SMALL RUMINANT NUTRITION AND THE PROBLEMS THAT ARISE FROM POOR NUTRITIONAL MANAGEMENT

SUSAN SCHOENIAN (Shay-nē-ŭn)Sheep & Goat SpecialistWestern Maryland Research & Education CenterUniversity of Maryland Extensionsschoen@umd.edu - www.sheepandgoat.com

http://www.slideshare.net/schoenian

IMPORTANCE OF NUTRITION Feed accounts for the majority of the cost of raising sheep and/goats; in fact, as high as 70% of total production costs.

Nutrition is the foundation of good health.

Animals on a higher plane of nutrition are more resistant to many diseases.

Nutritional problems are second only to respiratory problems in frequency of occurrence.

Nutrition has a large effect on reproduction.

NUTRIENTS REQUIRED BY ALL SHEEP AND GOATS

EnergyProteinMineralsVitaminsWater

ENERGY (CALORIES)

Nutrient required in the greatest quantity. Is usually the most limiting nutrient. Comes primarily from carbohydrates and

fats in the diet, but also from excess protein.

Excess energy is stored as fat in the body. Energy is expressed in different ways:

• TDN - total digestible nutrients, %• DE - digestible energy, kcal• ME - metabolizable energy, kcal• NEp - net energy, kcal• DOM - digestible organic matter, %

IMPROPER FEEDING OF ENERGY TO LIVESTOCK

Not enough energy in diet Reduced fertility Reduced growth rates Reduced milk production Loss of body condition, reserves Higher critical temperature Less cold tolerance Reduced resistance to disease. Risk of pregnancy toxemia (ketosis) Reduced nutrient absorption. Increases protein requirements

(%) of ration.

Too much energy in diet Wasteful economically Over-conditioned (BCS >4.5)

animals have impaired reproduction. Fat females are more prone to

pregnancy toxemia and dystocia. Feed efficiency decreases once an

animal has reached its optimal finish.

Excess finish is undesirable to most to consumers.

PROTEIN (AMINO ACIDS) Required in smaller amounts than energy. More expensive feed ingredient than energy. Amount more important than quality. Excess protein is not stored in the body:

excess protein is broken down and used as energy.

Some excess protein may be beneficial if parasites burdens, esp. barber pole worm, are excessive.

Protein is expressed in different ways:

• CP – crude protein• DP – digestible protein• MP – metabolizable protein• DIP – rumen degraded intake protein• UIP – undegraded intake protein

CRUDE PROTEIN (CP): N X 6.26 True or “natural” protein

1. Rumen degraded intake protein (DIP)Digested in rumenN ammonia microbial protein

2. Undegradable intake protein (UIP)(bypass or escape protein)Not digested in rumen.Digested postruminally (in small intestines) or excreted in feces.

Non-protein nitrogen (NPN), e.g. urea

BY-PASS PROTEIN A mix of microbial protein and

bypassed dietary protein is desired for optimal productivity.

In high-producing animals, it is recommended that 25-35% of protein be bypass protein.

20-30 % of the protein in fresh, high quality forage is bypass protein.

Supplementing with bypass protein may improve productivity and/or increase resistance to internal parasites.

Bypass Protein sources Low

Soybean meal Medium

Cottonseed mealDehydrated alfalfa Distiller’s grains

High Corn gluten mealFish meal

IMPROPER FEEDING OF PROTEIN TO LIVESTOCK

Not enough protein Protein deficiency is rare;

most effects are sub-clinical Impaired reproduction Reduced growth rates Reduced hoof and horn growth. Reduced milk production Decreased fiber production Reduced resistance to disease,

especially parasites. Reduced rumen function Reduced nutrition absorption

Too much protein Expensive and inefficient source of energy. Risk of pizzle rot in males Can cause metabolic harm

Excess N ammonia UREA (BUN) Reduces performance, as energy is

required for removal. Excess protein has been shown to cause

reproductive problems in cattle . Excess N (in manure) can be an

environmental concern (“a resource out-of-place”)

MICRONUTRIENTSREQUIRED IN SMALL AMOUNTS: OUNCES, GRAMS, INTERNATIONAL UNITS (IU), OR PARTS-PER-MILLION (PPM).

