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Figure 11-1Page 194

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Biodiversity

Increase Factors

•Middle stages of succession

•Moderate environmental disturbance

•Small changes in environmental conditions

•Physically diverse habitat

•Evolution

Decrease Factors

•Extreme environ- mental conditions

•Large environmental disturbance

•Intense environ- mental stress

•Severe shortages of key resources

•Nonnative species introduction

•Geographic isolation

Figure 11-2Page 195

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Human PopulationSize and resource use

Human ActivitiesAgriculture, industry, economic

production and consumption, recreation

Indirect Effects

Direct Effects

Degradation and destruction of natural ecosystems

Alteration of natural chemicalcycles and energy flows

Changes in number and distribution of species

Pollution of air, water, and soil

Climate change

Loss of biodiversity

Figure 11-3Page 195

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Projected Status of Biodiversity1998–2018

Critical and endangered Threatened Stable or intact

ANTARCTICA

NORTHAMERICA

EUROPE

AFRICA

ASIA

SOUTHAMERICA AUSTRALIA

PacificOcean

Antarctic Circle

PacificOcean

Tropic of Cancer

Tropic of CapricornIndianOcean

AtlanticOcean

150°90°60°E0°30°W90°120°150°0°

60°

30°N

30°S

60°

Arctic CircleArctic Circle

Figure 11-4Page 196

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The Species Approach The Ecosystem Approach

Goal

Protect species frompremature extinction

Strategies• Identify

endangered species

• Protect their critical habitats

Tactics

• Legally protect endangered species

• Manage habitat

• Propagate endangered species in captivity

• Reintroduce species into suitable habitats

Goal

Protect populations ofspecies in their naturalhabitats

Strategy

Preserve sufficient areasof habitats in differentbiomes and aquaticsystems

Tactics• Protect habitat areas

through private purchase or government action

• Eliminate or reduce populations of alien species from protected areas

• Manage protected areas to sustain native species

• Restore degraded ecosystems

Figure 11-5Page 197

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National parks and preserves National forests (and Xs) National wildlife refuges

Figure 11-6aPage 198

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National parks and preserves National forests (and Xs) National wildlife refuges

Figure 11-6bPage 198

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Trade-Offs

Clear-Cutting Forests

Advantages Disadvantages

Higher timber yields

Maximum economic returnin shortest time

Can reforest with genetically improved fast-growing trees

Short time to establish newstand of trees

Needs less skill and planning

Best way to harvest treeplantations

Good for tree species needing full or moderate sunlightfor growth

Reduces biodiversity

Disrupts ecosystem processes

Destroys and fragments some wildlife habitats

Leaves moderate to large openings

Increases soil erosion

Increases sediment water pollution and flooding when done on steep slopes

Eliminates most recreational value for several decades Figure 11-7

Page 200

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Years of growth30

2515

10

5

Clear cut

Weak treesremoved

Seedlingsplanted

Figure 11-8Page 201

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Old growth

Highway

Figure 11-9aPage 201

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HighwayCleared plotsfor grazing

Cleared plotsfor agriculture

Figure 11-9bPage 201

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Figure 11-10aPage 202

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Cut 1

Cut 2

Figure 11-10bPage 202

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Figure 11-10cPage 202

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Clear-Cutting Figure 11-10dPage 202

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Strip Cutting

Uncut Cut Cut Cut Uncut

6–10 years ago3–5 years ago 1 year ago

Figure 11-10ePage 202

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Figure 11-11Page 203

Trade-Offs

Clear-Cutting Forests

Advantages Disadvantages

Higher timber yields

Maximum economic return in shortest time

Can reforest with genetically improved fast-growing trees

Short time to establish new stand of trees

Needs less skill and planning

Best way to harvest tree plantations

Good for tree species needing full or moderate sunlight for growth

Reduces biodiversity

Disrupts ecosystem processes

Destroys and fragments some wildlife habitats

Leaves moderate to large openings

Increases soil erosion

Increases sediment water pollution and flooding when done on steep slopes

Eliminates most recreational value for several decades

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Natural Capital Degradation

Deforestation

•Decreased soil fertility from erosion

•Runoff of eroded soil into aquatic systems

•Premature extinction of species with specialized niches

•Loss of habitat for migratory species such as birds and butterflies

•Regional climate change from extensive clearing

•Releases CO2 into atmosphere from burning and tree decay

•Accelerates flooding Figure 11-12Page 203

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Figure 11-13Page 205

Solutions

Sustainable Forestry

•Grow more timber on long rotations

•Rely more on selective cutting and strip cutting

•No clear-cutting, seed-tree, or shelterwood cuttingon steeply sloped land

•No fragmentation of remaining large blocks of forest

•Sharply reduce road building into uncut forest areas

•Leave most standing dead trees and fallen timber for wildlife habitat and nutrient recycling

