclllphasiznl Iii, rnli' '. I . II. . e UII!>!I0CI.I PIU)COl!> allddevoled addilional t::11l'rgy and10 I I ,j' /.. .. . . . l (;\\: Oplllg lO$l'l l'LUllOlllIC 'llidpollllCal tiC'S wilh olllt:.'r countriesof I.atin Am 'ricI . . I ' .; C - _ '. . (;" In pJII >)' ::.trellglhC'll111gME.1tIii.: pICked up support In Inidll'llll congrl':>:>iunal ballutin' bUIdt.'cldcd nol torunfur reelection, imkadb n.lllOII.IwlIhIbrdi;IllC(:' govt.'l"l1ll1cl1lal intl.'rvo.'lltioll andit::. ;LUt::nlitili 10Ill .. plight 01' thl' po' I BUIIhe slat.r uf till' econolllY fl'w,lls serillUS vulllcr.lbilil)'. Artu slruggk10Jllldal>al,uKl' bl'lWeen il:> rdHlllllo onex purlI .alldIts lIt"edtu dev;>lop'l '1>" f' 0 l I rc. ' t:: .' VIt) nalltHlal growlh.A return hI pru!llwrit)'rC:l11:llllS, fornow, astdl elusive promisc.10CHILEIN,"' ....'Q,:,.;. "',HOtl,y'IA ..",\ II,H,II""n )0(1""

n '>00.111 III.\/1 11111.'I< I I',\", ..1,,/...II,,,,)")I',{/".\I ...' .-,1 I.'::., 1'\ ( ""'".....1 I'

JI'A( If/(",,, [ANMap10 ChileFROM COLONY TO NATIONHOOD27HRepression andDemocracyWhat we now call Chile was one of the 1110st inaccessible realms wilhin the Spanishempire. It was hemmed in by barren deserts (inthe north). the Andean cordillera.and treacherous seas around Cape Horn (10 the south). In time the region's centralvalley became valued for its "gricultural production. The Spaniards encountered astrong-mindedindigenous population. but man)' perishedunder the onslaught ofdiseases brought hy the Europeans, A relatively homogeneous population, meMizo.emerged fromthe colonial ern, although few oflheinhabitants wished10 admitthe exlentto which their Spanishforehe:uers hadmixed with indigenouspartners,Chile made .. Illuch-delayed entrance onto the world stage. 11 was fnrcenturies all ohject of henignneglect. Asacolony. it receivedsoc"'''!allcn-lionfromthe Spanish crown. Small, remote. ;lIld I:lcking in precious minerals,itwas a fClugh-and-llIlIlhlcClllipost ofthecll1pirc-:l "frontier in evcr)'r,I,"J,,\I/\ ," ,I"" /, r"", ,' .. ' l'Mwk:.siullal or k..-!lllkal jobs (highL'r th.mthe U,S. r.lkof 14.. 7I) , ,I ",'Iu,\" ,\I,urdlccll'd fairly "I)enandegalitarian standards 111 p... r....11 . \... . .111 ..'rvl.t1lv, trl'atlllCJlIollhvM.... e:>.ZR6 I'ART TWO. (;/\$ESTUJ)IFS: Cllt\NftE OVFH Tll\tFprc"iS l;lhnr illno;.. l.lget!huget. oUlllcl p' 011'''''''.Chile was in the gripnfn(everish polillt..ll h,lltle. Tel rorisl incident" he, ,1111"frequent. Fewthoughl thesiliialionco111,1 n'lllaill pC':lcdlll Ilnlil I'Jll,. wl1('" 111"next presidcnl wouldbe cleCled.Allende knewthis. lie: hadlong since rcjeclcdhisl.lr len's adviu' I,) 1(''''1111 Inextralegal lllC:lns, andhe knewtheChrislinn IkllloCf;llo; were thennl}' I'olilh.11force Ihat \\'il5strongcnough :H1d possihl}' willing tn rr;}l.h ;'Ill .1gt'C'CIlH'1l1 th.ltmight preserve thc countl)"s dCIlHX,."t ic S)'o;l(,lI1. Allendc ll('gnt inlet!wil hh('l .111' this fellow leaders, but after extcllded ddiheralioll theyrclll ... cli. ThC)' did"'" \\.1111tohe drawninto joint responsihility for.lg,>VCrtllllenl; ('(Iuallyillll""lant, the)' suspectedIhc)'hadlllllChIn g:linfromfl1rlher di ...