Social Cognitive Theories of Exercise Behaviour

Hagger & Chatzisarantis, Chapter 2

Recall…• The problem

• Cardiovascular disease (CVD) and diseases related to physical inactivity

• Physical activity shown to reduce risk to CVD and other diseases

• Low levels of physical activity among populations in industrialised countries

Role of Exercise Psychology

• Exercise psychologists aim to:– Identify the influential variables

(antecedents) that predict physical activity behaviour and

– Develop a strategy to manipulate such variables and bring about a behaviour change in levels of physical activity

The Problem of Exercise AdherenceWhile many people start exercise regimes, up to 50% relapse

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Source: Dishman (1994)

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• Steep drop-off in exercise participation after 6 months

• Sallis et al. (1990) survey found up to 40% of exercisers had a ‘relapse’

• 20% had more than 3 relapses• Reasons?• Dishman and Buckworth (1997):

“People need self-regulatory skills”

The Problem of Exercise Adherence

A Theoretical Approach to Exercise Behaviour-Models of Social Cognition

• Assumption that physical activity is a voluntary behaviour under the ‘control’ of the individual, but also external stimuli

• Atheoretical approaches made no such assumptions and are also limited because:– No framework for hypothesis testing– Descriptive - interactions neglected– No ‘starting point’ for modification– Variable ‘fishing expeditions’

Further Assumptions

• Self-reports of beliefs and expectations are reliable

• People are rational decision-makers• People are information processors• Influential variables can be modified but

PROCESS can also be identified

Social Cognitive TheoryBandura (1986, 1997)

OVERT BEHAVIOURe.g. Verbal ResponsesMotor ResponsesSocial Interactions

PERSONAL FACTORSe.g. Cognitive abilitiesBeliefs and attitudes

ENVIRONMENTALFACTORSe.g. Physical surroundingsFamily and FriendsOther social influences• Key concepts:

– Reciprocal determinism– Self-efficacy

• Reciprocal determinism: Personal, behavioural and environmental factors act as mutual causes of each other

• Self-efficacy: Situation specific self-confidence – beliefs that one can execute the behaviour

• Outcome expectancies: Beliefs that behaviour will result in salient outcomes

Social Cognitive Theory

Health Belief Model (HBM)Schematic Representation

Readiness“I will exercise”

Source: Rosenstock (1974)

Beliefs about Health Threat

General Health Values(“I am concerned about my health”)

Perceived Severity(“If I have heart attack, I might die”

Perceived Vulnerability(“If I don’t exercise, I may have a heart attack”)

Beliefs that Specific Behaviour canReduce Threat

Perceived Barriers“There are things that are likely to get in the way

of exercising regularly”

Perceived Benefits of Behaviour ChangeExceed Costs

“Even though it will take a lot of effort to exercise regularly,it’s worth it to avoid a heart attack”

Summary of Research on HBM• Research has shown that…

Perceived severity Beliefs about the benefits of the health behaviour

…are strong predictors of readiness to engage in the behaviour (Quine et al., 1998; Abraham et al., 1999)• Only small effects for perceived…

vulnerability ▪ benefits severity ▪ barriers susceptibility

• Limited as it does not account for all influences (e.g., self-efficacy)• Also focuses on beliefs that are not relevant to many

Protection Motivation Theory (PMT)Schematic representation

EnvironmentalCommunicationObservationLearning

HealthProtectiveBehaviour

Source: Rogers (1983)

Sources ofinformation

Cognitive mediating processes Behaviour

IntrapersonalPersonality variablesPrior Experience

Threat appraisalPerceived vulnerabilityPerceived severityFear

Coping appraisalPerceived self-efficacyPerceived response-efficacyPerceived response-cost

Maladaptive copingAvoidanceDenialFatalismWishful thinkingHopelessness

ProtectionMotivation

Summary of Research on PMT• PMT predicts that people will be motivated to exercise (respond) if they …

Believe a disease to be severe and likely to occur (vulnerability) Perceive that the health behaviour is effective in reducing the health threat (response efficacy) , is something they feel capable of doing (self-efficacy), and does not cost a lot (response cost)

• In exercise, self-efficacy, response efficacy, vulnerability, threat appraisals, and coping appraisals are influential in changing protection motivation (Milne et al., 2002)• However, effects of coping and threat appraisal have been modest

Interventions Based on HBM and PMT• Attempts have been made to change …

Threat appraisals Coping appraisals

• Threat appraisals: Manipulated using fear-arousing communications emphasizing

Painful effects of illness (heart disease) (severity) People who do not exercise are more likely to suffer from heart disease (vulnerability)

• Coping appraisals: Manipulated by providing information on (1) effectiveness of exercise and (2) providing exercises that are easy to do to promote self-efficacy• Milne et al. (2000) found that such an intervention changed exercise intentions but not behaviour

Theory of Reasoned Action in Exercise

Attitudes

Subjective Norms

Intentions Behaviour

General orientation towards physical activity“good-bad”,“useful-useless”,“harmful-beneficial”

Stated volitional motives“I plan…/I intend.../ I expect...”

