Introduction….. David King … page 1-3
La Tene Celtic Artistic Motifs…. Jenn Mclean…page 4-6
The Triskele in Celtic Art….page 4 The Battersea Shield….page 5 A Celtic Continuum, An Artistic Identity…. page 6
Celtic Migrations…. David King….page 8-14
Eastern Europe….page 9-10 Celts in Italy….page 11 The Galatians… page 12-13
Celtic Influence on Roman Society….Kasey Luft…page
15-19 Celts in Gaul…page 16 Celts in Britain….page 17 Celts in Iberia….page 18 Celtic Arthur….Mackenzie Dickeson….page 20-23
The Legend of King Arthur….page 20 Arthur in the Celtic World….page 21 Arthur in Battle….page 22
Celtic Christianity….Nicole Boycott….page 24-28
Churches….page 25 Crosses….page 26 Religious Literature…page 27
A Question of the Celts:
The Issues of the ‘Celtic’ Identity By: David King
The term ‘Celtic’ means something to most people, but the images conjured up are widely varying. For
some, it may mean little more than a basketball or soccer team. To others, it suggests a modern Pan-European
identity and cultural heritage of the modern Irish and those who once, and still do, had a Celtic language. Some,
like the French, whom most would never consider a Celtic nation, are infused with a romanticized sense of their
Celtic or Gallic ancestry. But for most, it suggests ancient heroes charging into battle with more courage than
clothing, or kilted Scots riding over the moors, even robed monks creating dazzling works of religious art in
chilly monasteries. When looking at it all, the term ‘Celtic’ seems to reflect a continuity with the ancient past
that many of us share. But where have these images come from? Why are they so different? What extent do
these images actually reflect reality? Who were the Celts, and when did they actually live?
No one is particularly sure where the term ‘Celtic’ came from. The earliest reference to the Celts came
in the form of an obscure poem by 4th
-century CE poet Rufus Festus Avienus, who quotes an ancient 6th
-century
sailing manual that mentions that beyond the tin-producing Oestrymnides was a land now occupied by the
Keltoi (Cunliffe 1997, 3). With bias, inconsistency, and liberal use of second-hand accounts, classical writers
such as Polybius, Poseidonius, and Diodorus Siculus described and speculated about the Celtae and Galli
(Latin), or the Keltoi and Galatae (Greek) (James 1993, 9-10). In contradiction to modern assumptions, the
term ‘Celt’ was never used in reference to the ancient Irish or British by any classical source, and only labeled
those who lived on the continent as such. The idea that the peoples of Iron Age Britain and Ireland were
‘Celtic’ was only proposed during the 17th
and 18th
centuries, as a result of linguistic analysis (James 1993, 9).
After extensive survey over many years by many scholars, it was concluded that the languages of the ancient
Gauls was related to contemporary Irish, Scots Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton. The term ‘Celtic’ was given, and
now was understood that this term referred to a group of related languages (James 1993, 8).
During the 17th
and 18th
century, this was all decided during a time of great nationalism in Europe. For
Britain and France, a period of ‘Celtomania’ took hold, where each nation scratched for any evidence of a great
and glorious past to set them apart. An image of romantic Celtism arose: free noble barbarians, unwilling for
the yoke of Rome to be placed upon them. Great warriors but profound natural philosophers, these Celts were
the true ancestors of the British and French, providing examples of their innate greatness. These themes have
not entirely disappeared today; the French still look to Vercingetorix as an example of French spirit (Cunliffe
1997, 19). In turn, the linguistic classification was extended to all the people of Britain, Ireland and the
continent who were thought to have spoken Celtic tongues in pre-Roman and later times. This very broad
definition of the Celts as an ethnic group is still largely accepted and popular today, and influences our portrayal
of them in pop culture and literature, further strengthening these images of the romantic Celt.
Fig. 1: A simplified diagram of the traditional Celtic language tree, showing the relationships
between the different dialects.
Our understanding of the Celts today has changed. Through archaeology, analysis of original sources,
and linguistic study, the romantic vision of the noble Celtic savage and his European dominance has begun to
fade. It is highly unlikely that all the ancient peoples who have been labeled as ‘Celts’ referred to themselves
by that name, or even had any idea of some greater Celtic identity. Beyond related speech, the ancient Celts
were probably no more likely to be an ethnic unity than the speakers of the Romance languages, which are
derived from Latin and are closely related. The Celts were not a homogenous family of people who consciously
held a single, ethnic identity. In turn, ideas of a ‘Celtic Empire’, or even a universal and exclusive material
Celtic culture, are impossible and cannot be used in any serious discussion of the Celts. The different Celtic
peoples may have had great similarity in social structure, religion, and material culture, but there was great
variability within that. For example, political structures of the Celts in the last few centuries BCE varied from
small tribal kingdoms in Ireland to small-scale states, such as the Aedui and Arverni (James 1993, 125-127).
Druidism, although possibly the most recognizable feature of the Celtic peoples, was not a general phenomena
in the Celtic world but only occurred in the North and West of the Celtic world (Cunliffe 1997, 190-197). Even
style of warfare varied from region to region.
This is not to say there is no larger Celtic identity whatsoever. There is still a common (but not
exclusive in any way) material culture, a related religious system, evidence for some homogeneity in cultural
practices across the Celtic world (as separated as modern Turkey and Ireland), and a group of peoples speaking
a series of closely related languages. The classical authors did recognize many of the Northern European
peoples we know as Celts as closely related and connected peoples, enough to ascribe diplomatic and kinship
ties between them (Haywood 2001, 54). Therefore, one can say that there is a modern concept of a Celtic
identity, just perhaps not recognized by the ancient Celts themselves. In this magazine, we hope to capture and
describe a few episodes in the long history of the Celtic peoples, ranging from the earliest Celtic migrations to
the Celtic revivals in Ireland in the early medieval period. What is important to remember when reading about
and researching the Celts is it is the sheer diversity of these peoples that makes them so fascinating. They are
unlike any other culture on Earth, changing and adapting over thousands of years but still retaining some aspect
that makes them recognizably Celts.
Fig. 2: A statue of the Gallic resistance leader Vercingtorix
erected by Napoleon III during the 19th
century, which
dominated the plateau at Alesia. Napoleon, faced with the
expansion of Prussian power, organized a series of excavations
and commemorations at Alesia, to remember Gallic spirit in
the face of certain conquest (Haywood 2001, 132).