{!"editing ,,( lil'. Th\'\may cvenhave anticipatedIhal amilitary 10llPwouldr('o;lol"I: 1111."111 1ft P1 eigllt )'l'ars ofCU'Kl'rlaCItJII cU:lliliull govern1l1...11l (I'NU9X).(;npgrl'w6.7 pt.'rct.'lIt per year, thl'in Latin.lIld Ull'" til the high"'st in tht: world. The lorcigll debt WitS signifi.C.Illtl), rl'dundllld llt:Wfureign was readil}' attracted. Privatizationhad gUll,,' virtu,lIly to tilt.' maximum. Espl.'cially impressive high savings.nld whit..h laid solid foundalions for continuedI'rodu"tlvity.Tht: distribulion oflhb growth. wasll'sSimprl'ssiVt'. Although Ii... :-:-1 ItlW... d ,hat tilt' Ilunlber of Chileans living inpovl'rt)' decrl..'ascduver Ihe III til,,' 1')')0:'>,I,,vds of pownyrt'lliailledhighanddisparities iniJlcomeI..olltinul'dto gruw,llIaking Chile unt: of themost unequal Socidil's intheregion.t)1I tht: inh'm;lIion.ll frolli. Chile in the early 1990s staked its hopes onWilllllllgill NAFTA. Whcnit became clearIhat the Clinton ::ldmin""Ialioll ..::uuld nut vhtain congrcs.!>iunal Wfast lfa(k"3uthorizatiun to negotiatel'lltr)' intn NAI'TA, tht. Concertacion government opted instead fora:l .. ot..l,III'ill MEI{COSUIt'"-,.'III .. Chile:3USIn MarchIlJ9S. Gt:llcnlll'illu... ht:tlill.tlly !lokpped duwll alta tW"'llt)' fivea!loarlllY ddnlk till.' elllpl'rUr ::.imply dissolvt'd Ihe assembly inNIJVl'IIlhvr IH2,l. Sltonl)' Illl'rl'.lfler Ill" unilaterallylkcn:t'd a (onSlitlltioJl forBraZIl. II IlldlHkd IllallY k.ltllre::. fro II I a drart prepared by Alllonio CarlosAlldr.ld,l l' SJlV,I,brolher, but re:.ervedgreater powers fur theI'udn(thl: "Mudadl.iUll'urtt rl'L:cptivc to tilt' liberal ideas of 'lbolition,,:11 .. Br,lzil: Till' AW.lkl:lllllb lii.1ll1 30'1 ':'2.. Celebrating the declaration of Brazilian independence from Portugal, this midnineteenth-century lithograph, 0 Grito de Ip;rallga, depicts the "Cry of IpirangaHbyPrince Pedro(September 7, 1822) inallegorical style, (Miguel Maria Lisboa, BaraodeJapura, Romances hist6ricos, por tim brasileiro,2"d ed, (Brussels: n. p, 1886), Author's copy,fcda:l1islll, and rl'pllbikani::'lll, Back ill 1MI? rl.'publi, Ill..: libl'r.d:>taleull .. k'flollktodbciplillcIllelaborforce. InGuatemala, thegllWrlllllt'llt :>lqJ..'rvi:>,,-'d alill Cllfuf(cd the seasonal migration of workl,,,-'kjllg dfkiclh_}'and('ollllllercial success. Theynulunger!IH'lllnl lupopul,llc"-"slallu: tiwi prumptedaggre:.siveencouragement of EuropeaninlJlligratiull, Startillg inthl' 18HOs, th.., tide of arriv'lls over thenext three decadeswas so greilt thai Olll' histori, Yel lhe relatively prilllitive stall'of illdust rializat ionlllcanithatnlost laborers workedinvery small firms (willi thantwenty-fiveemployees). Olllyafewindustries, sucll ;IStextiles, fit theCOllwnliunal imageofhugl' facturk:. with IJwductiuli tt.'LhnkllleS. Awavc vI"strikes eruptedthroughuut parts urtherl'gion duringthc dl,;'cadl' of till' 