Self-reported exercise behaviour

Source: Ajzen and Fishbein (1980)

Evaluation of significant others’ evaluation“my mum thinks…”,”my teacher thinks…”

Examples of TRA Questionnaire Items

I intend to participate in vigorous physical activities for 20 minutes at a time at least three times per week in the next fortnight. (Please tick one box)

Extremely likely

Very likely Likely Unlikely Very unlikely Extremely unlikely

For me, doing vigorous physical activities for 20 minutes at a time at least three times per week in the next fortnight is…(Please tick one box)

Good Bad

• Direct measures: Questions relating to the core TRA components – as in previous example• Indirect measures: using expectancy x value model• Expectancy x value model: Psychological constructs comprise a belief and a strength or value component for form a combined measure• Multiplicative composites: The product of expectancy x value components

Types of Measures in the TRA

Theory of Reasoned Action in Exercise

Attitudes

Subjective Norms

Intentions Behaviour

Multiplicative composite of behavioural belief(expectancy) and outcome evaluation (value)

Source: Ajzen and Fishbein (1980)

Multiplicative composite of normative belief (expectancy) and compliance (value)

Behaviouralbeliefs xvalues

Normativebeliefs xvalues

Expectancy-value Models of Attitudes and Subjective Norms

Behavioural beliefs Salient referentsGood companionship ParentsWeight control GrandparentsBenefit overall health SiblingsTake too much time FriendsHave fun SchoolteachersStay in shapeImprove skillsGet an injuryMakes you hot and sweaty

Behavioural beliefs (expectancy) andoutcome evaluations (value) regardingexercise behaviour

Normative beliefs (expectancy) andmotivation to comply (value) regarding exercise behaviour

Attribute Strength of belief

Value of belief

Result Salient referent

Strength of belief

Value of belief

Result

Get fit 0.90 X +2 = +1.80 Parents 1.00 X +1 = +1.00

Socialise with friends

1.00 X +2 = +2.00 Friends 0.80 X -2 = -1.60

Injure myself

0.10 X -1 = -0.10 Teacher .70 X +2 = +1.40

Outcome +3.70 Outcome +0.80

Expectancy-value Models of Attitudes and Subjective Norms

• A meta-analysis (Hagger et al., 2002) shows a strong influence of intentions on exercise behaviour• Attitudes have a strong impact on exercise intentions, subjective norms less so• The pattern is the same for direct measures and indirect measures (belief-based) of attitudes and subjective norms• Behavioural beliefs, outcome evaluations, salient referents, and motivation to comply not all account for unique variance in direct measures

Summary of TRA Research in Exercise

Theory of Planned Behaviour in Exercise

Attitudes

Subjective Norms

Intentions Behaviour

Source: Ajzen (1985, 1991)

PerceivedBehavioural

Control

Behaviouralbeliefs xvalues

Normativebeliefs xvalues

Controlbeliefs xpower

Perceptions regarding level of volitionalcontrol “I have control…” and “easy-difficult”

Meta-analytic Evidence for the Prediction of Exercise Behaviour

Using the TPB

PerceivedControl

Attitudes

Subjective Norms

Intentions Behaviour

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Source: Hagger, Chatzisarantis and Biddle (2002)

• A meta-analysis (Hagger et al., 2002) have shown the TPB to predict more variance in exercise behaviour than TRA• Attitudes and perceived behavioural control have a strong impact on exercise intentions but not subjective norms• TPB is more effective in explaining intentions and behaviour that the HBM or PMT (Quine et al., 1998)• Control beliefs predict direct measures of perceived behavioural control but vary according to population (Hagger et al., 2001; Godin et al., 1991)

Summary of TPB Research in Exercise

Expectancy-value Models of Perceived Behavioural Control

Young populations Adult populations Older populationsBad weather Bad weather AgeBeing no good at it Costs Fear of heart attackDoing homework Fatigue Heart painGoing out with friends No time

Having other hobbies

Interventions Based on the TPB• Interventions based on the TPB should target attitudes and perceived behavioural control in particular (Hagger et al., 2002)• Modal, salient beliefs i.e. beliefs about the behaviour that are important to the individuals in the target population and are most frequently cited should be targeted (Ajzen, 1991)• Open ended questionnaires used to obtain modal beliefs (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980)• Persuasive communications should target these beliefs in putting forward the ‘case’ for exercise that is meaningful to the person• Recent research suggests that an intervention based on the TPB is effective in an exercise context (Chatzisarantis & Hagger, 2005)

