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CHAPTER 4: ECOSYSTEMS: COMPONENTS, ENERGY FLOW AND

MATTER CYCLING

Also some carry over from chapter 3 is in this chapter

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Ecology

• The scientific study of relationships between organisms and their environment

• Examines the life histories, distribution, and behavior of individual species, as well as the structure and function of natural systems at the level of populations, communities, ecosystems, and landscapes

• Encourages us to think holistically about interconnections that make whole systems more than just the sum of their individual parts

• Examines how and why materials cycle between the living and nonliving parts of our environment

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Periodic Table of the Elements

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Chemical Bonding

• Ionic Bond - Formed when one atom gives up an electron to another atom.

• Covalent Bond - Formed when two or more atoms share electrons.– Energy is needed to break chemical bonds.– Energy is released when bonds are formed.

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Fig. 2.4

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Proteinconstruction

Nucleus(information storage)

Energyconversion

Cell membrane(transport of raw

materials andfinished products)Packaging

(a) Eukaryotic Cell

Figure 4-3 (1)Page 67

DNA(informationstorage, nonucleus)

Cell wall & membrane(transport ofraw materials)

Protein constructionand energy conversionoccur without specializedinternal structures

(b) Prokaryotic Cell

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Cells: The Fundamental Units of Life

• Microscopic organisms, such as bacteria and protozoa, are composed of single cells.

• The human body contains several trillion cells of about two hundred distinct types.

• Enzymes – catalysts that speed up the rate of chemical reactions in living systems

• Metabolism - all the energy and matter exchanges that occur within a living cell or organism

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Atoms, Molecules, and Compounds

• Most material substances can exist in three interchangeable states: solid, liquid, or gas.

• Element - substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical reactions. Just four elements - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen - make up over 96% of the mass of most organisms.

• Atom - the smallest particle that exhibits the characteristics of an element

• Molecule - a combination of two or more atoms• Compound - a molecule made up of two or more

kinds of atoms held together by chemical bonds

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Acids and Bases

• Acids are compounds that readily release hydrogen ions (H+) in water.

• Bases are substances that readily take up hydrogen ions (H+) and release hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution.

• Strength measured by concentration of H+.– pH scale

• 0-14

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Fig. 2.5

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Animation

Click to view animation.

Levels of organization interaction.

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MUST KNOW DEFINITIONS FROM INDIVIDUAL UP• Organism• Species is group of organisms that interbreeds and

produces fertile offspring.• Population is a group of individual organisms of the

same species living in a particular area. • Community is the populations of all species living

and interacting in an area at a particular time. • Ecosystem is a community of different species

interacting with one another and with the chemical and physical factors making up its nonliving environment.

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Solarradiation

Energy in = Energy out

Reflected byatmosphere (34%)

UV radiation

Absorbedby ozone

Absorbedby the earth

Visiblelight

Lower stratosphere(ozone layer)

Troposphere

Heat

Greenhouseeffect

Radiated byatmosphere

as heat (66%)

Earth

Heat radiatedby the earth

Figure 4-8Page 69

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15,000 ft10,000 ft5,000 ft

Coastalmountainranges

SierraNevadaMountains

GreatAmericanDesert

RockyMountains

GreatPlains

MississippiRiver Valley

AppalachianMountains

Coastal chaparraland scrub

DesertConiferousforest

Coniferousforest

Prairiegrassland

Deciduousforest

Average annual precipitation

100-125 cm (40-50 in.)

75-100 cm (30-40 in.)

50-75 cm (20-30 in.)

25-50 cm (10-20 in.)

Below 25 cm (0-10 in.)

Figure 4-9Page 70

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Terrestrial Ecosystems Aquatic Life Zones

• Sunlight

• Temperature

• Precipitation

• Wind

• Latitude (distance from equator)

• Altitude (distance above sea level)

• Fire frequency

• Soil

• Light penetration

• Water currents

• Dissolved nutrient concentrations (especially N and P)

• Suspended solids

• Salinity

Figure 4-12Page 72

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Sun

Producers (rooted plants)

Producers (phytoplankton)

Primary consumers (zooplankton)

Secondary consumers (fish)

Dissolvedchemicals Tertiary consumers

(turtles)

Sediment

Decomposers (bacteria and fungi)

Figure 4-10Page 71

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Sun

Producer

PrecipitationFalling leaves

and twigs

Producers

Primary consumer(rabbit)

Secondary consumer(fox)

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Oxygen (O2)

Water

Soil decomposers

Soluble mineral nutrients

Figure 4-11Page 71

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Heat Heat Heat Heat

Heat

Heat

Heat

First TrophicLevel

Second TrophicLevel

Third TrophicLevel

Fourth TrophicLevel

Solarenergy

Producers(plants)

Primaryconsumers(herbivores)

Tertiaryconsumers

(top carnivores)

Secondaryconsumers(carnivores)

Detritivores(decomposers and detritus feeders)

Heat Heat

Figure 4-17Page 76

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MushroomWoodreduced

to powder

Long-hornedbeetle holes

Bark beetleengraving

Carpenterant

galleries

Termite andcarpenter

antwork

Dry rot fungus

Detritus feeders Decomposers

Time progression Powder broken down by decomposersinto plant nutrients in soil

Figure 4-15Page 75

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Heat

Heat

Heat

Heat

Heat

10

100

1,000

10,000Usable energy

available ateach tropic level(in kilocalories)

Producers(phytoplankton)

Primaryconsumers

(zooplankton)

Secondaryconsumers

(perch)

Tertiaryconsumers

(human)

Decomposers

Figure 4-19Page 78

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Human

Blue whale Sperm whale

Crabeater seal

Killerwhale Elephant

seal

Leopardseal

Adéliepenguins Petrel

Fish

Squid

Carnivorous plankton

Krill

Phytoplankton

Herbivorouszooplankton

Emperorpenguin

Figure 4-18Page 77

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Part 4: Community Properties

• Productivity depends on light levels, temperature, moisture, and nutrient availability.

