Social Problems

Racial & Ethnic Issues in Canada

Canada’s Demographic Composition

2001 Census: 18.4% of population of Canada is foreign-born 13.4% claimed visible minority status 4.4% have Indigenous status Of the 29,639,035 responses on the 2001 Census,

only 11,682,680 called themselves “Canadian” (39.4%)

A vision for Canada must be inclusive and based on collective endeavour to eradicate racism

(see http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo26a.htm for more!)

Multiculturalism Canada recognizes two types of multiculturalism Traditional multiculturalism focuses on individual

rights Modern multiculturalism is concerned with the

survival of cultural groups Federal policy on multiculturalism has been

criticized for emphasizing group differences and for its perceived special treatment of minority groups

Aboriginal fight for autonomy is yet another complication of Canadian multiculturalism.

We pride ourselves on being a multicultural society, yet….

The Problem of Nationalism

Nationalism is produced by an 'us' and 'them' orientation.

Tends to be destructive to multiculturalism. Two types of nationalism:

A community of citizens who express loyalty and patriotic attachment to a shared set of values, constitutes civic nationalism.

Ethnic nationalism involves a tracing of roots, and a search for identity, and political recognition.

Race and Ethnicity

Race and ethnicity are not necessarily connected

racial groups are set apart from others because of visible physical differences

ethnic groups differ from others on the basis of national origin or distinctive cultural patterns.

Racism and Ethnic Inequality as a Social Problem

Ethnic group: a category of people who are distinguished by others or themselves on the basis of cultural or nationality characteristics

Race is considered a social construct some use the term racialized group

a category of people who have been singled out, by others or themselves, as inferior or superior, on the basis of subjectively selected physical characteristics like skin colour or eye shape

Roots of “Race”

Classification schemes since 1700s Traits somewhat arbitrary: Why skin colour

and not eye colour? Eg. Jane Elliot’s experiment in “Eye of the

Storm” (1970) and A Class Divided (PBS 1985)

Watch the video at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/divided/etc/view.html

Politics of “race”: people perceive others to be different, and use perceptions to justify differential

treatment

Majority and Minority Groups

Majority (or dominant) group is one that is advantaged and has superior resources and rights in society

Minority (or subordinate group) is one that is disadvantaged, subjected to discrimination, and regards itself as an object of discrimination, e.g., people of colour, disabled, and gays,lesbians, and trans people

Minority Groups in Canada

The “Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada” (The Daily, Statistics Canada, 2005) indicates that on the whole, new immigrants are happy with choice to come to Canada, but face many difficulties: 46% said finding an adequate job 26% said learning English or French

Minority Groups (cont.)

Visible minorities: Largest group are Chinese, with a population

aged 15 and over of 834,145 (3.5% of population) Next largest groups are South Asians, with a

population of 688,735 (2.9%), and Blacks, with a population of 467,090 (2.0%)

Visible minorities face the additional problems of prejudice, discrimination as well as higher rates of victimization (see http://www.statcan.ca/english/research/85F0033MIE/2008015/find-en.htm)

White Privilege and Internalized Dominance

White privilege: privilege that accrues to people who have “white” skin, trace their ancestry to Europe, and think of themselves as European Canadians or WASPs

Internalized dominance: all the ways that White people learn they are normal, feel included, and do not think of themselves as “other” or “different”

Hate groups in Canada

Neo Nazis Christian Identity Movement Holocaust Denial group (Ernst Zundel was one

of Canada’s most prolific Holocaust deniers) Racist Skinhead groups (Individuals from

groups such as the Northern Hammerskins, the Final Solution Skins, the Aryan Resistance Movement (ARM) have been responsible for assaults, gay-bashing and murder in Canada)

For more see Facing Hate in Canada (CCRF)

Hate in London, ON

Social Exclusion of Minorities

Social exclusion of minorities is due to selective ethnic and racial inclusion by the majority group

Exclusion occurs because one group wants to defend its social status or resources against another

Minority groups are seen as 'others', and barriers are built against them when they are perceived as competition.

Historically immigrants were shunned, and tolerated only because Canada needed their labour.