References:
1. Haywood J., 2001. Atlas of the Celtic World. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London
2. Cunliffe B., 1999. The Ancient Celts. Penguin Publishing, London
3. James S., 1993. The World of the Celts. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London.
Images:
Fig. 1: http://whitefiles.org/b2_h/1_celtic_museum/zcm/cm4/4_lngg.htm “Introduction to Indo-European
Languages”
Fig. 2: http://www.burgundytoday.com/historic-places/archaeological-sites/alesia.htm “Alesia”
Fig. 3: http://www.bellaterreno.com/art/celtic/celtic_tribes.aspx “Celtic Tribes”
Fig. 3: A general map of
the Celtic world. The Celts
spread from Central
Europe, around Southern
Germany, to all corners of
Europe, even up into the
Bosphorus. There were
also extensive raids deep
into Greece, Italy, and
Spain, with a raiding party
of three tribes even
settling in central
Anatolia.
The Triskele in Celtic Art
In the most basic terms, the triskele is the most easily recognizable symbol
associated with Celtic culture. The triskele is a symbol which appears in
many cultures, notably Greek (from which the word triskele originates) but
has long since been integrated into and become synonymous with Celtic
culture. Some scholars believe that it was an ancient sun symbol and that the
triple prongs represented the solar rays, though its exact significance is
unknown.
Regardless, it can be extrapolated by its extreme repetition that it was certainly an important symbol. Though
the triskele retains its Celtic association it predates the La Tene period by a considerable margin, having been
found in carvings at Newgrange, County Meath, Ireland, dated to circa 3200 BCE. That being said, the triskele
did not become a regular feature of Celtic art until the early Iron Age – it is one of the most defining features of
the period, and for some scholars is considered the point at which a more unified Celtic identity began to
emerge. It is discursive to assume that the Celts were a cultural singularity, and it is worth establishing that
there were dozens of Celtic groups throughout mainland Europe, as well as groups which may not have self-
identified as Celtic but were later grouped as such due to Celtic influence in their language or material culture.
What is perhaps more accurate is to say that for the insular Celts, particularly those of Ireland, the influence of
La Tene culture became the catalyst for a recognizable trend and the beginning of a more widely realized ethnic
identity. Whatever its origins or exact meanings, the triskele has long since been completely integrated into
Celtic artwork and visual identity, and some of its conceptual importance can be found in the repetition of
threes, particularly common to Irish mythology. In the famous Irish saga The Tain, which follows the
adventures of the hero Cu Chulainn, there are multiple references to things happening in threes – the guards will
shout three times as a warning, and Cu Chulainn must approach a druidess three times before she will answer
his questions. Whether it is a simple, ancient sun symbol or something far more profound, it is undeniable that
the triskele is deeply ingrained not just in Celtic artwork, but in the cultural heart of its people.
The Battersea Shield
The Battersea Shield is a perfect example of early La Tene artwork at its finest. It is not a functional piece, but
rather an ornate decorative fixture for a wooden shield.
Though it does make as much use of the spiral motif as many later pieces
do, it is interesting to note that it still retains a triplicity theme in the three
decorative roundels. It is possible that because this is such an early piece
(350-50BC) that it predates the integration of the triskele into insular
Celtic art, but the same essence remains in the deliberate geometric
pattern and organic spiral patterns. This piece is actually British in origin
– though scholars often credit La Tene as being the period during which
the insular migration of the Celts occurred, thus marking the inception of
a new kind of Celtic identity which is predominately associated with
Ireland and Scotland, it would be a mistake to leave out Britain and Wales
from the equation. Ireland and Scotland certainly had a different relationship with the Romans than Britain did and it
would be possible to argue that as such their cultural identities were less infringed upon, but Britain has significant Celtic
heritage nonetheless. The Battersea Shield is an exceptional piece of La Tene material culture, named for the site of its
discovery – Battersea Bridge over the River Thames in London, England. It is not unique in this regard; many pieces of
La Tene style pieces were discovered in England, which makes a compelling argument for migration patterns,
intercultural trade and artistry techniques, and a common cultural denominator. It is difficult to say with absolute certainty
what the geographical range of these finds signifies, as they have been found on the islands of Ireland, Scotland and
Britain – it would seem to suggest a single group that migrated from mainland Europe and eventually developed different
nuances of culture which were traded back and forth, but ultimately some commonality of origin was retained, at least
through artistic motifs.
A Celtic Continuum, An Artistic Identity
La Tene artistic motifs are the foundation for what is considered visually Celtic; yet the Celtic aesthetic is
coloured by contact with other cultures as well, such as Greek, Etruscan and Viking. This speaks to a continuum of
identity represented in visual context, merging several variable elements with strong recurrent themes to create something
which is visually striking and distinctive, but which also tells a story about the people who made it. Celtic art in general
and La Tene art in particular makes much use of the triple-whorled triskele symbol; when Ireland became a Christian
nation, the famous religious text the Book of Kells featured hundreds of triskele interspersed in the illuminated pages,
right alongside the apostles. Or there are the crosses of the Irish Christian saint, Brigid; traditionally they are visually very
similar to a triskele, though they generally sport four prongs rather than three – like the triskele, it is considered they are
meant to mimic an ancient solar symbol. Though Saint Brigid is very much a Christian figure, these crosses are talismans
of pagan origin, an echo of a cultural motif which was not extinguished but rather was transmogrified. It becomes a
powerful symbol of identity in Celtic art, one which endures despite the early overpowering influence of Christianity and
persists to this day.
Bibliography
Sources The Triskele in Celtic Art: Boltin, L. (1977) Treasures of Early Irish Art, 1500 B.C. to 1500 A.D. 4th ed. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Cunliffe, B. (1999) The Ancient Celts. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Markale, J. (1993) The Celts: Uncovering the Mythic and Historic Origins of Western Culture. Inner Traditions.
Raftery, J. (1939) Early Iron Age Decoration on the Dolmen at Rathkenny, Co. Meath. Journal of the County Louth
Archaeological Society, 9 (3).
Shee, E. (1981) The Megalithic Art of Western Europe. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Image Credit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triskel_type_Amfreville.svg
The Battersea Shield: Cunliffe, B. (1999) The Ancient Celts. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Markale, J. (1993) The Celts: Uncovering the Mythic and Historic Origins of Western Culture. Inner Traditions.
Stevick, R. (2009) The Primary Plan of the Battersea Shield. Antiquaries Journal, 89 p.53. The British Museum (2012) The Battersea Shield. [online] Available at: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_prb/t/the_battersea_shield.aspx [Accessed: November 6, 2012].