19IU:., butthc}' were all put downbyforct'.The halcyon days of economic Iibltralisill inLatin America were brought to anend by theGreat Depression. As econumiccrisisstruckthe United Stales andEurope, international dl'mamlfor LatinAml:ricanfuodsluffs andraw lllaterials-coffee, sugar, wheat. metals-suddenlyfaded. In 193U-3'1thetotal value of LatinAmerica's exports was 48 percent lower than in 1925-29. L;:u.:kingalternative:oullets for their products, leaders of theregionill truuble.A few countries sought to salvage their situationby securing market sl1aresabroad, ArgentinaandCubabothadoptedthisapproach. Undera 1933treaty,Britainpromisedtouphold its imp0rl quot,lsfor Argentinebeef in returnforpreferential tariffs 011 British-m'ldegoods. Usingdifferenl means for asimilarend, Cuba in 1934obtaineda28percellt share uf thcAmericansugar markl'tafterintensivelobbying uf theU,S. Congress. Suchllll'l'Ltllld, hll I.lrglr lullntll ..... ,W.I... tvt1l1d,,rt .. kc: indu::.trializ.llion; athirdwas toIltlr"'lll' t'IUlH)lllil,HIIIIllgl.'oulltrksoftile region alld thusexpandltlll"llllll'r1I1,lrkl'l ....1. ... hap..' lIll'ir own(>(Onollli!.' ::.tratcgies. ECLAthll ... tJllt.:rnl .1 lIIilnlUlll' ill 1..11111 Atlllrica' ......earch for self-knowledgeandself-Idl'lltity. TId ... \\',1.. ;:1 ... igllifk,llltsinn: L'Hill Americananalysis,lIld I'Ullt11 iamhad IOllg kit at a db,ldv.lIllage Wht:ll 1:ldllg the t:conomists,h.lllklI....,llIdhll ... illt: ...... llILntil' IilL'wurld.Innately skeptical of conventional wisdom and diplomatic rhetoric, Raul Pn!bischdisplays impatience during aUNmeetingin the19405..'.11. .. lor 1)... \ dupnll"'1\1 lb I151 in PracticeAprilldpal goaluf impurt-substitutiunilldll ...waseCtllloJlli( indl:'pt:ll-dence. The idea was that b)' building it.'> uwn llldu... try. I.atin AIllt:rka wouldbecome le::.s Jependent 011 Eurupe ami thc Ulliktl State... furgoods. National economics wuuld bccume llIlIrl.' inh::gratt.'d ;Illd ... dl-Sllffkit.'llt;:'Ind, asaresult, lessvuln('rabletotht.' kinduf slull.'ksbrought Ull by:I worldwidedepression. This aspiralion urkllappealt:dto Jllilital")' ulficers, l.. ger toupholdtill'sOVl"rdgnty of whal they called'(1putria rlhe... I.lIld").Asecondgoal wasjohcrt'ntion. ConCClltr.llcdalmost "'ntirelyincitks, tht.'Latin Aml'riC3n proldariat was by the 1930... :tnd 19'10... bl'ginningto",x.cl'l it.'>pOWl:'( asa social forl.'c. In cOulltrit'....... utha...Chill', lI11iUl1movcmentsWl'r..,rdativel) frcc or arbitrarygovernlllellt invulvt:lllelll. inJ\!txitu andArgclltinililne! l3J"ilzil, politidan.'> recugllizr.:d lahur ..... aI)Oknti,11poJitit..d .ISSt::! andtouka direct handinstimulating (andcontrollJng)labor org.lllizatiun::.. \'Vhdhelperceivedas allyorthreat, thL' urbanworkingria::. ... W.IS secure emplo)',ment, anti L;atinAl1ll'rkanll'alkrsS;:lWindu... tri;lliz;llionJ. ... Ollt.' waytorespond.Fromthelatt:.' I!)30s tothe!lJ60s,a1 ll'a::.t inmajor CtHllltrit:S. lSI pulicks llIelwit II relative success. 