• Primary productivity - a community’s rate of biomass production, or the conversion of solar energy into chemical energy stored in living (or once-living organisms)

• Net primary productivity - primary productivity minus the energy lost in respiration

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Figure 4-21Page 79

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Relative biomass accumulationof major world ecosystems.

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WHAT DO WE MEAN BY ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE

Structure can be thought of as:Physical – for example the diameter of trees, canopy cover and layers of vegetation

or tree partitioning by various animal species such as finches.Spatial patterns – populations dispersed randomly, clumped or uniformly.Biodiversity

Abundance - the number of individuals of a species in an area

Richness - the number of different species in an area shich is a useful measure of

the variety of ecological niches or genetic variation in a community. It decreases

as we go from the equator towards the poles

Genetic – gene frequency; number of alleles, etc.

Habitat changes – frequency of habitat changes through a fixed distance

Trophic level complexity – number of food chains (webs) in a system

Number and types of services provided by natural capital – for example water

purification

Productivity

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Biosphere

Carboncycle

Phosphoruscycle

Nitrogencycle

Watercycle

Oxygencycle

Heat in the environment

Heat Heat Heat

Figure 4-7Page 69

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Precipitation

Precipitationto ocean

Evaporation

EvaporationFromocean

Surface runoff(rapid)

Ocean storage

Condensation

Transpiration

Rain clouds

Infiltration andpercolation

Transpirationfrom plants

Groundwater movement (slow)

Groundwater movement (slow)

RunoffRunoff

Surface runoff (rapid)Surface runoff (rapid)

Precipitation

Figure 4-23Page 81

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Click to view animation.

Carbon cycle animation.

Animation

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diffusion between atmosphere and ocean

Carbon dioxidedissolved in ocean water

Marine food websproducers, consumers,

decomposers, detritivores

Marine sediments, includingformations with fossil fuels

combustion of fossil fuels

incorporation into sediments

death, sedimentation

uplifting over

geologic time

sedimentation

photosynthesis aerobic respiration

Figure 4-24 (1)Page 82

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photosynthesis aerobic respiration

Terrestrialrocks

Soil water(dissolved carbon)

Land food websproducers, consumers,

decomposers, detritivores

Atmosphere(mainly carbon dioxide)

Peat,fossil fuels

combustion of wood (for clearing

land; or for fuel

sedimentation

volcanic action

death, burial, compaction over geologic timeleaching

runoff

weathering

Figure 4-24 (2)Page 83

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Figure 4-25Page 84

NO3 –

in soil

Nitrogen Fixation

by industry for agriculture

Fertilizers

Food Webs On Land

NH3, NH4+

in soil

1. Nitrification

bacteria convert NH4+ to

nitrate (NO2–)

loss by leaching

uptake by autotrophs

excretion, death,

decomposition

uptake by autotrophs

Nitrogen Fixationbacteria convert to ammonia

(NH3+) ; this dissolves to

form ammonium (NH4+)

loss by leaching

Ammonificationbacteria, fungi convert the

residues to NH3 , this

dissolves to form NH4+

2. Nitrification

bacteria convert NO2- to

nitrate (NO3-)

Denitrificationby bacteria

Nitrogenous Wastes, Remains In Soil

Gaseous Nitrogen (N2)

In Atmosphere

NO2 –

in soil

© 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning

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Click to view animation.

The nigtrogen cycle animation.

Animation

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The nodules on the rootsof this plant contain bacteria that help convertnitrogen in the soil to a form the plant can utilize.

Nitrogen Fixation

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GUANO

FERTILIZER

ROCKS

LAND FOOD WEBS

DISSOLVED IN OCEAN

WATER

MARINE FOOD WEBS

MARINE SEDIMENTS

weathering

agriculture

uptake by autotrophs

death, decomposition

sedimentation settling out

weathering

weathering DISSOLVED IN SOIL WATER,

LAKES, RIVERS

uptake by autotrophs

death, decomposition

uplifting over geolgic

time

uplifting over geolgic

time

miningmining

excretionexcretion

Figure 4-26Page 86

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Click to view animation.

Animation

Phosphorus cycle interaction.

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Click to view animation.

Animation

Sulfur cycle animation.

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Sulfur trioxideWater

Sulfuric acid

Ammonia

Acidic fog and precipitation

Sulfur dioxideOxygen

Hydrogen sulfide

Plants

AnimalsDimethyl sulfide

Ammonium sulfate

Ocean

Metallicsulfide

deposits

Decaying matter

Volcano

Industries

Sulfate salts

Hydrogen sulfide

Sulfur

Figure 4-27 Page 87

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Critical nesting sitelocations

USDA Forest Service

Topography

Habitat type

Real world

Private owner 1

USDAForest Service

Private owner 2

ForestWetland

Grassland

Lake

Figure 4-28Page 88

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