•Certify timber grown by sustainable methods

•Include ecological services of trees and forests inestimating economic value

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Figure 11-14Page 207Sudden oak death White pine blister rust Pine shoot beetle Beech bark disease Hemlock wooly adelgid

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Surface fireFigure 11-15a

Page 208

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Crown fireFigure 11-15b

Page 208

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Trade-Offs

Advantages Disadvantages

Logging in U.S. National Forests

Helps meet country’s timber needs

Cut areas grow back

Keeps lumber and paper pricesdown

Provides jobs in nearby communities

Promotes economic growth in nearby communities

Provides only 4% of timber needs

Ample private forest land to meet timber needs

Has little effect on timber and paper prices

Damages nearby rivers and fisheries

Recreation in national forestsprovides more localjobs and incomefor local communities thanlogging

Decreasesrecreationalopportunities

Figure 11-16Page 210

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RauvolfiaRauvolfia sepentina, Southeast AsiaTranquilizer, high blood pressure medication

Figure 11-17aPage 211

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FoxgloveDigitalis purpurea, EuropeDigitalis for heart failure

Figure 11-17bPage 211

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Pacific yewTaxus brevifolia, Pacific NorthwestOvarian cancer

Figure 11-17cPage 211

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CinchonaCinchona ledogeriana, South AmericaQuinine for malaria treatment

Figure 11-17dPage 211

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Rosy periwinkleCathranthus roseus, MadagascarHodgkin's disease, lymphocytic leukemia

Figure 11-17ePage 211

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Neem treeAzadirachta indica, IndiaTreatment of many diseases, insecticide, spermicide

Figure 11-17fPage 211

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•Oil drilling•Mining•Flooding from dams•Tree plantations•Cattle ranching•Cash crops•Settler farming•Fires•Logging•Roads

•Not valuing ecological services•Exports•Government policies•Poverty•Population growth•Roads

Secondary Causes

Basic CausesFigure 11-18

Page 212

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Figure 11-19Page 213

Protect most diverse andendangered areas

Educate settlers about sustainableagriculture and forestry

Phase out subsidies that encourageunsustainable forest use

Add subsidies that encouragesustainable forest use

Protect forests with debt-for-natureswaps, conservation easements,and conservation concessions

Certify sustainably grown timber

Reduce illegal cutting

Reduce poverty

Slow population growth

Reforestation

Rehabilitation of degradedareas

Concentrate farming andranching on already-clearedareas

RestorationPrevention

Solutions

Sustaining Tropical Forests

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In-text figurePage 214

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Figure 11-20Page 215

Solutions

National Parks

•Integrate plans for managing parks and nearby federal lands

•Add new parkland near threatened parks

•Buy private land inside parks

•Locate visitor paring outside parks and use shuttle buses for entering and touring heavily used parks

•Increase funds for park maintenance and repairs

•Survey wildlife in parks

•Raise entry fees for visitors and use funds for park management and maintenance

•Limit number of visitors to crowded park rangers

•Increase number and pay of park rangers

•Encourage volunteers to give visitor lectures and tours

•Seek private donations for park maitenance and repairs

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Nicaragua

CostaRica

Pacific Ocean

Panama

Caribbean Sea

Peninsula Osa

Pacifico Central

CordilleraVolcanica Central

Bajo Tempisque

Arenal

GuanacastleLlanuras deTortuguero

La Amistad

Figure 11-21Page 216

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Figure 11-22Page 217

Biosphere Reserve

Core areaCore area

Buffer zone 1Buffer zone 1

Buffer zone 2Buffer zone 2

Human settlements

Tourism andeducation center

Research station

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Figure 11-23Page 218

Develop or revise

ecological goals

Implement or modify strategies

Develop or revise

a plan

Monitor and asses attainment

Develop or revise

ecological model

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Figure 11-24Page 219

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Figure 11-25Page 222

What Can You Do?

Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity

•Plant trees and take care of them.

•Recycle paper and buy recycled paper products.

•Buy wood and wood products made from trees thathave been grown sustainably.

•Help rehabilitate or restore a degraded area of forest or grassland near your home.

•When building a home, save all the trees and as muchnatural vegetation and soil as possible.

•Landscape your yard with a diversity of plants naturalto the area instead of having a monoculture lawn.

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Click to view animation.

Animation

Biodiversity hot-spots interaction.