'I'hl' lkprl'ssionarh.l WorldWar II affuldedtadillrotntiollandexplicitopportunityfor inf.lllt indll... tril::..11ll(tIIlt'. St:ltl'''' pIaY"'dkeyrllJc... illlakingadvalltageofthis ::.ilualion. (;overJlllll'llb n:... tl it'tld loreigll COlllpditiulIthrough lariff... 3ntllluotas,,,IKouragld locallllVl tJIl..lllthroligh credl!.'> ,llld loan... ,sl imulall.'ddumeslicdl'lll.lnti through puhlll durlxpl.'lltlilur..... , ,I lid, p"'1 h.,p'"most important, tookdirt'ct part ill lilt: proCl.'SSthrough Ihl' lornhllioll 01 slalL'owned comp;lIlies. As a rl'sult, largl'r Cllunlries uf tilt' rt:giollt1t'vdoped... igllilkantindusrrial plants. The TornwtudiTdlacorpuration appliance... ;lIldillitomobiles inArgentina, VoltaI{edulldil produced... It:.'dill Brsihilil)'"filiI..'road"tuwardsud;llism. Bnthw('rt'\'\'l'l"IIII\)WII Ily1llllilMy wilh U.S. ba. Frolll ollrpt'rspt:(tivC', wel"ll:>hkl tvhI,.' 1'.\flfl/tgO/ :II';ZIOI' oj pvlitiuli/JOII'('r. by theliSt' 111' uJJIIII I', jill till' PUlP":>I' o!ln'illglllg lliwol sf rudurlll d/(jllge ill tile dis! rifJUI iOIl o//'ulil iwl,:>[/011/, or I'WIIlJlIIIl' f!UWt'I'. Trucrl.'volutionsan' qualitativelydifferenl frombarracksllr lvutitlt.:lil' ..':>1'1"0, which Jcdd to Ihe rulation ur 1t'.ldel"s but It."av!: .. tUll':'>illl ....-t.11.IVlt,lr'feadliJlgprogranlstUf SOCiOI.'CtJllUlnic ("hangl' hut nut lle(t.':'>sMily, Idlbt inorielltation}. I lavingallainedpolitical powcr,fl.."volutillU;ll y k:adl,."r:,>11M)' ur lIlay not be able to carry ollttheir social programs. ThereI":'>mh Uanorrevolution.,\ (t.'lltr,dide:awithinM.lrxbt thought-;b dcvdopl.'dinLatinAmerica-waslaith III thL' powerlit Ihl' stall'. It was the stalethat conditionedthesocial order,IlplllldIIII..' dist rilnl! ion uf jl\Hver "lid bendlls, andlegitimized the status quo. Ir the(vuld Jothings, it could undo them as well. Thilt is whythe state wasworthy01 conquest. Onceincontrol or stateinstitulionsandthe"commandingheights"ul thenaliunal e('onolllY, revolutionariescouldbringabout mdical anddli:o:tive \-hUlIgl'. ill Iht' olllnipotcnceorthestale thus be.:calllt: UI-l'lItr.dpdlar ul fL'Vulutiull.lryItllology.homIhe I'JSO,>totht' II)t'!O:., anul,d ft'volutiun;ll")' movemcntst.'l1lerged in,dIIHJ.. Il'WI")' 101 hUlIHlIlh. I)lvduj>Il1l'1l1 J6:'one sort or another, thoughthey telldedttlnatiollalistalld as wdl. Theyof!(n drewinspiration rrulIl thcdu(trilles 01 Mati ZL'dung, whtlchallcngedMarx's cmphasis onlheneedlur illdustrkd by c1aillling(anddemonstrating) thai rcvolutiunary mu\'t'lllCllbcould urigillall' amongIhl'rural pe.lsilnlry. Their leadcrs andcadres Wl're kJlown guerrillas, small-sizedrighting units that atte:mpted to we.lr downthrough arelt'lllless and long-term series of hit-and-runassaults. ami roremost alllongthl.'lllthe Ftddistav.lllgu;lrdinCub,l, wherLC;ISlro'srise 10 powt.'r sent shockwaves throughout thehl.'ltlbpherl', ElIlboldl"'nedbytht'Fiddista example (and somctinll'swith,lctivc :.upponfflllll Cuba),pruillinellt guerrilla lIlOVt:lllents sprangup in Guatl.'lll:lla, Vellcl.ud.l, ;J1ll1 