Image Credit:
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_prb/t/the_battersea_shield.aspx
A Celtic Continuum, An Artistic Identity: Boltin, L. (1977) Treasures of Early Irish Art, 1500 B.C. to 1500 A.D. 4th ed. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Cunliffe, B. (1999) The Ancient Celts. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Markale, J. (1993) The Celts: Uncovering the Mythic and Historic Origins of Western Culture. Inner Traditions.
Mason, T. (1945) St. Brigid's Crosses. The Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, 75 (3). Image Credit: http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/1887/
The Celtic Migrations By: David King
Introduction
:
Although their role has been somewhat diminished by recent genetic testing and developments in
archaeology, large-scale migrations are still an extremely important feature of Celtic history. Celtic society was
highly competitive, and migration may have been a way of relieving pressures such as overpopulation, land
shortage, and inter-tribal conflicts over prestige and hierarchy. The first migrations have been documented to
have begun between the 4th
and 5th
centuries BCE (Haywood 2001, 36). Scholars, through an examination of
archaeology and analysis of the extensive documentation by ancient scholars believe that the traditional
homelands of the Celts, Central Europe, were becoming heavily overpopulated (Cunliffe 1997, 74). This
increase in population in a society where the warrior system was so essential would have led to instability,
which may have been lessened by the migrations of certain populations. However, this may not account for all
migrations. The warrior elites of the early La Tene Celts maintained their position by acts of martial prowess
and by displaying their ability to command large retinues (Cunliffe 1997, 75). Both of these could be achieved
through the undertaking of large-scale raids, which, if successful would benefit the leader and his followers with
increases in prestige and material goods.
In short, a growing population could be dealt with in a few ways. In the simplest of situations, a leader
could find a new territory to occupy with his entourage. As a result, distinct enclaves of the elite warrior class
would have been carved out far enough from the homeland who would have kept their distinct identity long
enough to leave archaeologically-visible remains of their presence. At it’s most complicated form, migration
may have been the gathering of larger bands of roaming warriors with no particular territorial affiliation under
one leader. The growing population and strict social constraints would have left these young men with little to
claim for their own (possibly paralleling the hypothesis for the Viking raiding and migrations in the early
medieval period), and it would have taken little for one charismatic leader to take his entourage to the rich
south, east or west (James 1993, 52-54). Others would have followed, swelling the movement to a migration
and inspiring others to follow suit. A rapidly escalating situation such as this could be the reason for the
powerful and surprisingly quick migrations from Central Europe outwards.
Fig. 1: This is a general map of the Celtic migrations. The earliest migrations have been traditionally understood as being around
500-400 BCE into Iberia, Gaul and Britain, followed by the earliest movements southward from Germany to Cisalpine Gaul just
below the Alps (Haywood 2001 36-37). Just around that time, the Celts began an east and southeast movement as well, occupying
Pannonia and the modern day Balkans. Large-scale raids and mercenary action led the Celts deep into Italy and Greece, with three
tribes settling in Central Anatolia after a failed attack on Delphi during the mid 3rd
century BCE (Haywood 2001, 36-41). There was
further movement eastward, with some tribes possibly moving further into Scythia and the Bosphorus, while some Celts found
employment by the Ptolemies as mercenaries in Egypt during the 2nd
century BCE (James 1993, 41).
Section 1: Spain and Eastern Europe
Spain:
The origins and migration dates of the Celtiberians are mysterious and largely hypothetical. Traditional
interpretations of the Celtiberian migrations have followed the largely simplistic invasion model, with scholars
developing a ‘Two-Celtic-waves’ theory. This saw a wave of proto-Celts arriving from the Pyrenees around
1000 BCE, with a second, more complex, migration bringing in new peoples in the sixth century (Cunliffe
1997, 139). However, modern scholars believe this to be over-simple. Invasionist theories are rejected in favor
of a model based on assimilation of selected cultural aspects by the indigenous Iberian elites. This model is
based on the idea that the Iberians and Celts shared some early linguistic and ideological traits common to both
during the Bronze Age, making assimilation easier (Cunliffe 1997, 139). These characteristics include Iberian
personal and place names that are closely related to the earliest Celtic languages, as well as house architecture
that is almost identical to the British Celts (who have been long assumed to have had many early Celtic traits
compared to the continental Celts), burial rites, and natural religious rites in springs, oaks, and rivers. All these
traits are identical to the early Celts, leading scholars to believe that a proto-Celtic culture developed into what
we know as the Celtiberians (Cunliffe 1997, 137-140). This was achieved through migration from the west
bringing specific Celtic traits that were assimilated by the Iberian peoples, who already shared many similarities
with the Celtic newcomers.
Fig. 2: This image is a rough map of
the possible spread of the Celtic
language throughout Iberia. There
are no specific dates for the spread of
the Celtiberians, and scholars can
hypothesize that the Celts entered
Iberia around 500-400 BCE, asthe
Celtiberians had a distinctly Hallstatt
material culture. This has been
assumed to mean that the
Celtiberians migrated before the La
Tene material culture became
dominant.
Eastern Europe:
Celtic migration eastwards is a little less hazy. During the first migrations outward from the Celtic
homelands around 400 BCE, classical scholars largely agree that some part of this exodus moved eastwards
(James 1993, 40-41). Geography seems to dictate that they moved along the Danube corridor into Moravia,
Slovakia and Hungary. By 335 BCE, Celtic raiders are recorded in the Balkans, and one can assume that Celtic
settlers were entrenched in the region (Cunliffe 1997, 79). The fourth century BCE sees the development of
Celtic communities across the entire very large and very diverse territories of Moravia, Lower Austria,
Hungary, and southwest Slovakia. Populations and fighting bands moved comparatively freely over large
territories, intermingling and intermarrying with local peoples, making these Celts fairly different from those we
find in Gaul and the Po Valley. However, they were recognized as Celtic and spoke a Celtic language, so one
can recognize them as Celts (Cunliffe 1997, 172). The Celtic expansion from the Danube was in full force early
in the 3rd
century BCE, with major thrusts to the south and east clearing the Thracian kingdoms out of the way
and Celtic leaders establishing themselves there, such as the Kingdom of Tylis on the black sea. The Celts had
relations with the Macedonians, ranging from diplomatic embassies with Alexander himself in 335 BCE to the
slaughter of a Macedonian army and general in 280 BCE (Cunliffe 1997, 81). The Celts moved further east as
well, into the Ukraine. Their presence is specifically mentioned in a marble inscription in Olbia, dating to the
late third or early second century BCE, where a strong force of raiding Galatians threatened the city and were
repulsed (Cunliffe 1997, 175). Additional evidence is found through extensive La Tene metalwork and place
names, which are suggestive of settlement on a more permanent basis than that of a roving war band.