Minerals Macrominerals

Calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P)Salt: sodium and chloride (NaCl)

Potassium (K)Magnesium (Mg)Sulfur (S)

Trace or microminerals1. Cobalt (Co)2. Copper (Cu)3. Fluoride (F)4. Iron (Fe)5. Iodine (I)6. Manganese (Mn)7. Molybdenum (Mo)8. Selenium (Se)9. Zinc (Zn)

Vitamins Fat-soluble - A – D – E – K

Carotene (green forages) vitamin A Sunlight Vitamin D Vitamin E sometimes requires supplementation Vitamin K synthesized in rumen

Water-soluble - B complex – C B vitamins synthesized in rumen Vitamin C synthesized in tissues

POSSIBLE MICRONUTRIENT PROBLEMS

Deficiencies Calcium and

phosphorusrickets

CalciumMilk fever

CopperVarious, including swayback, stringy wool, hair color

IodineGoiter

Magnesium Grass tetany

Excesses Calcium

milk fever Copper (esp. sheep)

Chronic or acute toxicity Selenium toxicosis Sulfur - polio

Imbalances Copper, molybdenum, and sulfur

Copper toxicity or deficiency Calcium and phosphorus

Urinary calculi

SaltLower feed and water consumption

Selenium and Vitamin EWhite muscle diseaseVarious other problems

Thiamin (B2)Polioencephamalacia

ZincWool picking, skin problems, hoof problems

IMPORTANT NUTRITION INTERACTIONS Calcium and phosphorus

Ratio should never go below 1:12:1 is ideal for most rations, especially for males and castrates.

Cobalt and vitamin B12 Copper, molybdenum and sulfur

Molybdenum forms insoluble complex with copperSulfur binds with molybdenum

Nitrogen and sulfur10:1 to 12:1 ratio is ideal

Energy and proteinExcess protein (N) reduces nutrient absorption and causes intestinal imbalances.

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF SHEEP AND GOATS

Vary by Species Genetics (type) Size (weight) Body condition Sex Age Stage and level of production

Disease Environment

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS VARY BY SPECIES AND GENETICS

Angora Boer Local Dairy Lamb0.50

0.70

0.90

1.10

1.30

1.50

1.70

1.90

2.10

2.30

Energy (TDN) requirements, lb/day66 lb. intact male kids/lamb

0.33 0.33

0.33

0.66

0.09+

fibergrowth

Mature ewe Meat doe Dairy doe Angora doe0.50

0.70

0.90

1.10

1.30

1.50

1.70

1.90

Energy (TDN) requirements, lb/day

132 lb. female, maintenance

+fiber

growth

Source: Nutrient requirements of small ruminants, 2007

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS VARY BY SIZE (WEIGHT)

110-lb 154-lb 198-lb0.80

0.90

1.00

1.10

1.20

1.30

1.40

1.50

1.60

1.70

Energy requirements, lb. TDN/dayMature ewe, maintenance

88-lb 132-lb 154-lb 0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

1.10

1.20

1.30

1.40

1.50

Energy requirements, lb. TDN/dayMature non-dairy doe, maintenance

Source: Nutrient requirements of small ruminants, 2007

ENERGY REQUIREMENTS VARY BY STAGE OF PRODUCTION

Mainte

nance

Breedin

g

Early g

estat

ion

Late

gestat

ion

Lact

ation

1.00

1.20

1.40

1.60

1.80

2.00

2.20

2.40

Energy requirements, lb. TDN/day132-lb. mature non-dairy doe

(twins)

Maintenance Breeding Early gestation Late gestation Lactation1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

3.50

Energy requirements, lb. TDN/day176-lb. mature ewe (twins)

Source: Nutrient requirements of small ruminants, 2007

PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS VARY BY STAGE OF PRODUCTION

Maintenance Breeding Early gestation Late gestation Lactation0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

Protein requirements, lb/day176-lb. mature ewe (twins)

Mainte

nance

Breedin

g

Early g

estat

ion

Late

gestat

ion

Lacta

tion

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40

0.45

0.50

Protein requirements, lb/day132-lb. non-dairy doe (twins)

Source: Nutrient requirements of small ruminants, 2007

MINERAL REQUIREMENTS VARY BY STAGE AND LEVEL OF PRODUCTION

Maintenance Breeding Early gestation Late gestation Early lactation1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10.0

Mineral requirements, g/d176-lb. mature ewe (twins)

Maintenance Breeding Early gestationLate gestation Early lactation1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10.0