Interventions Based on the TPB Example of an intervention ‘script’ for a TPB intervention in exercise:

“Participating in regular exercise has many benefits. You might learn how to play a new game or sport as well as improving your general level of fitness and well-being at the same time. Exercise can also be great fun. It does not necessarily cause injuries or make you feel uncomfortably hot and sweaty if you exercise as an intensity you feel comfortable with”

Sufficiency of the TPB• Limitations of TPB interventions may be due to…

Ceiling effect on attitudes (need for implemental strategy?) Focus on people with low or no intentions - motivational rather than volitional

• Distal constructs: TPB may not account for other dispositional variables that influence behaviour (e.g., personality) but expected to mediate their effects• Research shows that TPB can be modified to explain further variance in exercise intention and behaviour• Modified variables must predict unique variance in intention/behaviour (Ajzen, 1991)• Attitudinal, normative and control-related modifications shown to be effective (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2005)

Extensions of the TPB: Past Behaviour

PerceivedControl

Attitudes

Subjective Norms

Intentions Behaviour

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Source: Hagger, Chatzisarantis and Biddle (2002)

PastBehaviour

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Self-Efficacy

PerceivedControllability

PerceivedControl

Affective

Cognitive

DescriptiveNorms

InjunctiveNorms

Intentions

Attitudes

SubjectiveNorms

Extensions of the TPB

ExerciseBehaviour

Activity

Conscientiousness

Personality

Attitudestrength/

ambivalence

Moderates

Attitude

AnticipatedRegret

MoralNorms

Norms

Social support

Moderates

Control

Normativelycontrolledindividuals

• TPB does not capture psychological determinants of volitional behaviour, but it is a ‘flexible framework’• Predictions of unique variance in intentions and behaviour by additional variables often modest, context dependent, and reduces TPB parsimony• Practical considerations – do interventions based on the extended variables work in changing exercise intentions?• Conceptual overlap between additional variables – commonalities amongst variables can often be subsumed by global constructs (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2006)

Summary of Extensions of the TPB

Additional Theories: Model of Goal Directed Behaviour (Perugini & Conner,

2000)Attitudes

Subjective Norms

Intentions Behaviour

Source: Perugini and Conner (2000)

Positiveaffect

Negativeaffect

Desires

Recencyof past

behaviour

Frequencyof past

behaviour

PerceivedBehavioural

Control

• Desires are important in predicting intention – motivational aspects of attitudes not captured by traditional intentions (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2004)• Includes differentiated aspects of past behaviour – frequency and recency• Studies using the MGDB have shown that they account for more variance than the TPB (Perugini & Conner, 2000; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001)• Desire is pivotal in mediating effects of attitudes, subjective norms, PBC, and positive and negative anticipated emotions on intentions • No interventions based on the MGDB have been conducted

Summary of Model of Goal Directed Behaviour (MGDB)

A ‘Stage’ Model of Exercise:The Transtheoretical or ‘Stages of

Change’ Model

• Adopted by the HEA as a ‘theoretical approach’ to understanding exercise behaviour

• Describes the ‘logical progression’ to adopting exercise

• Also identifies processes and levels of change

The Transtheoretical Model• Pre-Contemplation: People who do not intend to

exercise• Contemplation: Intent to exercise in the next 6

months, not acting• Preparation: May be doing some exercise, ‘in’

and ‘out’• Action: Regular exercisers (3 times per week) –

high risk of relapse• Maintenance: Regular exercisers for more than 6

months – less risk of relapse

Contemplation

Preparation Action

Maintenance

Relapse

Pre-contemplation

Lifelong continuation

The Transtheoretical ModelSchematic Representation

The Transtheoretical Model and Decisional Balance

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• Recent research suggests that SCM’s can be incorporated in the TTM framework• Courneya et al. (2000) found that level of intention predicted exercise stage• Armitage and Arden (2002) found similar results, but suggested that TTM stages are more like a measure of intention

Research with the TTM in Exercise

Problems with the TTM

• Davis (1993) TTM is not a true cognitive model – mix of behavioural and cognitive variables

• Armitage and Arden (2002) decisional balance just another measure of intention

• Sutton (2000) linear changes in cognitive variables across stages means TTM is not a stage model

• Discontinuity patterns most important to support a ‘stage model’

Linear and Discontinuity Patterns in the TTM (Sutton, 2000)

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Linear and Discontinuity Patterns in the TTM (Sutton, 2000)

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Evidence that TTM is a Stage Model

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Armitage, Povey, & Arden (2003)