Culomhia.Otbl'r groups made brkf. ir ullsuccessrul, appe,lrancesillIhePl'fllvianAIllks. Andin lhe Uolivian highlands, Ernesto (;Ul'VM:I org;llIi7.l'd ;111 effurt that \VascruslH..d in 1967. Urban gUl.'rrilla moVt'lllent:-. appeart'd III Argl'ntina, Colombia, andUruguay, but rcvolutionarycadrl'sgener.lllymadt.' hllk' hl'adwOl)'ill tht' I.!rger andmore developed or Iht.' rL'giun.A secundwavc or guerrillamovemenbcrc:-.tt'dIII tht' I ;llld IlJ$Os,nutabl)' in Central America. Adccadt'-Iungt.:lmllict ill 1:1 Salv.ldor I,.'\entuallyrl.'Sulledin stalemate, InNicaragua,:l youthful band urfurtnltllt'dictatorial Anastasiuoul oftheI.'ollnlryand luokpower alllidpoplllareuphuriain1979,Among alltht':.e ("omings andgOillg:-.. glllrrilbllhlVl.'1I1t.:llbllJ.lIl.lgl'dII)political power in unly t\'loGbes-Cuba andNil.aragllu, buth -plantation socidll'S"or modest size. The rt."asons are IIOt far Iu sl'ck: thl.' of rl.'vu!lltion,u)'1Il0vl.'lIlcnb depcndl'd not only upon their OWlIbut ;11:.0 upon thl"'support andmilitaryOrinCUlnbl.'lltEspct.ially n01;lbkisthef,ICt thut Ihe-ami thewert' bUlho:halknglll1) lorruI'tdictalorshipsthat Wl.'rclosing tuudl withIhl'lI lhl1l1l.t1b,l:'lion::.01::.uppurt-Ianduwners, businessmen, and Ihe Ullitc.:d Stall's. Throughoul tilt' Coldas a whult"EI Salvador was more Ihe rule thall Nicaragu.l: wherev..-r ka:,>iblt', Washingtunsl-urricdtotht' aidofguvernlllt.llb under siege IromIII the facC' or such realilit's. socialism10::.1 ibid('o!ogic.ll appt.'al duringthe1990s. The end or the Cold War-and the collapse of the Soviet Union-served 10discreditMarxistideology. The econolllic strangulation or Cuba del110nSlnlled Ihereal-world costs of defying the Uniled 1110:.t importantly, thedisastrousl:llt'or guerrilla mUWlllcntsthroughout theI'l'giunrevcaled tile:hopelessness of revolutionary action. As Ihl'tWl'lItkth n'nlllr)' drewtu a c1osc,lhecurtainwas coming down onthe: socialist .I!ternalive.Liberation TheologyOne or themostsignificant legacies of LatinAmerk:anmdicalisllla hy-produo:t:the elllergence or-Iibt:mlion thl-'Ology: The doctrinerepre::.cnted'lllllnlJkdy blend ort\\lodistinct traditions. Marxist theory and Catholic teachings. The resultWilS a power-rul andsHU-vibrant summons10 political activisminthenaml' or social justice.:.3MI 1'/\nTTlfHEE" TlfEfo,IESANDIlEI;I.EC:TIONSAnd... Dependency Theory?Howdoesthetheory of "dependency"fit within(\ discussionofLiltinAmerica'sstrategies for economic development?Sidewilys, one might say. Asit evolved over time, dependency theory provedtobe moreuseful (IS iI conceptuill framework for historical ani'llysis thiln i'lS aprescription for public policy or social action.Ofcourse there were connections between theoryand policy. The initi.:tlfoundationfor the dependency approilch carne fromEClA's writings ilbout long-tenll deterioriltion inLatinAmerica's terms of trade withadvanced industrialcountries. This literature suggested that global commerce unfairly favored wealthynations,lt the expenseofthepoor, while