Fig 3: This is a large overview of
the Celtic spread eastwards,
starting with Pannonia around
400 BCE. A large-scale and
uniform material culture
developed in the east, where it
then began to spread down into
the Balkans, dominating local
Thracian, Illyrian and Dacian
tribes, as well as into southern
Ukraine the Bosphorus. A
distinct Celto-Thracian culture
developed. Celtic migration
eastwards came to a head with
the invasion of Greece by
Brennus.
Section 2: Celts in Italy
Around 400 BCE Celtic tribes, identified by Roman authors as Gauls, crossed the Alpine passes and descended upon the
Etruscan cities of the Po Valley and Tuscany (Haywood 2001, 42). Perhaps attracted by the luxuries they saw coming out of the
south, Celtic tribes began to settle in the area heavily enough to where the area began to be called Gallia Cisalpina, or ‘Gaul this side
of the Alps’ (James 1993, 34). These settlers were not the first Celtic speakers in the area, with the Golaseccan culture (originating
around 1000 BCE) speaking a Celtic language called Lepontic, perhaps indicated a high degree of Celtic contact and trade with
Northern Italy (Haywood 2001, 42). The migrations coincided when Rome, expanding her power northwards, was taking over the
southern Etruscan cities piece by piece. When the Celts demanded land to settle in the Etruscan town of Clusium, Rome flexed her
new power and sent ambassadors to act on behalf of the city. Negotiations broke down and in the ensuing battle a Celtic warlord was
killed. The Romans refused to pay recompense, and the Celts marched on Rome, destroying a Roman army at Allia and sacking the
city of Rome (James 1993, 34-35). This led to an overall movement of Celtic tribes into Northern Italy, with tribes such as the
Insubres, Cenomani, Senones and curiously the Eastern Celtic tribe of the Boii (who are found from Bohemia to Italy, perhaps
indicating the rise of a uniform and united Celtic tribal group) (Haywood 2001, 42-43).
This devastating blow to Roman power and authority may have been the reason for the unrest that gripped Central Italy for
the next century, in which Celtic tribes and warbands making common appearances. These raids can be best understood in the context
of the Celtic social system, which as mentioned in the introduction, employed raids as a way of maintaining and enhancing prestige
(Cunliffe 1997, 76). The tribes in the Po Valley constantly mounted expeditions such as this, but these were more ambitious and
permanent than the traditional Celtic raiding pattern. The presence of Celtic mercenary warriors was another matter. Cities as far
south as Syracuse, on the southern tip of Sicily, hired large contingents of Celtic mercenaries. Dionysus, a tyrant of Syracuse,
established a permanent colony at Ancona in the territories of the Senones to specifically have a deep pool of Celtic warriors (Cunliffe
1997, 77). These mercenaries saw action as far as Sparta and North Africa. However, as Rome began to regain strength and start a
new expansionist period, the Celts of the Po Valley found themselves facing a threat to their very existence. Celtic tribes began to
unites and create alliances with each other (perhaps indicating a recognition of ethnic and cultural unity), raiding more frequently and
more seriously, but Rome was not be deterred (Cunliffe 1997, 75-78). After a series of devastating wars and battles that took almost a
hundred years, the Celtic presence in Italy was snuffed out by 191 BCE (Haywood 2001, 43).
Fig. 4: This map is a general overview of the Celtic presence in Italy. Starting in around 400 BCE, the
Celts moved southward across the Alps into the Po Valley, crushing the Etruscans and coming into
conflict with the Romans in the early fourth century BCE. The Celts thrust as far down as modern day
Ancona, creating permanent settlements and developing a distinct Celtic culture that drew heavily on
Latin, Estruscan and Greek influences.
Fig. 5: An artists rendering of the Battle of Telamon, where a great Celtic confederacy was
crushed in 225 BCE.
Section 3: The Galatians
The Celtic settlement of Anatolia was a result of the famous Celtic invasion of Greece, led by Brennus
and Achichoris in 279 BCE (Haywood 2001, 38). After sacking Delphi, the invading army was hounded out of
Greece and split up, where one element, consisting of the Trocmi, Tolistobogii, and Tectosages and led by
Lenorios and Lutorios, was hired by King Nicomedes of Bithynia who wanted them to fight in his was the
against the Seleucid Empire (Haywood 2001, 40). What is most interesting about this is that half their total
numbers of 20,000 were non-combatants (women, children and aged) (Cunliffe 1997, 83). This suggests that
unlike the warriors who chose to follow Brennus on his raid, the groups who stayed with Lenorios and Lutorios
were migrant populations in search of new land to settle. These Celts were settled first in the disputed land
between Bithynia and the Seleucid Empire, but after being defeated by Antiochus I, Basileus of the Seleucid
Empire, these Celts moved into the highland areas in the center of Anatolia (James 1993, 41-42). For the next
half-century, these Celts, known as Galatians, were a scourge, unbeatable in battle and plundering almost every
city in Western Anatolia (Cunliffe 1997, 84). Antiochus II himself was even killed in battle against the
Galatians in 261 BCE (James 1993, 40). Until Attalus of Pergamum defeated them in 233 BCE at the Springs
of Kaikos, the Galatians were the dominant power in Anatolia (Cunliffe 1997, 84). The Seleucid and Ptolemaic
rulers used the Galatians extensively as mercenaries, although they seemed to be somewhat unruly and
temperamental. These mercenaries were sometimes entire tribes, hired by rulers and settled in certain areas
(Cunliffe 1997, 84). However, these tribes could get out of hand, as in cases where Prusias of Bithynia had to
slaughter an entire Celtic tribe settled in Phrygia as they kept sacking his cities and destroying his armies (James
1993, 41).
The Galatians, while numerous, ruled a substantial pre-existing population, although they seem to have
kept themselves apart. They preserved their culture and identity for generations, and a strong literary record of
their government gives modern scholars insight into how Celtic tribes governed themselves. Each tribe was
divided into four septs, or clans, probably with distinct territories. A chief ruled each sept, and he was assisted
by a martial leader, two deputy martial leaders, and a judge. It is not clear whether these were elected
magistracies like those found in Gaul, but the twelve septs sent a total of 300 ‘senators’ (possibly the five
officials mentioned previously, in addition to twenty others from each sept) to a national assembly held at a
central shrine called Drunemeton (James 1993, 40-41). There was no real central government or national
Fig. 6: This image maps out the movement of the Galatians into Anatolia, after being repulsed by the
Greeks in the Celtic raid on Delphi. Some parts of the invading force moved back into the Balkans,
even as far as Southern Gaul, while others set up kingdoms along the Black Sea. Three tribes, the
Trocmi, Tolistobogii, and the Tectosages, moved into Central Anatolia.
policy, as the tribes were too jealous of their independence and seemed to have often fought among themselves
(Cunliffe 1993, 85). If there was any doubt to whether this was a truly Celtic system, this last part is trait found
in almost every Celtic group in the world. In the formative century following the first incursion of the Celts
into Asia, the Celtic tribes, fed by constant new arrivals from Europe, maintained a distinctive lifestyle in which
the raid and mercenary service remained an essential part of the social system. The maintenance of a Celtic
social structure, and a further sense of ethnic identity implied by the extensive use of the name ‘Galatian’, is a
remarkable reflection of the strength of Celtic culture. Even after Roman conquest and assimilation in the first
century BCE, aspect of Galatian culture survived. An impressive example of this is the persistence of their
language. When Saint Jerome visited Anatolia in the fourth century AD, he remarked that the language used by
the Galatians around Ancyra was similar to that he had heard among the Treveri at Trier (Southern Germany).