Mineral requirements, g/d132-lb non-dairy doe (twins)

Calcium Phosphorus

Source: Nutrient requirements of small ruminants, 2007

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS VARY BY LEVEL OF PRODUCTION

Single Twins Triplets1.60

1.70

1.80

1.90

2.00

2.10

2.20

2.30

2.40

Energy requirements, lb. TDN/day

132-doe, late gestation

Single Twins Triplets 1.60

1.80

2.00

2.20

2.40

2.60

2.80

3.00

3.20

3.40

Energy requirements, lb. TDN/d176-lb. mature ewe, late gestation

Source: Nutrient requirements of small ruminants, 2007

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS VARY BY DESIRED LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE, E.G. ADG

No gain 0.11 0.22 0.33 0.44 0.550.50

0.70

0.90

1.10

1.30

1.50

1.70

Energy requirements, lb. TDN/d44-lb. intact Boer buckling

0.44 0.55 0.660000000000001 0.880.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

Energy requirements, lb. TDN/d66-lb. ram lamb, 4 mos. early

maturing

Source: Nutrient requirements of small ruminants, 2007

COMMON NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS Acidosis Bloat Copper toxicity Enterotoxemia Floppy kid syndrome Milk fever Polioencephalomalacia Pregnancy toxemia Scours (diarrhea) Urinary calculi White muscle disease

ACIDOSISruminal lactic acidosis, grain overload, grain poisoning, engorgement

Develops as a result of animals consuming too much carbohydrates; primarily grain, sometimes by-product feed (often accidental consumption).

Results in lowered rumen pH Can be life threatening

clinical vs. subclinical (which goes unnoticed). More common in sheep than goats and cattle. Symptoms: simple indigestion, discomfort, anorexia,

diarrhea, teeth grinding, muscle twitching, laminitis, and ruminal stasis (and death).

Treatment: depends upon severity of symptoms, sodium bicarbonate, antacids, antibiotics, IV fluids, surgery

Prevention: introduce grains slowly to diet, add dietary buffers, feed ionophores, feed whole grains, have roughage in diet, free choice sodium bicarbonate.

BLOATrumen tympany Form of indigestion caused by excessive accumulation of

gas in rumen. Symptoms

Can be life threateningDistended rumen (left side)Pain and discomfortAnxietyLabored breathingStaggering and recumbancyDeath

Treatment (depends upon severity)Emergency rumenotomyInsertion of rumen trocarPassage of stomach tubeAdministration of anti-foaming agent (vegetable oil, mineral oil, polaxalene)Antacid drenchForce animal to burp

TYPES OF BLOAT

FrothyPasture

Common in animals consuming legume-dominant pastures (especially alfalfa and clover) and green chop, cereal grains, and wet spring grass.

FrothyFeedlot

Occurs in animals consuming high grain diets, especially finely ground rations.

Free gas or dry bloat

Animal is unable to eructate.

Often caused by an obstruction.

Can also be the result of posture, e.g. cast.

Abomasal

Occurs in mostly in artificially reared lambs and kids.

Cause not known: believed to be caused by a build-up of bacteria in the stomach.

PREVENTION OF BLOAT

Pasture bloat Gradual introduction to pasture Restrict intake by feeding hay

before grazing Mixed swards of grass and

legumes Anti-foaming agents Ionophores

Abomasal

Small meals Self-feeding Cold milk Add yogurt or

probiotics to milk Vaccination for

enterotoxemia

Feed lot bloat Gradual introduction of

concentrates to diet Don’t feed finely ground

feeds Whole grain feeding Roughage in diet Anti-foaming agents Ionophores

COPPER TOXICITY Sheep are most susceptible. Goats are more susceptible than cattle and pigs Can be acute or chronic Toxicity occurs when copper accumulates in liver to

exceed 1000 mg Cu/kg DM Breed differences exist. Many factors affect copper metabolism. Copper aborption more important than concentration in

feed; influenced by type of diet and level of Mo, S, Fe, and to a lesser extent Ca and Zn. 70-75% aborption rate in newborn ruminants < 10 perent in adults

Copper has many antagonists

SOURCES OF COPPER IN DIET All feeds and forages contain

copper. Sources which provide

supplemental Cu Minerals formulated for other species. Complete feeds or supplements formulated for other species. Some by-product feeds contain higher levels of copper or copper antagonists. Pastures that have been fertilized with poultry or pig manure. Footbaths containing copper (copper sulfate) Water (especially copper pipes)

WHAT ABOUT COPPER DEFICIENCY? More common in goats; can occur in sheep. Non-specific signs: ill thrift, scouring, rough, dull hair

coat, anemia, and poor performance (milk, growth, and reproductive)

More specific symptoms: swayback (enzootic ataxia), poor wool quality (steely or stringy wool), and loss of hair color.

