CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 1
Skills and Technical Training
Chapter 9
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 2
Learning Objectives – 1
• Identify and describe basic workplace
• competencies
• Explain the need for remedial basic skills training programs
• Explain the role of apprenticeship programs in today’s work environment
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 3
Learning Objectives – 2
• Describe a typical technical skills training program
• Describe a typical interpersonal skills training program
• Understand the professional development and education practices common in many organizations
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 4
Questions• Is there a literacy problem in the U.S. workplace, and if so, how
severe is it?• What types of training are available to individuals through the
federal government?• What kinds of apprenticeships are available today?• What issues should trainers attend to when providing computer
training?• What makes for an effective training program concerning safety,
quality, or team building?• What role can labor unions play in skills and technical training?• What forms of continuing education and professional development
are available to employees after they have received their basic training?
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 5
Jobs Are Needing Greater Knowledge and Skills
• Developments such as technological advances, changing organizational goals, and organizational restructuring, are increasingly dependent on skilled technical and professional employees
• Need for more cognitive skills (e.g., problem-solving and decision-making skills), as well as greater interpersonal skills (e.g., teamwork)
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 6
Training and Education
• Basic skills/literacy education focuses on upgrading the reading, writing, and computation skills needed to function in most any job
• Technical training is the process of upgrading a wide range of technical skills
• Interpersonal skills training focuses on an individual’s relationships with others
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 7
Skills Gap
• Skills Gap– the difference between the skill requirements
of available jobs and the skills possessed by job applicants
– Resulting from: • Skill level achieved by many high school and
college graduates• The growing number of racial minorities and non-
English-speaking immigrants in the labor market • Increased sophistication of jobs
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 8
Basic Skills/Literacy Programs – 1
• Prose Literacy– Skills and strategies needed to understand
and use information from texts
• Document Literacy– Skills and strategies required to locate and
use information contained in non-textual materials that include tables, graphs, charts, indexes, forms, and schedules
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 9
Basic Skills/Literacy Programs – 2
• Quantitative Literacy– Knowledge and skills needed to apply the
arithmetical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division (either singly or sequentially) in combination with printed materials, as in balancing a checkbook or completing an order form
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 10
Designing an In-House Basic Skills/Literacy Program
• At least two common characteristics: – an aptitude test
• An aptitude test is important for assessing the current ability level of each trainee
– small-group and one-on-one instruction• important for supplying feedback to the trainee, as
well as for conducting remedial work in any areas of deficiency
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 11
Federal Support for Basic Skills Training
• Job Training and Partnership Act (JTPA)– replaced the Comprehensive Employment
and Training Act (CETA)– JPTA replaced by Workforce Investment
Program in 2000
• Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification (WARN) Act– Requires sixty-days advance notice of a plant
closure
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 12
JPTA
• JTPA sponsored on-the-job training programs, as long as the employer agreed to hire the trainees once they complete their training
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 13
Problems with JPTA
• Fraud– some employers used JTPA funds to hire
workers whom they would recruit even under normal conditions
• JTPA funds provided training for only a fraction of the eligible displaced and unemployed workers
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 14
Workforce Investment Act (WIA)
• Consolidated more than seventy federal education and training programs into block grants to states
• Three major funding streams – Youth – Adults– Displaced workers
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 15
Technical Training
• Apprenticeship Training
• Computer Training
• Technical Skills/Knowledge Training
• Safety Training
• Quality Training
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 16
Apprenticeship Training
• Initially a way to pass down skilled trades and knowledge – Preservation of Trade and Craft Guilds
• Today, provides trainees with the skills needed to meet continually changing job requirements
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 17
Typical Apprenticeship Program
• 2000 hours of OJT– Some as high as 8000 hours
• 144 hours of classroom training– Some as high as 1040 hours
• Regulated at federal and state levels by Offices of Apprenticeship
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 18
Problems with Current System
• Learning is based on time requirements rather than competency
• Programs are isolated from other education and training institutions
• Programs are concentrated in traditional blue-collar occupations
• System has not adjusted to requirements for the period after the initial apprenticeship
• Most apprenticeship programs begin after someone has completed high school, that is, they can be considered “adult” apprenticeships
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 19