Perhaps, although this is from the hindsight of modern scholarship, he was recognizing the Celtic ancestry of
both peoples.
Fig. 6: A general map of the Galatian territories, as well as documented raids, battles and
settlements. The Galatians largely focused their raids into the vulnerable kingdoms of
the West and South, until they were defeated by Attalus of Pergamum in 233 BCE.
References:
1. Haywood J., 2001. Atlas of the Celtic World. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London
2. Cunliffe B., 1999. The Ancient Celts. Penguin Publishing, London
3. James S., 1993. The World of the Celts. Thames & Hudson Ltd., London.
Images:
1. Figure 1: http://mythicmysteriesmiscellany.devhub.com/blog/498735-celtic-migrations/
2. Figure 2: http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_8/burillo_6_8.html
3. Figure 3: http://baks449.blogspot.ca/2009/09/chapter-53-klingenbach-way-way-back.html
4. Figure 4: http://www.llmap.org/maps/by-country/ita.html
5. Figure 5: https://crux.baker.edu/~cleppa01/Gallico%20Cingeto/resources.html
6. Figure 6: http://balkancelts.wordpress.com/2012/06/10/galatia/
The British Celts:
Recently, a huge archaeological discovery has been uncovered in Britain. A team of archaeologists uncovered a cobbled
road that dates to 100 years before the Romans invaded and civilized Britain (Ellicott, 2011). Tim Malin, the lead
archaeologist, was brought in to uncover what was thought to be a Roman Road. When Mr. Malin dug deeper he found
that a Roman road was actually built on top of an Iron Age road that dates back 100 years before the Romans invaded
Britain. This is the first discovery of a road that has been engineered in several stages and can be conclusively
determined to have been built before the Romans arrived.
The road that was discovered was only 1000 ft. However, the newly discovered road is thought to have been connected
to another road that could have been 40 miles long. This road was created in three different stages; the first stage was
to lay down elder wood as a base, the second stage was to lay silt on top of the elder wood, and the last stage was to lay
river cobbles on top of the silt, which created the highway. Ellicott raises a point where by the Romans may have been
inspired by these Celts, seen as how the Romans actually built on top of the original road. If the Romans were inspired
by this maybe they would have learned from the British Celts and used their techniques to improve their own road
systems.
We can see from another source (Raimund) that Irish roads and British roads may be very similar to one another. This
means that the Celts in Ireland were skilled road builders and from that we could also conclude that the Celts in Britain
were skilled road builders. The Celts may have been a lot more efficient then people give them credit and there is the
possibility that they may have influenced the Romans when building new roads.
The Gaulish Celts:
The Romans, when first encountered the Celts were quite impressed by their appearance (Moulton, 1998, p119).
However, the Celts had very different fashion style from the Romans, the Celts clothing was a lot more practical.
The Romans fashion was based mainly on togas. Fashion started to change within the Roman Empire in the later years.
The Romans adopted the Celtic clothing, as it was more practical. The Celtic clothing consisted of fitted pants, gold
collars around their necks, and a hooded woolen cap. When the Romans adopted Celtic clothing they adopted the fitted
pants, and a cape, women wore a mantle to cover their head (Moulton, 1998, p118). The Romans realized that this is
more practical clothing and adopted this fashion into their own wardrobe.
The Celts were also quite superior in various trades when compared to the Romans (Griffin, 1996). The Celts produced
linen and woolen garments that were of the highest quality and that only the wealthiest Romans could afford. The Celts
also produced very fashionable boots that Romans adored. Recovered fragments of textiles produced by the Celts show
the skill required to create these high quality products. This skill level can only have been maintained from a well-
ordered system of craft apprenticeship.
The Celts, already known for their skill in making crafts and other products, are credited with another important
invention called the ‘four horned saddle’ (Gawronski, 2004). The Celts in Gaul commonly used horses for many different
purposes, so it is entirely possible that they could have invented a more advanced saddle for their riders. The saddle
contained two horns on the front and the back of the saddle, the back horns provide support the rider needs, while the
front two horns stop the rider from somersaulting off (Gawronski, 2004). There is some controversy with this saddle as
there is a possibility it was invented somewhere else, but it does seem like the Romans adopted the saddle after the
Celts and found that this saddle was superior to their own.
When Caesar invaded and captured Gaul into the Roman Empire he saw an opportunity to profit off of the local
agricultural skill he had seen. The Celts had great skill in rearing cattle, growing and harvesting crops. Caesar saw this
skill and used the Celts to produce food for him for eight years when he was at war in Gaul fighting (Filip, 1977). The
Celts were incredibly skilled people who’s influence was much wider then people believe. The Gaulish Celts were
incredibly important for the Roman empire for if it wasn’t for their skill the Romans would never have been able to be as
successful as they were.
The Iberian Celts:
The Celtic migrations have previously been covered in this magazine. We know that there are many different kinds of
Celts and that really the only thing relating the Celts is there language. Each Celtic tribe had essentially a different
society with different material culture.
The Celts that had migrated to Iberia had very different war tactics from say, the Gaulish Celts. Many sources point to
the fact that the Romans actually adopted a type of sword from the Iberian Celts and introduced it into the Roman
infantry as their main weapon.
This weapon may have been referred to as the gladius hispaniensis. There are literary sources that describe the Romans
adopting a shorter sword that allows for greater thrusting and stabbing movements (Roth). Due to the ingenuity of the
Celts in Iberia the Romans were never able to reproduce this sword exactly like the Celtiberians, they were very well
skilled in their metal works and the Romans were never able to match this skill (Roth).