Copper deficiency should be confirmed with diagnostic testing.

Copasure® (Animax) and UltraCruz® (Santa Cruz) boluses are a means to provide supplemental copper to small ruminants. They may also have an inhibitory affect on the barber pole worm.

Producers should consult with a nutritionist and/or veterinarian before providing supplemental copper to their animals, especially sheep.

ENTEROTOXEMIAOVEREATING DISEASE, PULPY KIDNEY DISEASE

There are several enterotoxemias (clostridium perfringins) that can affect small ruminants. Type C and especially D are most important.

Bacteria are normal inhabitant of gut. They bacteria proliferate, they produce a toxin.

Disease is usually triggered by change in diet, usually an increase in the amount of grain, supplement, milk, milk replacer, and/or grass (feeds that are rich in starch, sugar and/or protein).

Heavy infestations of tapeworms can predispose lambs to enterotoxemia.

Death is usually sudden. Treatment (rarely effective) includes anti-toxin and antibiotics, Prevention includes vaccination of females (in late gestation)

and offspring and good feeding management.

VACCINATION FOR ENTEROTOXEMIA It is recommended that all sheep and goats be vaccinated

for clostridial diseases with either the 3, 7, or 8 way vaccine. Pregnant females should be vaccinated approximately one

month prior to parturition with the toxoid. If females have never been vaccinated or their vaccination

status is unknown, they will require two injections, approximately 3-4 weeks apart, followed by an annual booster.

Lambs/kids that consume sufficient colostrum will acquire passive immunity, which will begin to wane at approximately 6 weeks.

Lambs and kids should be vaccinated at approximately 6-8 and 10-12 weeks of age; earlier vaccinations can be given to offspring from unvaccinated dams or who did not consume adequate colostrum.

Feeder lambs/kids should receive two CDT vaccinations. The antitoxin can be given in the event of an outbreak and/or

during periods of high risk.

FLOPPY KID SYNDROME (FKS)fading kid syndrome

First reported in 1987. Cause unknown Affects kids 3-10 days of age (normal at birth)

They exhibit metabolic acidosis (low blood pH) and have elevated d-lactate.

Symptoms: depression, weakness, flaccid paralysis, and distension of abdomen.

Differential diagnosis: enterotoxemia, white muscle disease, abomasal bloat, and septicemia

Treatment: early detection, remove milk from diet, IV or oral administration of sodium bicarbonate, supportive care

No prevention Research showed that milk ingestion plays a central role.Hand-rearing and feeding bovine colostrum/milk or milk replacer can prevent disease (Germany, Italy).

LISTERIOSIScircling disease

Central nervous system and digestive system infection caused by bacteria Listeria monocytogenes.

Commonly associated with feeding of spoiled silage; otherwise occurs sporadically.

Small ruminants more susceptible. Causes neurological symptoms: encephalitis,

depression, anorexia, disorientation, head tilt, circling, and facial paralysis; can cause abortion in females.

Differential diagnoses: polio, rabies, pregnancy toxemia, brain abscess, ear infection, meningeal worm.

Treatment: early intervention with high doses of antibiotics (Penicillin G) and supportive care.

http://www.shesafarmer.com/blog/sick-goat-saga-listeriosis

MILK FEVER parturient paresis, hypocalcaemia

Deficiency of calcium (Ca) in bloodstream Can occur before or after parturition. Caused by inadequate (or excess intake) of calcium

during late pregnancy Symptoms: stiff uncoordinated gait, muscling

trembling, weakness, bloat, depressed rumen motility, recumbancy, hind legs bent behind, and death.

Differential diagnosis: pregnancy toxemia Treatment: depends upon progression (severity),

usually IV injection of calcium borogluconate, with oral or SQ administration of calcium to prevent relapse. Also treat for pregnancy toxemia.