decision-makingpowerswereconcen-trated within the privileged "core" ilt the center of the world economic system. (Fortherecord, it shouldbenotedthattheseinsightsbecu considerablerelevancetocontemporary patterns of "globillization.")As anadditional tool, social classanalysis-morespecifically, Marxist anil-lysis-provideda means of detectingthe differentialconsequences of economicdevelopment within latin America. Who benefited from these dynamics? Who wasleft behind? For these inquiries Marxist writings offered a reildy-made set of social-c1i1ss categories (e.g., bourgeoisie andproletariat), a literaturerichin debates andinnovations,andil convictionthat "class struggle"formedtheultimatebasisforhistoriCill tran.lllhr:-. k'lIt .Idditiooal rnunt'yfurluans. This onlymademattersworse, as1.:,lillAIlll'rica':.frumU.S. $2,12 billion in19HO to $431billionby1990.Theregiull\ ..:r'l'ditwasaccompaniedbyaprotnlCteJ economiccrisisIllluuglluul Ihl' Tufureignlenders(andsel-viccthedebt). coulltry"lll'r ltlUllt ry 11:ld 10 adullI :In urlhodux 1MF-style austerity plan-slashing govern-Ill\:lltalldsubsidies, lighkning credit markets, and, whereverpos-sihll:, rnlul"illgreal \\'ag\;':., Thl' result wa:'l stagnation. As shuwll ill Figure 12.1,uVl'rall outpul fur theregion as;l whok' dt:r1ined sharply in 1983-84andshowedollly lIlodest growth fait's in followingyears, III per capita terms, in fact, LatinAIIIl'rh:a's (;IJP fdlby 8.3 percellt bt:tweell 1981ilnd1989. Un..'mploymcnt swelled:lllll plummded.IIIMexico, whose conduct sct a modd of good behavior fortil bIT dl'btor (ountrit's, real wagl's d..:c1inedbynearly 50 percent.%7-6-S"--5 ) -

e1- o."-""U-I --2-II'JW--.,------,---- ,----,----,- ---,----. -I - --I[h.ld CI udal implications for politkal changl.'.()lIe th\. aduptiull of an t'loIH)lIlic policy orimport-substitution induslrializtall.'-ownedIInll::'. Tllfougll prutntllU1 .lnd participatiun. thcin L.ltin'\IIl...1 il.l h'.ISlurllishing nitit.al impdllslor et.-ollomic recovery.A;-, IIhlu::.try progre::.sell in major cuuntries, the working classes grewin,lr\"lIglli ;111 thcl..lllitinuatioll of (-o-uptative.. deJJlocracy. throughwhkhindustri"li:>bandwnrk\."'r:> gai'll.:d(usu.tlly Iimitc:d) access topower decloral or other compe"titillll. One l'XOllllplc was Chile. whert'political parties were reorganized to representthl"illlcn.:::.ts of Ill'W groups and social strOlla. Pro-labor andpro-industriaJist pank'Sthu:> cllkn:dthe Chi!c;:m e1t'ctoralprocess. As lung as this arrangemenl lasted, their1';:lrticipaliun1.:111 vaJuable support10 th!,;' regilll\."'.All "ltcfIl.tlivl;. response involved the creation of multi-d:tss "populist-aliJances. Theemergcnccof anindmtrial eliteandthevitalizationof thelabormOWlllent madepossibl ... anew. proinduslrial coalitionmerging theinterests ofcntreprcnt'lifS ami workers-in SOIllt' CaSes. directly chaIJenging the long-standingpre. 'j'lle lll:tilitellalll.e of :>U....