If we are to look at the above figure we can see a theoretical model, created through archaeological evidence, of the
evolution of weapons throughout a half-century. Throughout the half-century it is amazing how many different
weapons were modified and used. We can see from the model that the Romans adopted weapons used by the Celts in
Iberia, or Celtiberia as it says in the figure. It is hard to note which weapon was called the gladius hispaniensis; however,
it may just be a term used in the manufacturing process like toledo steel (Quesada Sanz, 1997). From this figure we can
conclude that there are similarities between the weapons used by the Celtiberians and the Roman Empire. The Roman
Empire adapted the weapon to their precise needs, but they were able to recognize the importance of the
characteristics of this sword and adopt it into their arsenal.
Bibliography: Celtic Influence on the Romans
Cover Page (left to right):
http://www.tumblr.com/tagged/iron-agehttp://www.unc.edu/celtic/catalogue/boudica/map.html
http://www.wessexarch.co.uk/images/reconstruction-ploughing-iron-age
http://downeastblog.blogspot.ca/2007_09_23_archive.html
http://asifbymagiccostumes.com/weaponry/gladius-hispaniensis/
http://www4.uwm.edu/celtic/ekeltoi/volumes/vol6/6_8/burillo_6_8.html
The British Celts:
Ellicott, Clare. "So what did the Romans do for us? Archaeologists find cobbled road that was built 100 years BEFORE they invaded." Mail Online [London] 16 Mar. 2011: n. pag. Roman road doubt after discovery cobbled built 100 years before invasion | Mail Online. Web. 24 Oct. 2012.
Raimund, Karl. "Chariotry and the Road Systems in the Celtic World." Google Scholar. Google, n.d. Web. 3 Nov. 2012. <http://homepage.tinet.ie/~archaeology/roadtonowhere.pdf>.
Ellicot, Claire. Sharpstone Road Construction Stages. 2011. Mail Online, London. Web. 15 Oct 2012.
The Gaulish Celts:
Filip, Jan. "Farming and Land Ownership." Celtic Civilization and Its Heritage. Wellingborough [Eng.: Collet's, 1977. 110-13. Print.
Gawronski, R. S. "Some Remarks on the Origins and Construction of the Roman Military Saddle." Archeologia 55 (2004): 31-40. CEJSH Publication information. Web. 24 Oct. 2012.
Griffin, Nick. "The Celts." National Vanguard Magazine Aug. - Sep. 1996: n. pag. The Celts: Part II.
"Celts." Ancient Greece and Rome: An Encyclopedia for Students. Ed. Carroll Moulton. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1998. 118-119. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 29 Oct. 2012.
The Iberian Celts:
Quesada Sanz, F. "Gladius Hispaniensis : An Archaeological View from Iberia." Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 8 (1997): 251-70. Print.
Roth, Catherine. "Sword." The Suda. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. The Suda On Line. Web. 3 Nov. 2012. <http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin/search.pl?db=REAL&search_method=QUERY&login=guest&enlogin=guest&user_list=LIST&page_num=1&searchstr=Romans+adopted&field=any&num_per_page=100>.
Quesada Sanz, F. Suggested evolution of Celtiberian and Iberian sword types and the origin of the gladius
hispaniensis. 1997. Gladius Hispaniensis: An Archaeological View from Iberia. Web. 2 Nov 2012.
King Arthur in Celtic Legend
The Legend of King Arthur:
Amid the hundreds of legendary heroes throughout history there is one man who stands out. King Arthur is
one of the most well known legends of all time with countless plays, novels and films portraying his life.
Though he is mentioned in early historical accounts of battles most of the history surrounding the Arthur
legend is fabricated. There is little evidence to show that the characters we know and love from these versions
ever existed. Merlin, Guinevere, Lancelot and Mordred were all added into the story later. One of the earliest
mentions of Arthur is in the
believe that he will rise again giving him the title, The Once and Future King. Though King Arthur’s significance
appears to be based in British history it is thought that he was more of a hero to the Celts. This is where he
first appeared in sources and previous to this he was a feature of many oral histories. The Celts saw him as a
hero before the modern world tangled him up into this polished version that we now see.
Historia Brittonum, written by Nennius around the ninth
century. In this text he is said to have fought in nine
battles against the Saxons. However, there are some
historians who believe that he was involved in twelve
battles as twelve is a mystical number. The image of
Arthur as a wild barbarian figure has changed quite a lot
with retellings of the story. Many now see him as a wise
king sitting on a jewelled throne. His image has become
romanticised and the peoples of Europe revere him for
the heroic deeds he is said to have done. The legend has
developed to include the love story between Arthur’s
best knight Lancelot and his wife, Guinevere. One of his
greatest achievements is thought to be the Round Table,
which caused every knight who sat around it to be made
equal in status. Many of Arthur’s knights are thought to
have ventured on chivalrous quests and adventures.
Arthur himself is supposed to have set off with his knights
in search of the Holy Grail which ultimately resulted in his
disappearance. He is said to now sleep on the isle of
Avalon, the mystical land of the great priestesses, where
he will remain until there is a crisis that requires he wake.
Many people
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inns
bruck_1_262.jpg
Statue of King Arthur, Fifteenth
century
Arthur in the Celtic World:
The King Arthur that we know today still has the bare bones of his history; he is a warrior hero from an age
where we know little. Over time he has grown as an influence of propaganda and wise monarchial rule. But
Arthur’s Celtic origins are undeniable. The Arthur of the late sixth century and onwards is most likely a
combination of a British chief of the same name and the Celtic god, Artaius. Although many Celts before this
time saw him as near godlike. The oldest story featuring Arthur is the Welsh tale of Kilhwch and Olwen. In this
tale Kilhwch is sent off on a quest that will likely kill him. His quest leads him to Arthur’s castle where he asks
for
seven men from three ships returned from the expedition. Perhaps the reasoning behind the awe of King
Arthur was that he was famed as such a great ruler. He was fair and just but he was also courageous in a way
that was liable to lead others into danger. His knights loved him so furiously that they would follow him into
any situation despite its propensity for death. In fact, more often than not they faced situations such as these
to test their allegiance to the king and the kingdom. This kind of loyalty is rare anywhere in history. This
worked well for Arthur as he was often in battle.
