Social DarwinismRealism

Positivism

Questions About the Biological Universe

Charles Darwin spent 25+yrs gathering specimens from the natural world, and observing natural behaviour

1859 publishes On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection◦ Provided evidence that species

were not fixed for all time◦ Species adapted/evolved into

new forms as conditions changed

◦ New species emerged, others died out

Darwin called this process natural selection

Darwin & Natural Selection & the ChurchDarwin stated this process was slow

◦ Suggests that Earth is millions of years old, not thousands as religious figures believed

Charles Lyell was a contemporary geologist and his work supported Darwin’s time scale

Work was met w/ religious opposition, why?Suggested that animals (& by implication

humans) wee not special creations of God◦ Each species had common ancestors, changed

over time◦ Places humans more closely to apes than angels

Influence on Darwin Darwin was influenced by

Thomas Malthus, Essay on Population (1798) – stated◦ Nature was not benign &

progress was not inevitable◦ B/c population increases would

overextend limited resource Proof

◦ Food supply increased arithmetically (1, 2, 3, 4, etc)

◦ Population increased geometrically (1, 2, 4, 8, etc)

Consequence of this “law” was that as the population grew, suffering increases (despite advancements)

Essentially, idea is about scarcity & struggle

Social Darwinism & Herbert SpencerApplication of Darwin’s ideas is known as Social

DarwinismSpencer believed everything evolved from the

simple & uniform to the complex & specialized◦ Could explain all social, political & intellectual

development◦ Survival of fittest & struggle for existence was viewed

as a normal & goodNo gov’t should interfere w/ social environment

◦ Interferes w/ individual liberty◦ Evil would disappear when “every man may claim the

fullest liberty to exercise his faculties” (assume all ppl are equal)

◦ Competition was necessary b/c “fit would emerge on top in economic and social struggles

Social Darwinism & Laissez-Faire

Laissez-faire ideas became the norm◦ Doctrine that governments should not interfere w/ the economy &

that growth will occur as a result of marketplace decisions

Spencer believed that the liberal error was in their attempt to make society equal & humane◦ Fittest would survive & prosper while weakest would die out◦ Society would be stronger as a result

Social Darwinism was also used to support racism Stated that certain groups were “naturally superior”

◦ Scientific, technological advancements were often a basis◦ Justified imperial control of “inferior peoples”

Bismarck’s Realpolitik was admired b/c it was based on power◦ Supporters thought progress was measured by the strength of its

army or industry◦ Nothing immoral about using war to reach goals

Religious ChallengesPhilology (the study of language in written

historical sources) concluded that the Bible had been written by multiple sources @ different times◦ Challenged belief that Bible was revealed truth

David Strauss’ Life of Jesus (1835) argued that story of Jesus was fictitious

Archeologists/anthropologists questioned uniqueness of Judaism & Christianity claiming religions were created by ppl to comprehend the universe

Darwin’s ideas were used in conjunction w/ these

Many regarded these ideas as heresy; inspired by the devil

Religious ChallengesWarfare b/w science & theology was not

universalSome religious thinkers accepted Lyell & Darwin

◦Felt that evolution could be apart of God’s plan◦Beauty in idea of all things being related◦Humans could be active participants in the plans

completion

Agnosticism emerged as a response to this debate ◦Belief that the existence of things outside empirical

phenomena, including God, cannot be knownTherefore, ppl should not waste time debating it

RealismRomanticism was replaced by Realism in the 1830s

◦ Belief that life should be depicted as it was seenBelieved Romanticism too sentimental & exaggeratedSociety needed to be portrayed the way it was – created

“social novels”

Gustave Flaubert wrote Madame Bovary (1856) ◦ Depicts the dreary & frustrated lives of the French middle class◦ Heroine, Emma Bovary lives a dull life filled w/ romantic

fantasies◦ Was extremely controversial for the time

Middle class became more literate (have $ & time)Novels were serialized in magazines & “penny

pamphlets” were createdNovelists began shaping public opinion & arousing

interest for reform

Positivism Society became a subject for

scientific analysis Previously society simply existed

◦ Ppl were poor or rich, educated or not, intelligent or not etc.

Auguste Comte question this acceptance◦ Why were there rich and poor

people?◦ Could human society be improved

through reforms? Created “The Positive

Philosophy” – positive meant “scientific” to Comte

Goal of positivism was to achieve a scientific synthesis of all knowledge◦ Could restructure society on the

basis of “scientific principles”

Positivism & Sociology Comte felt humanity had progressed through 3 stages of

knowledge◦ 1. Theological stage: explained world through supernatural◦ 2. Metaphysical stage: explained world in abstract ideas◦ 3. Positive stage: explained world based on scientific laws

Comte believed there were laws of society which could be discovered by studying its history

Coined the term & field of study as Sociology◦ The study of both “social statics” & “social dynamics”◦ Statics were customs, institutions, legal-codes etc◦ Dynamics were the study of social change to create/develop

scientific laws on societies development Concluded that humanity was constantly progressing

◦ Predicted a world of peace eventually, co-operation to replace competition

Impressionism Impressionism was an

artistic reaction to the realist movement

Claude Monet’s, Impression: Sunrise (1872) attempts to capture the atmosphere of a sunrise◦ Different b/c realists were

attempting to depict things as if they were photographed

Vincent Van Gogh, Starry Night (1889) is perhaps the most famous work◦ Depicts universe as a galaxy

of whirling light w/ a finite village staged behind an infinitely creeping cypress tree

Psychology & Sigmund FreudAcademics wanted to understand individual human

actions – irrational & self-destructive behaviourSigmund Freud believed that dreams were the

key to understanding the human mindDreams revealed the unconscious mind

Main cause of our behaviour & most important to understandDreams allow subconscious mind to express itselfPsychologists could interpret & explain meaningsCalled the process psychoanalysis

Believed ppl had unfulfilled desires & unconscious motivates behaviour – most related to sexual matters

Although discredited by many today, Freud is regarded as the pioneer of psychology