School-to-Work Programs
• Aimed at expanding apprenticeship programs into secondary schools
• Target high school students, particularly those who are not likely to enroll in four-year colleges
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 20
Successful STW – 1
• A well-planned and administered apprenticeship program will:– Attract adequate numbers of highly qualified
applicants– Reduce absenteeism– Reduce turnover– Increase productivity– Reduce cost of training
SOURCE: Benefits for Program Sponsors. U.S. Department of Labor, Employment & Training Administration.Accessed July 13, 2007, from http://www.doleta.gov/OA/empbenef.cfm
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 21
Successful STW – 2
• A well-planned and administered apprenticeship program will:– Facilitate compliance with federal and state Equal
Employment Opportunity requirements– Ensure availability of related technical instruction– Enhance problem-solving ability of craftworkers– Ensure versatility of craftworkers– Address industry’s need to remain competitive by
investing in the development and continuous upgrade of the skills of its workforce
SOURCE: Benefits for Program Sponsors. U.S. Department of Labor, Employment & Training Administration.Accessed July 13, 2007, from http://www.doleta.gov/OA/empbenef.cfm
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 22
Successful STW – 3
• Schools need to– Administer vocational aptitude tests and
provide guidance– Ensure students have advanced skills
needed by apprenticeship programs
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 23
Successful STW – 4
• Other organizations need to:– Provide technical support– Help coordinate activities
• Employers need to:– Ensure the work assignments provide
meaningful work experiences and competencies
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 24
STW Costs and Benefits
• Benefits– Trained labor pool– Better public image– Potential eligibility for wage subsidies
• Costs– Direct
• Wages and benefits paid to students
– Indirect• HRD time, orienting & training staff, training & supervising
students
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 25
Computer Training Programs
• Introductory Training
• Mastering computer basics, including operating system basics– designed to help trainees overcome their fear
of computers – better understand how computers work
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 26
Computer Training Programs
• Applications Training– Covers specific software applications
available within an organization– On an as-needed basis
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 27
Computer Training Issues – 1
• Self-Efficacy– an individual’s belief that he or she can
successfully perform a given behavior
• Cognitive Playfulness– the spontaneity, imagination, and exploratory
approach that a person brings to task performance and learning
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 28
Computer Training Issues – 2
• Training Format– The use of behavior modeling for software
training is more effective in producing computer skills learning and application than either of the more commonly used self-paced and lecture approaches
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 29
Technical Skills/Knowledge Training
• Often specific to a job, process, or piece of equipment, but can also be more general
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 30
Levels of Technical Skills/Knowledge Training
• Basic: – To prepare entry-level employees to perform
basic functional responsibilities
• Intermediate:– OJT in general procedures, methods, tools
• Advanced:– Machinery/Process specific training
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 31
Safety Training
• Mandated in most companies by insurance companies and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 32
OSHA’s Functions
• Establish safety standards
• Conduct safety inspections
• Grant safety variances
• Cite violations– Can mandate training– Can levy fines, shut down operations,
prosecute management
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 33
Three Common OSHA Metrics
• Lost Work Day Index– Number of workdays missed due to personal injury
per 100 employees, divided by total number of employees × 100
• OSHA Recordable Rate– Number of OSHA Recordables/200,000 hours (the
hours that 100 employees work with forty-hour weeks, and fifty weeks a year)
• Lost Time Rate– Number of Lost Time Accidents/200,000 hours
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 34
Dollar Impact of Lost Workdays
• Based on Fortune 500 company
• For ten lost workdays– 10 lost workdays X 2.6 LWDI X $30;000 per
lost workday = $780,000
• If you can improve safety by just 10%, you can save $78,000/year
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 35
OSHA Regulations (Expanded)
• Establish written hazard-communications policy • Replace old state posters with OSHA’s posters• Establish procedures for obtaining material safety data
sheets (MSDS) from manufacturers• Create notebooks containing MSDS and make them
accessible to employees• Label hazardous materials and state the effects of such
materials• Provide orientation for new employees and ongoing
training for other employees• Prepare a safety manual
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 36
Effective Safety Management
• Top management support and reinforcement of safety standards
• Employee involvement in suggesting safer work procedures and the selection of equipment
• Regular and recurring safety training programs that reinforce safety standards and behaviors, and that uses appropriate learning theories and formats for the target audience
• Effective monitoring systems
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 37
Ten Steps Towards and Effective Safety Program – 1
Table 9-3
• Determine the training objective– Determine exactly what you want your employees to
be able to do at the end of training
• Develop a list of competencies– What must each employee be able to do at a given
level of training?