-l1 I"l.'gilllt.::>Illlre..foll.' dl.:pe..lldl.:ll ill largo.'part011 the persunal innuencc and dwrislllin Ura1..i1 and Pl'ron in Argentina. It abe..) meanl thai, withor withuut m:lgneticleadership, theregimeswouldbt' h:lrdh) sustainintimcs uf e..:unoillic advl.'rsit)'.Parenthetically. thisalsohelps explainwhyMl.'xkoWl'nt to suchgro.:"ut lengthsto ilsrevolutionaryl('g;lCy.Women and PoliticsTraclitionally, the social role uf ft.:mall.'s in Latin AIlIe..'ri..:a h:ld IOllg bCt'll conllned lutheprivatesphere. particularlytht' lamily. Amongthe luwcr c1a::.so.:":). espt'cially.WOlnen were often heads ofhousdlOld-be..:-ause husbands (or partnt'rs) had eitherdiedor movedelsewhere. Amongthe uppt'r-c1asselite. extended families werefrequentlydominated byforceful matrons. grandmotherlyfigures whowieldedunchallenged authority over such intimate matters;lS marriage..'.place.. of residcllCt'.andinheritance.Over timt: the boundaries of acceptable social behaviur lor womenstartedtobrotldcn. 11\ thenineteenthcentury, womenof culturefrequentl)' hustcdtikrary.\H2 1"ltlfIIIOI "TIII.I'oII""NIIIOTIHrrON"disctls ufU 11.,,,,,1... ,,,,,, (1')5') )r-----,I II L.lIlclrd 1L ...Jr----.,I Ku, ..1 II middle IL ...Jr----.,: lllduSlnaJisl$:L J", lulu'f! tho: H.,uufr.(uliIWworldof intellectualsandletradus(menofk'lIl'I:')llulil Illl'11liddk01 llppl.'l' el:helolls ot"sociely. ;,dthougll b)'themid1I1lll.'lnlllhlelllul )', :>ulIll' WOllll'1l p.lrllCipakd ill Ihesl.:' drcles. Thus. I.:'xemplary PUdl)', .llId Ihal It.lve l'umetoreprt'M:lll the canon of Lalin,\Ill\.lllall Ulhllle.: rdledunlyl)ll\.... nt of :.ucktyandollekindof cuhuralIHududilln. 0111\.'1 luno:>. prodll..:nl hy th\. luw... r classes. r... nmined vital to"'vl'r)'Ja)' 1110.:.lHll h.IVl h"l'll Il':>:> .... n:dandprcservt:d.Wh.11 th"'11 h.l::' het"ll lIlllqUl' .Ihout huw Latin Americans hav.... describt;>dll"lll::.dvn .tlldIhl'" wurldthl' \-'o'ritt"'l1word. Olrt. songllld perfurmanc... ?IIIIW It.... Ih.lllh.1I1gnl ill IIll'IWl'l1lidh andtw",nly*llrst cenlurii..s withfilm, radio.Idl'vi"HIIl, >tlld till' Illkrnd? IV!lJr"(lv... r, huwhas Latin Amcrkan culture been.. h.lp,dhyIhl' hhllll'y01a giVl'1l (tHlnl1')'. regioll.01' the continent asawholdFROMCOLONIES TO NATIONSIII Illl' Lit .. ..lgllll..lllh ct"nIUlY. lilwraldl'rive.:d from Ihl' European and1\llllII...lll 1;llllgllh'nlll"'nl ... 11 .. ul.llnl InIh... Sp.ll1l::.hand PortUgUl':>'""'lI1pires, AtIlIlIl':-', 111 11111 11111)' tIll' llldt"p.... IH.llll..:e lllov... m.... nl. billaffelled.1 .... IIiI ..... ltll.. .1lIdItkraIUI"l'. 1\ rdIitlCt::. .lballllulIldtheb.lroqu...andmurellrn.IIlll'IlI,d 1'0...0\.1) ::.Iyks \\,lIl'11 d"'::'lgllil1gchurches and publk bllildings. and\,III .. Il'lllll\1 nlili .. l" III :.Ilal'!)lr alHI d... ant'r llellclassilal slyles. Inspired by th...Allllri....111 .llldFrl'lllll r"voIUIl\Jll::', htll1Hlnbl thinkers penlledcS:>:lysandarticlesllili..iLlllg..:oluni,d.Ind prunloling freedulIl and nationalism. Forlll.lll)'. till' gr.llIdl'ur .Iudlilt" poklllbigrc.ltness uf the cuntinent bt"cam... ;,t themeIh.11,\1... 