The Vertical Mosaic in Canada John Porter calls Canadian society a vertical

mosaic English and French Canadians exist at the top of the

economic hierarchy and ethnic minorities are situated at or near the bottom

The vertical mosaic persists because of several factors such as exclusionary practices by the majority, and migration and self-organizing practices

Vertical mosaic is a system of racial stratification: System of inequality in which race is the major criterion for

rank and rewards

Racism, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Racism: a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices used to justify the superior treatment of one racialized group and the inferior treatment of another racialized group

Ethnocentrism: the assumption that one’s own group and way of life are superior to all others (positive and negative forms)

Racism, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Prejudice is an irrational, negative attitude about people based on such characteristics as racialization, gender, age, religion or sexual orientation

Expressions of prejudice range from antilocution to hate crimes.

Stereotypes are overgeneralizations about the appearance, behaviour, or other characteristics of all members of a group

Racism, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Two main categories of discrimination:Individual discrimination consists of one-

on-one acts by members of the dominant group that harm members of the subordinate group or their property

Institutional discrimination consists of the day-to-day practices of organizations and institutions that have a harmful impact on members of subordinate groups

Does racism exist in Canada?

A 2007 Leger Marketing survey found 47% of Canadians admitting to being at least slightly racist

Also found 92% have witnessed racist behavior

A 2005 Ipsos-Reid survey found that 17% of respondents believed they have been victims of racism.

(from Canadian Race Relations Foundation)

Racism in Canadian Society

Racial attitudes in Canada have become more tolerant in recent decades.

Yet, a recent study of 120 York University students indicates that while people may not be overtly racist, they are indifferent to overt racism of others Read

People 'indifferent' to racism, study suggests (Jan. 8, 2009)

Those with the greatest difficulty in accepting other races believe that race is a biological fact as opposed to a socially constructed idea.

Robert Merton’s Typology of Prejudice and Discrimination

The relationship between prejudice and discrimination is complex

Four patterns: 1. Unprejudiced nondiscriminatory – integration 2. Unprejudiced and discriminatory – institutional

discrimination 3. Prejudiced and nondiscriminatory – latent bigotry 4. Prejudiced and discriminatory – outright bigotry

Forms of Racism in Canadian Society

Interpersonal racism: red-necked (explicit), e.g., Heritage Front and polite (implicit) racism (Pattern #4, according to Merton)

Institutional (intentional) racism: e.g., employment restrictions to groups, and systemic (unintentional) racism, e.g., height and weight restrictions (Pattern #2, according to Merton)

Forms of Racism in Canadian Society (cont.)

Societal racism: unconscious patterns that perpetuate a racialized order, e.g., colour symbolism (Pattern #2, according to Merton)

Everyday racism: seemingly benign ideas about the relative superiority or inferiority of certain groups (Pattern #3, according to Merton)

Forms of Racism in Canadian Society (cont.)

Active racism: an act intending to exclude or make a person feel inferior because of his/her minority group status

Passive racism: an act of being complicit in another’s racism

Cultural racism: values that reinforce the interests of the dominant group and undermine the interests of the subordinate group, e.g., hostility to employment equity

Biological and Cultural Explanations for Racial and Ethnic Inequality

Deficiency Theories Biological: Arthur Jensen, Richard Herrnstein

Belief that the inferiority of some racial groups is the result of flawed genetic traits

There is no definitive evidence for support Generally not accepted by scientific community

Cultural: Hypothesis is that life-style (culture) of minority groups is flawed and is responsible for group’s inferiority status Classic example of blaming the victim Ignores social opportunities that affect groups in different ways Many social scientists oppose cultural theories

Sociological Perspectives

Functionalist Perspective believe that inequality benefits society

by allowing for the discussion of a wider range of opinions, perspectives, and values

also maintain that inequality produces social conflict that intensifies people's sense of identity and belonging, as well as gives groups more cohesion along with a better sense of purpose

Perspectives (cont.)

According to functionalists, groups interact to preserve the system in several “functional” ways:

Assimilation: members of racialized and ethnic groups become absorbed into the dominant culture

Amalgamation: cultural attributes of diverse groups are blended together to form a new society

Anglo-conformity model: pattern of assimilation in which members of racialized/ethnic groups are expected to conform to the culture of the WASPs

Ethnic pluralism: coexistence of diverse racialized/ethnic groups with separate identities and cultures with a society

Segregation: the spatial and social separation of categories of people by racialization, ethnicity, class, gender, religion, or other characteristics

Perspectives (cont.)