assistance. Arthur sends some knights to
help him and Kilhwch marries a fair
maiden, accomplishing many impossible
tasks in the process. This tale is the first
to recognize Arthur’s kingship and his
undeniable chivalry. Another tale of
Arthur that can be tied directly to Celtic
myth is that of Taliesin the Bard. This
man, who is a legend himself, wrote of
how he accompanied the king on a quest
for the Head of Annwfn. This is one of
the earlier mentions of a grail-like chalice
or magical cauldron. Though apparently
the journey ended in disaster as only
Culhwch riding into King Arthur’s court
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Culhwch.jpg
Arthur in Battle:
Arthur’s will to defeat his enemies in battle was legendary. He was rumored to have killed hundreds of Saxons
with his own hand. He commanded great respect for his victories, though some of them may have been
slightly over exaggerated. He had enormous armies at his disposal as other kings would join him in combat. It
is the belief of many historians that Arthur was important to the Celts because, he helped them escape the
tyranny of a transforming world. The battles that he fought against the Saxons ensured that the Celts would
be free to
retreated, Arthur followed them in the hopes that he might attack the reinforcements before they could
regroup. He succeeded in his ploy and proceeded onwards to be crowned as the king. Then he found the Picts
and the Gauls who had fought with the Saxons and pardoned them for their misdeeds. The Celts see Arthur as
a great hero and rightfully so, he saved them all from being overtaken by the Saxon hordes. Though there is
much debate over the accuracies of the Arthurian legends it cannot be denied that there was a man
somewhere who was named Arthur. It is quite possible that he was a Great War hero and that he was a valiant
Christian man. And he very likely was a friend to the Celts and the Britons. We may never know if he existed
and we may only speculate on his history; but he will never be forgotten.
The Battle of Badon Hill
http://koc.wikia.com/wiki/Badon
practice their culture safely. Arthur can be
traced to either nine or twelve battles
depending on the source. One that identifies
with the Celts is a Welsh battle by the name
of Cat Coit Celidon. It is based on a battle
listing poem from the late fifth to early sixth
century. The most recognized of the battles is
the Battle of Mount Badon; which can be
corroborated as an actual event in history
whether a King Arthur fought there or not.
Historians believe that it occurred somewhere
around 500 AD. Arthur and his hundreds of
troops fought against the Saxons at Mount
Badon and vanquished them easily. Some
texts see this battle as the reason behind
Arthur taking the throne so easily. He was
said to have killed 960 Saxons by his own
hand. After the remaining Saxons had
Bibliography for Celtic Arthur Barber, R. King Arthur: Hero & Legend. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2004.
Field, P.J.C. "Arthur's Battles." Arthuriana, 2008: 3-32.
Halsall, P. "Nennius: The History of the Britons." Fordham University. April 1996.
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/nennius.asp (accessed November 3, 2012).
Littleton, C.S., and A. C. Thomas. "The Sarmatian Connection: New Light on the Origin of the Arthurian and Holy Grail
Legends." The Journal of American Folklore, 1978: 513-527.
Rolleston, T.W. The Illustrated Guide to Celtic Mythology. London: Studio Editions, 1993.
Russell, J.C. "Arthur and the Romano-Celtic Frontier." Modern Philology, 1951: 145-153.
Simpson, J.R. "King Arthur's Enchanted Sleep: Early Nineteenth Century Legends." Folklore, 1986: 206-209.
Thompson, A. "History of the Kings of Britain." In History of the Kings of Britan, by Geoffrey of Monmouth. Cambridge:
Medieval Latin Studies, 1999.
Williams, M. "King Arthur in History & Legend." Folklore, 1962: 73-88.
Celtic Christianity:
The Celts are an adaptable people. This is probably the reason behind them being among the oldest surviving culture and people. The adaption of their culture that has had the most lasting impact on Celts today was their conversion to Christianity. The Celts had dispersed to several regions; mostly by the 3rd century they had settled on land that became known as the six Celtic nations (Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany and the Isle of Mann). As they were not a unified people they converted over an extended period of time. Once Christianized they were official Roman Catholic but soon they developed their own version of the faith, Celtic Christianity.
By the time the Roman Empire hand fallen the Celts had largely converted to Christianity. Ireland had been converted largely in the 3rd century by the famous Saint Patrick. However after the center of Rome had moved to eastern Byzantium, or Constantinople as it was renamed, the Celts were disconnected. This factor caused it to diverge from mainstream Christianity. In a way this divergence longer preserved the older traditions of the faith in addition to Roman Latin.
Celtic Christianity differed from the traditional Christianity in several aspects. One of the defining
differences is the manner in which the Celts calculated Easter. Sadly though, most of the practices that were
distinctive to this version of Christianity were lost. Luckily two books were preserved, the Bobbio and the
Stowe Misslas, which contain The Irish Ordinary of a Daily mass which is in a later Romanized form. The Celts
are an adaptable people and as such they have made Christianity suit them.
This is an image of St. Michaels Church in
Tintern Village Wales. The original church
was dedicated to St. Michael in 765 AD
though the site was believed to have been a
place of worship long before that. The
Church photographed above is a
reconstruction done in 1846 AD
Celtic Churches
A Church built in the Celtic world is unique. They are built to please an aesthetic very different to that of
where the faith originated. After the shift of power in the Roman Empire and then the disconnect of the Celtic
world they began to build a different style of church.
During the period that the early Celtic churches were
built other people were building very opulent buildings.
The Byzantine churches were not always largely decorated
from the outside but reflected the belief of the time that
the exterior is unimportant compared to the interior, thus
the interior was ornate. The Celtic churches however were
completely simple. The builders were not as familiar with
stone work as they were with wood and this is reflected in
the work. The buildings produced were very simple. Many
of the earlier religious sites were built on the same spots
as druid colleges or sacred pagan places. The early
monasteries were individual beehive huts with a round
church thatched in reeds, straw or sods. The later
monasteries were larger as there was more interaction
between the monks. These were made of wattle or planks
of wood, stone was not used until later. When they did
start building in stone they were very simple constructions.
They were rectangular with one open space. Sadly we do not
have complete surviving churches from this period but we do
have fragments and reconstructions. They preserve the
history but have added details such as bell towers. Many of
these reconstructions were built in the 18 hundreds. This is
when the Celtic church remerged after it had been deemed
unorthodox in the 13th century, when missionaries were sent to these nations and found a different version of
their faith. After that the Celts largely converted to Catholicism until their traditions re-emerged and blended
with it.
The Celtic church is very distinctive and ripe with history. The structures they built to house their faith reflect
that in their construction.
Ahenny High crosses
The Cross is the iconic symbol of Christianity; it is the universal symbol of the faith. As such different regions have
their own way of adapting the symbol to their aesthetic. The Irish High Crosses are well known as the Celtic deviations of
this symbol.