1111.....1.1brl.lkwilh 1111,:'oldand anembrace of thenew.A::. Ih",l'lllpin: l"rUIII hlt'd. patriutk poetryhelped consolidate new11.llillll.didlntill........ AllHlllg11ll' plld:> ofthl,;" periodwasJoseJuaquindeOlmedo(17150 IX17). Ill'" ::.011t,1a Spalll::.h L:lplain;111..1 anEcuadorianmother. who joinedill dn-lal'illgIhe.: cityof Gllay.lquil indt"pendent fromSpainin 1820. HislIlu:'>t wdl knuwnpUl'lIl. l.tI Victoriadl' }lInill:Canto(I Bolivar (Victory at Junin:SUllglu Bolivar), praisl.'s11ll' Libcrator for hisheroismonthebattlegroundandIt-gitillli'l.t:s th....indl'pel1dellCC 1Il0Wlllcnt by ell'e1aring its warriors to be the rightfulhl'lrs tuIhl' IIh.. ::..Alft".ld)' .1 II ... \\, Iheml' h.ld lmergcd. Forsomewriters. claims to;'HHhority,Iq;itilll.Il)'. ;111..1 tr:Hlition....Ulll' fromtheindigenouspast ratherth'Hl .. Europeanh,,ritage. podr)' cun:.lrlll.:tl'd lH.lII)' of around IIll' 1I('.lrdivine powi..r of its indep\.ndlIKc Ic.lders whose bellicose wayswi..r.... dl'eply ruoledin Ihe colonial and prl'-Conqueslpast. Yeltht'y prullliSt'd all enligh1l'n.....t futurl'furlhe newndtionsrising uut of the bloodybOltll....sforindq)CllJlIll:l'.Th... novel offered a new formfor social criticism urthe old andIlI,:'W ufi..krs. J:fperil/lli1losllmi,mtu(Tht' Mangy)lurrot). wrillt'll ill 1816byMeXI":,lIl Journalbtalld author Jose Joaquin Fernand...z dl.:'LizarJi (1776-1827),l,;"x...this gl.'nfl'.Considered by many asLatin America's firsl no\'l,'l. it a piCal"l'slJlIl.' lall'u(ll1... SUIluf acreulefamilyfromM... xico Cilywhoawild:.Ind ca.-....freelif",. This gcnrt:provided an opportllnit)' forh:=rmindez ..IeLil.:lrdi tupaint.1pla)'lul piclurt' ufllbmilieu and satirize all:>ocial classes during this lransitiunalmomenl from colony 10indepenJellC....Anumber of remarkable polymaths contribukdlutheIOlludin!)01Iht' Ill:'Wnations of L:.llinAmerica. Espccially oUbtanding .1l\lOng ttwmwa::. Amlre:>Bdlu(17X I-I g65). anative of Car.IGIS alaw),... r b)'Iraining.who .l(colHlxlninl til....{jennannalm;dist andAlc.:xander vonIlulllboldlOil pan vi Ius :.(il'nlitlL....xpl,;"ditioll of SoulhAmerica ill IgOO. I-Ie,> abo::.erv...d flJr :t ::.hontilll.., :I:'> SllllllllBolivar's IUlur.Afler serving a diplumal fortill' rl'Public. hl' llllivedlu Chiit'where hebl'CillIll,;" thc first rertur 01" liteUnivasily of ChiI..-. Bdlo authuredIhe 1852Civil Code.: of ChiJ.. tll"t borrowed trUIII Napuleonic law. II wa:> lateradopled by Colombia andEcuador. II1l'l1glh)' ... piL poem Silvill/ lllilgrind/Ilra(11'I"Wllfltonida (AgriwltuH' uf the Turrid LOllI', IH2b) 111 0llI of the founding g"'ller,lliollollh... nt'wrq>ublics thai :>Irungly d,,sir.....llo creall':t unique literatllt... wilh ib uwncultural andinldle(tunllraditiulls.Romanticism, Indians, andSlaves'l'urmoilnndwarringshupt:ll politiLall.'vl'lI1::. frullltlll'tutht: ill must CUlllltri..,s asLiberals :tllli Cun:>t'rvatives fuught for hl'gl'IlIOlly ,Illd hattlingwarriorslaidthl'ir claim::. 10 theuf pOWl'f. Ddlning thenaturl' I,lf IIll' (arved oul ofthe Sp