Conflict perspective focus is on how one group more than

another benefits from differentiation, exclusion, and institutional racism.

Perspectives (cont.)

According to Conflict theorists, inequalities are created through:

Internal colonialism: members of a racialized/ethnic group are conquered, or colonized and forcibly placed under the economic and political control of the dominant group, e.g., treatment of Indigenous people

Genocide: the deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation

Theory of racial formation: the government substantially defines racialized and ethnic relations, e.g., governments attract people from various parts of the world according to types of workers needed

Perspectives (cont.)

Interactionist Perspective

Looks at the social construction of ethnic differences and the subordination of minority groups, through racial labels

Perspectives (cont.)

Interactionists and Social Constructionists study:

Racialized socialization: social interaction containing messages and practices about the nature of racialized groups, e.g., Personal and group identity Inter-group and individual relationships One’s position in social stratification

White “racial” bonding: living near and socializing with other Whites

Perspectives (cont.)

Feminist and Anti-Racist Perspectives: Gendered racism: interactive effect of

racism and sexism in exploiting Indigenous and visible minority women

Intersectional theorizing: a move toward an understanding of the myriad ways in which oppressions are linked,e.g., wages of women of colour vs. White women

Can Racialized and Ethnic Inequalities Be Reduced?

For reduction of inequalities: Functionalist: Restructuring of institutions

and resocialization Conflict: Political action Feminists and anti-racist feminists: Critical

analysis from the standpoints and experiences of people

Can Racialized and Ethnic Inequalities Be Reduced?

2001 Census: 18.4% of population of Canada is foreign-

born 13.4% claimed visible minority status 4.4% have Indigenous statusA vision for Canada must be inclusive and

based on collective endeavour to eradicate racism

Social Consequences of Racism

Racism is exacerbated by gender for women of minority groups.

Minority groups are disproportionately poor and, when employed, face discrimination in the workplace.

Minorities are also over-represented in the criminal justice system as both perpetrators and victims.

In Canada, the social problems resulting from exclusion, discrimination, and prejudice are most evident among Aboriginal peoples

Health Effects (see Tepperman et al. for more detail)

Lives of disadvantaged groups are characterized by premature death and extended periods of chronic illness.

Institutional racism forces visible minorities into low-paying jobs, unemployment, and poverty. This creates economic hardship with adverse health consequences.

Cultural variations such as dietary and exercise habits, and alcohol and cigarette use, also affect the health of those in ethnic groups.

Due to racism and language barriers, minorities often experience difficulties in accessing health care

Solutions?

need for increased education and the enforcement of government legislation (i.e., Employment Equity Act and Charter of Rights and Freedoms)

Canadian Case Study

Canada’s Hidden Shame:

The “Indian Problem”

Augie Fleras 2005

Case Study (cont.)

“Excessive emphasis on the Indian problem to the exclusion of positive dimensions has the effect of “framing” aboriginal people as a problem people…aboriginal peoples are not a problem but peoples whose lives are complicated by forces beyond their control.” (Augie Fleras 2005, p. 302)

A Few Facts… “aboriginal people as a group remain at the

bottom of the socioeconomic heap” For example (from 2001 Census)

Only 42% age 15 and older are employed vs. 66% of non-Aboriginal population

Average income $15994 vs. $26914 (2001 Census) Unemployment rate is 3 times national average Life expectancy – males 68.9, females 76.3 (5 years

less than non-Aboriginals) Fertility 2.5 children (1.5 times national average) Median age 24.7 in aboriginal communities

compared to 37.7 in non-aboriginal areas

Why? The Causes of Aboriginal Inequality..