Prevention: proper amount of calcium in diet (green leafy legume hay, limestone are good sources of calcium) minimal handling of pregnant females

POLIOENCEPHALOMALACIAPEM, polio, cerebrocortical necrosis, thiamine deficiency

Metabolic disorder with neurological symptoms. Associated with thiamine status and/or high sulfur intake. Thiamine deficiency caused by inadequate production by

rumen or factors that interfere with action of thiamine. Sulfur-related PEM due to high sulfur intake Can occur on pasture, but animals on concentrate diets

(↓ rumen pH) are most susceptible. Can also result from prolonged treatment with Corid®

(thiamine inhibitor). Acute: blindness, star gazing, followed by recumbency,.

Subacute: separation, stop eating, twitching of ears and face, head held upright.

Differential diagnosis: pregnancy toxemia, enterotoxaemia, and listeriosis, rabies, tetanus, CAE, and plant poisoning.

Treatment: thiamine, IV followed by IM.

PREGNANCY TOXEMIAlambing paralysis, twin lamb disease, pregnancy ketosis

Affects females during late pregnancy (1-3 weeks) Caused by a deficiency of energy (TDN) during late

pregnancy (often indicative of a flock/herd nutrition problem).

Females carrying multiple fetuses are most prone; fat females also susceptible.

During early stages of disease, can treat with oral propylene glycol; it may also be prudent to induce parturition (Rx).

Treatment of advanced cases is usually less rewarding and may require an emergency caesarian section.

Differential diagnosis: milk fever Prevent with good feeding management

BCS’s of >2.5 during late gestationGrain feeding during late gestation to meet increased energy requirements, especially for multi-bearing females.

DIARRHEA (SCOURS)Increased frequency, fluidity, or volume of fecal excretion

Many causes: bacterial, viral, parasites, diet, and stress.

Accounted for 46% of lamb losses in study at US Sheep Experiment Station.

In younger lambs/kids, e. coli is most common cause of scours.

In older lambs/kids, GI parasites, especially coccidia, are most common causes of diarrhea.

In adults, most scours are self-limiting. Often a symptom of other illness, e.g. acidosis,

enterotoxemia, Johne’s disease, and plant toxins. Treatment depends upon cause: anti-diarrheal

medications, anti-coccidial medications, antibiotics, anthelmintics, probiotics, and electrolytes (hydration).

URINARY CALCULIurolithiasis, water belly, stones

Common metabolic disease of male sheep and goats, especially wethers.

Calculi stones, usually phosphate salts, lodge in urinary tract and prevent urination

Primary cause of urinary calculi is high grain-low roughage diets, with an imbalance of calcium to phosphorus. Rations high in phosphorus and magnesium Stones can also be composed of other

minerals, depending upon diet (e.g. calcium rich diets).

Affected animals strain to pass urine and stand with arched back.

Treatment depends upon location of obstruction and progression of symptoms: ammonium chloride drench, smooth muscle relaxants, surgery.

PREVENTION OF URINARY CALCULI

Calcium to phosphorus ratio of at least 2:1; up to 4:1, not less than 1:1

Roughages as a part of all small ruminant diets.- to increase saliva production+ alfalfa is a good source of calcium

Adequate water intake- clean, constant source of water

Feed additivesLimestone is a good source of calcium Salt to increase water intake and urine productionAmmonium chloride to acidify urine

Castration alternativesProduction: do you really need to castrate?Pets: later castration (by vet, under anesthesia)

WHITE MUSCLE DISEASEWMD, stiff lamb disease, nutritional muscular hypertrophy

Degenerative muscle disease of large animals. Caused by a deficiency of selenium and/or Vitamin E Can affect skeletal or cardiac muscles (sudden death, poor

response to Tx); can also cause symptoms of ill thrift and reproductive losses.

Most common in young lambs/kids: newborns and fast-growing, kids more than lambs

CausesInadequate dietary supply of selenium and/or vitamin EFeeding of poor quality hay; lack of access to pasture

TreatmentSupplemental selenium and/or vitamin E

PreventionAdequate selenium and vitamin E in diet, especially pregnant females, as selenium crosses placenta (vitamin E does not)Feed balanced rations, force feed mineralsInjections for at-risk animals (poor alternative to proper diet)

RECOMMENDED RESOURCES

Nutrient Requirements of Small ruminants: Sheep, Goats, Cervids, and New World Camelids, National Research Council 2007