• Create a trainee profile– Determine who will be undergoing training. Consider
their age, gender, education, learning skills, and so on
SOURCE: Ten steps toward an effective safety program (1999). CEE News, 51(5), 10.
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 38
Ten Steps Towards and Effective Safety Program – 2
Table 9-3
• Determine an outline of the subject matter to be covered – based on the competencies and trainee
profiles
• Expand the outline for completeness and proper sequencing at least once
• Develop training based on the outline• Test the training on experts
SOURCE: Ten steps toward an effective safety program (1999). CEE News, 51(5), 10.
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 39
Ten Steps Towards and Effective Safety Program – 3
Table 9-3
• Test the training on actual trainees – to determine usability,
understandability, and effectiveness.
• Correct the training content
• based on feedback and reviews
• Evaluate your testing to make sure all questions are good
SOURCE: Ten steps toward an effective safety program (1999). CEE News, 51(5), 10.
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 40
Safety Training and Employees
• Recognizing, avoiding, and preventing unsafe conditions in their job and work areas
• Procedures and rules relating to the use, transport, and storage of dangerous machinery, tools, and substances
• Rules for the use of protective clothing, systems, and devices for hazardous machinery, tools, and chemicals
• Methods of controlling hazards of any type, including the use of a fire extinguisher and other emergency equipment
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 41
OSHA and Computer-Based Training (CBT)
• While interactive CBT can be a valuable tool in a training program, its use alone does not meet the intent of most OSHA training requirements
• Employees must be given the opportunity to ask questions, which requires access to a qualified trainer
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 42
On-Site Safety Observation (OSO)
• OSOs help a pro-active approach
• Formal, structured approach for conducting a safety needs assessment– Visit, observe and gather critical data in
workplace– Use data as basis for tailored training
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 43
Safety
• Hinges upon – improving the safety of the working conditions
in which employees operate – increasing the amount of safe work behaviors
engaged in by employees
• Well-done safety training can be one of the most important elements to ensure that employees have both the skills and the motivation to perform their jobs as safely as possible
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 44
Quality Training
• Total Quality Management (TQM)– A set of principles and practices aimed at
continually improving organizational effectiveness and efficiency
• Two Fundamental Skills– Ability to work effectively with others in a team – Collection, analysis, and evaluation of
quantitative data in decision making
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 45
Major Areas of ConcernTable 9-4
• Role of management leadership and quality policy• Training• Process management• Employee relations• Product/service design• Supplier quality management• Role of the quality department• Quality data and reporting
SOURCE: Mandal, P., Howell A., & Sohal, A. S. (1998). A systemic approach to quality improvements: The interactions between the technical, human and quality systems. Total Quality Management, 9, 79–99.