Former First Nations Chief, Matthew Coon Come (1999) states: “…without adequate access to lands,

resources, and without the jurisdiction required to benefit meaningfully and sustainably from them, we are given no choices. No number of apologies, policies, token programs, or symbolic healing funds is going to remedy this basic socio-economic fact…” (Coon Come, 1999 in Fleras, 2005)

The Main Problems…

A 2002 U.N. report has called the maltreatment of Canada’s aboriginal people “a national tragedy and a shameful disgrace”

Key problems: Lack of access to land Appropriation of resources Compromised culture and identity No claim to nationhood or autonomy No self-governance

Results:

Powerlessness because of landlessness Policy mistreatment because of “(o)ne hundred

years of servitude, of protectionism and paternalism” (Buckley, 1992 in Fleras, 2005)

The internalization of powerlessness and impotence has become “self-hatred” (i.e. suicide, domestic abuse, alcoholism, drug use)

Erosion of cultural values and language

Residential School System

Lasted for more than 160 years Early schools run by religious organizations In 1874, the Canadian federal government became

involved The last federally run residential school closed in

Saskatchewan in 1996 and the last band run residential school closed in 1998

Purpose: to “integrate” Aboriginals into Canadian society

Approximately 80,000 of those who attended still alive today (from Antone and Francis, 2008)

Thomas Moore before and after his entrance into the Regina Indian Thomas Moore before and after his entrance into the Regina Indian Residential School in Saskatchewan in 1874 (thanks to Elaine Antone Residential School in Saskatchewan in 1874 (thanks to Elaine Antone

and Natasha Francis for this example) and Natasha Francis for this example)

Consequences of Residential School System

Children removed from families Lost family connections, as well as language and

culture Many suffered abuse – physical, psychological and

sexual Often parents turned to drink and drugs to cope with

loss of children Those who attended lost parenting ability and new

generations are also suffering consequences

Video

Where are the Children? Produced by the Aboriginal Healing

Foundation, 2004

(thanks to Elaine Antone for making this video available)

Reservation Life

In past reserves were “holding pens” to make Canada “safe” for “settlers”

Evolved into areas of dire poverty fraught with social consequences of the conditions Now, inadequate housing and basic services Less than 50% of homes (2003) have water and

sewage connections On some reserves 95% unemployed or on welfare

Women complain of “male-dominated” band councils, sexism, abuse i.e see CFB video “Without Fear” , for example

On-reserve vs. Off-reserve life

Reserves seen by some as “refuge from and buffer against a hostile outside world”

But reserve dysfunctions of boredom, poor conditions, inequality force many into cities

Lose status benefits, suffer discrimination, forced onto welfare or into prostitution for survival

Some opt to spend winter in city, summer on reserve, but lead disjointed lifestyles

Aboriginal Women Cultures of past had matrilineal descent Women more power Change when “whites” came – imposed European

patriarchal structure and cultural change Then 1985 Indian Act stripped status from women

who married non-aboriginals (since repealed) Studies show “aboriginal women rank among the

most severely disadvantaged” in Canada Suffer from violence, abuse, inadequate housing

and living conditions, alcohol and drug abuse

Aboriginal Youth Problems

Trapped between two cultures Problem of “anomie” (Durkheim) Lack positive role models and often suffer

abuse Results:

Substance and solvent abuse High suicide rates (as high as 470/100000

compared to 14/100000 in general population) Prostitution, petty crime High youth incarceration rates

Attempts to find solutions…

Canada only country in world to have aboriginal rights entrenched in constitution

Has been some progress in increasing power and economic resources, access to higher education and more Native Studies programs

But reality does not live up to ideals Debate: is assimilation or self-governing

autonomy better?

A New Social Contract One proposal is self governance for Native

peoples (i.e. see Cairns, 2000, 2003; Christie, 2002; Fleras, 2005)

In 1997 “Statement of Reconciliation,” Canadian government promised to “create new partnership” with aboriginals

Recognition of aboriginal identity and promise to work toward full aboriginal participation in Canadian society

But progress has been slow

Four Models

1. Statehood with complete political independence, internally and externally

2. Nationhood, with retention of authority and jurisdiction over internal matters

3. Municipality, with control over delivery of services by way of parallel institutions

4. Institutional, with meaningful decision-making power in mainstream institutions

1996 Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples Proposal

Studied community based governance vs. nation based governance

Proposed to create self governed aboriginal nations

But problem of organizing 1000’s of communities into 60-70 historical nations

The Future?

Many Canadians alarmed by idea of self government

Some aboriginal groups themselves feel not yet ready

However, Canada already has long history of two nations (French and English) under one loosely structured federal government.

Why not three?

More Info….

Indian Affairs and Northern Development www.ainc-ianc.gc.ca

Assembly of First Nations www.afn.ca

Royal Commission on Aboriginal Affairs www.ainc-ianc.gc.ca/ch/rcap