The Ahenny High Crosses are among the earliest group of
ringed High Crosses. These two particular crosses belong to the
Ossory group. They are Located in Ahenny, County Tipperary,
near the Kilkenny border one of these crosses face North while
the other faces South (which direction each cross faces designate
what it is called). Fabricated from sandstone these two crosses
are very similar in design. They were both erected approximately
in the 8th to 9th century. The North Facing cross stands 3.65
meters while the South Facing cross stands 3.35 meters.
It is thought that these crosses imitate earlier wooden crosses
which were encased with metal binding; this is thought to be true
as the stone bosses on the cross imitate the metal. Both of these
crosses are skilfully carved with intricate geometric designs that
are characteristic of Celtic design. The iconic Celtic Knot design is
present throughout the cross. This design feature is present
because of the early time frame these crosses with built. Later
High Crosses concentrate on biblical scenes while these crosses
have no such references on the crosses themselves only these
interlacing designs on all surfaces. The bases however do have
some figures carved on them but they are difficult to decipher.
There have been many interpretations of these figures such as,
the northern side north cross base being said to carry scenes of a
procession with a chariot. The southern side of the base is
identified as funeral procession of Cormac Mac Cuilennain who
was the Bishop-King of Munster (south). On the East side of the
same cross is a figural scene of Adam naming the animals.
However this is just one of the interpretations. The west side depicts the scene of the Mission of the Apostles and the
seven Bishops.
Crosses such as these are very informative about the culture they originated from. It shows how the Celts adapted
the Christian Faith to suit their aesthetic and traditions. They represent the Celtic church.
Celtic Religious Literature:
Many of the most precious items to come out of the Middle Ages are religious in nature. Among these items are some
truly spectacular bibles. The Celts have adapted illuminations to suit their aesthetic and their symbolism like they have
done with many items throughout their constant transformations. Arguably among the most terrific examples of these
religious texts is the Lindisfarne Gospels.
This masterpiece was created around 700 AD at a Monastery
in Lindisfarne, close to Northumberland. While there is no
way to come to a definite conclusion it is presumed that this
Gospel was created by Eadfrith, who became Bishop of
Lindisfarne in 698 and died in 721. For certain it has been
deducted that the entirety of this work was created by one
individual (aside from the red marking in the margin that are
from a later date) and as such its creation was a form of
prayer.
This beautiful book is an example of melded art, it has
elements that show the blending of traditions. Throughout
the lettering there is the decorative use of Celtic knots. In
addition to that there are also animal motifs that are
common among the Celts. An example of an animal detail
can be found on this particular page on the right side and
bottom borders, in these borders there are birds. The right
side border also becomes a feline at the bottom. Design
features such as these can be found throughout the book.
The other opening pages of the gospels are similarly designed and the carpet pages are also rich in Celtic motifs. The
four Carpet pages all have a general cross shape, though all different, and are heavily decorated in geometric patterns
often including the iconic Celtic Knot. Such details are not wholly Christian and therefore show that the priest who was
responsible for the books creation was influenced by his cultural history.
Items such as this one are crucial in understanding the culture that created it. This sacred text paints a picture of a
unique blend of cultures that made up the Medieval Celtic world.
This is the Cover Page of the Gospel of
Luke in the Lindisfarne Gospel. It comes
after the portrait of the Apostle and it
gives an opening.
Bibliography for Celtic Christianity
Literary Sources Celtic Christianity: Rolleston, T. W., 1993. The Illustrated Guide to Celtic Mythology. London: Studio Editions Ltd.. Toynbee, A., 1966. Larouse Enclyclopedia of Ancient and Medieval History. 2 ed. Paris: Librairie Larousse. Celtic Churches: Russil, J., 2010. St Michael's Church, Tintern. [Online] Available at: http://www.tintern.org.uk/michael.htm Schaff, P., 2009. History of the Christian Church, Volume IV: Mediaeval Christianity. A.D. 590-1073.. s.l.:Christian Classics Ethereal Library. Celtic Crosses: Cultural Heritage Ireland, n.d. The Ahenny High Crosses, near Carrick-On-Suir, Co. Tipperary. [Online] Available at: http://www.culturalheritageireland.ie/index.php/heritage-sites-and-centres/95-the-ahenny-high-crosses-near-carrick-on-suir-co-tipperary [Accessed 2012]. Richardson , H. & Scarry, J., 1990. An Introduction to High Crosses. Dublin: Mercier Press. Schorr, K. D. & Schorr, F. J., 2004. [Online] Available at: http://highcrosses.org/ahenny/index.htm [Accessed 2009]. Celtic Literature: British Library, n.d. The Lindisfarne Gospels. [Online] Available at: http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/sacredtexts/lindisfarne.html Ward, J., n.d. The Lindisfarne Gospels. [Online] Available at: http://www.lindisfarne.org.uk/gospels/
Images: Figure # 1 (Section cover page) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg Celtic scenery and cross
Figure #2 (Celtic Churches) http://www.tintern.org.uk/michael.htm St. Michaels Church at Tintern
Figure #3 (Celtic Crosses) http://www.megalithicireland.com/High%20Cross%20Ahenny.htm High Cross at Ahenny
Figure #4 (Celtic Literature) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lindisfarne_Gospels_folio_139r.jpg Source: British Library Online Exhibit Introductory Page from the Lindisfarne Gospel
Image Source Section Title Copyright
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg
Section cover page
Introduction to Celtic Christianity
Public Domain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Galician_Celtic_Stele_-_Estela_Galaica_.jpg
Index Galician
Celtic Stele public domain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stone_sculpture_of_celtic_hero.jpg
Back cover
Stone head from Mšecké Žehrovic
public domain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_Gallia_Tribes_Towns.png
Front Cover flap
Map of Galia Tribes towns
public domain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celts_in_III_century_BC.jpg Front Cover flap
Map of the Celts in 3
rd
century
public domain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cesare_prima_Gallia_58_a.C._jpg.jpg
Front Map of Cesare Prima Galia
Public domain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muiredach_s_Cross.jpg Back Cover Flap
High Cross at Muiredach
Public domain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Parade_helmet.jpg Back cover flap
Parade Helmet
Public domain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ardagh_chalice.jpg Back cover flap
Ardagh Chalice
Public domain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celtic_sword_and_scabbard_circa_60_BCE.jpg
Photographed at the Metropolitan museum of art
Cover Celtic sword and scabbard circa 60 BCE.
Public domain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scuto_Battersea_BritMu252a.jpg
cover The famous
Celtic shield found at Battersea
Public domain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apparition_saint_graal.jpg
cover Apparition du Saint Graal Cote
Public domain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dying_gaul.jpg cover Dying man Public domain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meister_des_Book_of_Lindisfarne_002.jpg
Source: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. cover Meister des
Book of Lindisfarne
Public domain