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 46
Quality
• Product quality– Degree to which products achieve or exceed
production standards
• Service quality– How well the organization responds to the customers’
needs after the product or service is delivered
• Customer quality – Extent to which the organization has met or
surpassed overall customer expectations
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 47
Implementing Quality Training
• Quality Awareness– Managers are introduced to
• the concept of quality improvement• how it will change their role
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 48
In-Depth Training
• Process Skills – Ways to improve work coordination, solve
problems, and resolve conflicts.
• Quality Skills– Techniques and tools that can be used for
tracking quality improvements
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 49
Quality Tools
• Process Flow Analysis
• Cause-and-Effect Diagrams
• Run Charts
• Statistical Process Control (SPC)
• Scattergrams
• Histograms
• Pareto Charts
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 50
Quality Tool Use
• Tools are used for:– cause-and-effect analysis– problem solving– monitoring results– recommending courses of action
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 51
Statistical Process Control (SPC)
• Most processes demonstrate variations in output
• It is important to determine whether the causes of such variation are normal or abnormal
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 52
Training for SPC
• Training employees to be able to discern abnormal variations so that adjustments can be made to the process to improve quality
• Employees must learn to monitor output using control charts so that they can see variations
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 53
Quality Management
• Must be comprehensive– Both Quality & Process skills
• Needs – Visionary leadership– Upper management commitment and support for the
transition to TQM – Widespread employee involvement, – Integrated reward and compensation plans for quality
improvements– A performance evaluation process that is aligned with
the nature of a TQM organization
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 54
Quality Training and ISO-9000
• International standard for quality• Uniform quality standards for creating a product
or a service• Companies need to certify under ISO-900 to be
competitive in world markets
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 55
ISO-900: A 3-Stage Process
• Document writing
• Implementation of a quality system– Where extensive training takes place
• System assessment for effectiveness
• Companywide employee involvement through training is the quickest, most cost-effective way to achieve and maintain certification
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 56
Interpersonal Skills Training (IST)
• Soft Skills– communication – customer relations – selling– teamwork
• All can be improved through training
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 57
IST Programs
• Most common elements are– team building– listening skills– delegation skills
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 58
Increased Need for IST
• Movement by organizations toward team-based approaches to accomplishing work
• High school and college graduates often lack the required communication skills
• Organizations are becoming more multicultural
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 59
Sales Training
• New approach to sales– build trust – solve customers’ problems – provide product and service options – admit limitations
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 60
Six General Objectives for Sales Training
• Increased sales productivity
• Lower turnover
• Enhanced communication within and between all organizational levels
• Better morale
• Increased self-management of sales teams
• Better customer relations
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 61
Customer Relations/Service Training
• Good service keeps customers coming back
• Organizations should continuously monitor customers’ perceptions of their service
• Job skills of customer-service employees most likely need to be enhanced through training
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 62
Four Key Elements – 1
• Introduce customer service training organization-wide
• Frontline employees need to be trained in customer relations skills, including interpersonal skills and operational practices
• Service managers need training in how to coach employees and enforce new customer service standards
• Provide incentives for supporting and sustaining the new customer service philosophy, including (but not limited to) recognition systems, compensation, and upgrading
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 63
Team Building/Training
• Large number of organizations have employees working in teams
• Team-based structures require that workers be adaptable and able to form and re-form relationships with coworkers quickly and smoothly
• Team training is popular
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 64
Team Related Skills
• Task Skills – Those necessary for accomplishing the work
assigned to the group
• Process Skills – Those that primarily have to do with working
together as a team and maintaining the team relationships that are essential for teamwork
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 65
When to Form Teams
• A specific goal (or set of goals) needs a multifaceted group of people with complementary talents
• A specific project is best addressed by cross-functional and multi-departmental coworkers who offer different perspectives
• Broad-based perspectives are needed to develop and carry out the vision of growing a department or organization
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 66
Increasing Team Effectiveness
Table 9-5Variable Definition
Team Structure The extent to which:
• team members understand and are committed to team goals
• team roles are clearly defined
• group norms are in place
SOURCE: Werner, J. M., & Lester, S. W. (2001). Applying a team effectiveness framework to the performance of student case teams.
Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12(4), 385–402.
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 67
Increasing Team Effectiveness
Table 9-5Variable Definition
Team Spirit The extent to which:
• a team has confidence in its ability to be effective
• team members invest energy on behalf of the team
SOURCE: Werner, J. M., & Lester, S. W. (2001). Applying a team effectiveness framework to the performance of student case teams.
Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12(4), 385–402.
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 68
Increasing Team Effectiveness
Table 9-5Variable Definition
Social Support
The extent to which:
• team members have positive interactions and provide support for one another
SOURCE: Werner, J. M., & Lester, S. W. (2001). Applying a team effectiveness framework to the performance of student case teams.
Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12(4), 385–402.
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 69
Increasing Team Effectiveness
Table 9-5Variable Definition
Workload Sharing
The extent to which:
• work is equally divided among team members
SOURCE: Werner, J. M., & Lester, S. W. (2001). Applying a team effectiveness framework to the performance of student case teams.
Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12(4), 385–402.
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 70
Increasing Team Effectiveness
Table 9-5 Variable Definition
Communication within the group
The extent to which:
• team members give and receive information team members manage conflict in a healthy manner
SOURCE: Werner, J. M., & Lester, S. W. (2001). Applying a team effectiveness framework to the performance of student case teams.
Human Resource Development Quarterly, 12(4), 385–402.
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 71
Role of Labor Unions
• Active role in developing and providing training
• Establishing regional or statewide training centers
• Collaboration with schools and employers to meet the training needs of their members
• These efforts are generally referred to as joint training programs
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 72
Joint Training Programs
• Four most common training areas– Safety and health– Job skills training– Communication skills– Assistance for displaced workers
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 73
Union Implications for HRD
• Training might be linked to contract negotiations
• HRD can better identify needs of union members
• HRD may be able use union channels for advertising courses
• Helps promote other programs to union
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 74
Professional Development
• A profession is– an occupation that is based on an abstract
body of knowledge– an occupation in which workers
• apply in their work a body of knowledge and techniques acquired through training and experience
• have a service orientation and distinctive ethics• have a great deal of autonomy and prestige
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 75
Professional Associations
• Private group that exists to advance and protect the interests of the profession and to offer services to its members – Certification– Publications– Educational opportunities
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 76
Licensure and Certification
• State governments administer licenses
• Professional organizations administer certifications
• For both, criteria typically includes– attainment of a degree– a given level of practical experience– a passing score on an examination
• Both require continuing education
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 77
Continuing Education (CE)
• Normally offered by three sources– college and universities– professional associations– the organizations that employ professionals
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 78
CE At Colleges and Universities
• At many colleges and universities• Some benefits:
– Able to use the expertise available at colleges– Can sometimes assist the schools in
designing courses that are job-specific– Organizations sometimes can choose
instructors– College credit may be granted, making it
possible for employees to obtain a college degree
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 79
CE By Professional Organizations
• Professional organizations provide opportunities for CE by– Sponsoring conferences, meetings, and workshops
• includes speeches by leading experts, discussion of current issues, and presentation of research findings
– Publishing journals, magazines, and newsletters that communicate ideas and practices in the field
– Collaborate in precertification programs
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 80
Company Sponsored CE
• Some have developed college-like curricula within their own training centers
• Continuing trend toward developing on-site corporate universities
• Aim is to be both flexible and strategically linked to the goals and mission of the organization
CH-9 Copyright 2008 Werner et al 81
HRD’s Role in CE
• Three distinct roles:– Enabler
• Establishing policies and procedures that foster an effective and equitable distribution of continuing education throughout the organization
– Resource provider• considering program-support options, including tuition
reimbursement, educational leave, paid professional association fees, and compensation of travel expenses to off-site professional development sites
– Monitor • ensuring that the professional development process is
working as planned