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Grade 6
Social Studies
2019-2020
Public Schools of
North Carolina
State Board of
Education
Department of
Public Instruction
Raleigh, North
Carolina 27699-
6314
Social Studies Review Directions:
1. Watch CNN 10 every day and complete
the CNN 10 Template located on page
58.You complete a paper copy or do one
digitally and turn it in via Google
Classroom.
2. Read through the notes then complete
the Student Review Activity for each Unit.
You can also use information from the
Techbook or look through the classroom
handouts to help you complete this
activity. You complete a paper copy or do
one digitally and turn it in via Google
Classroom.
3. If you finish numbers 1 and 2, watch
the Unit Review Videos on the Techbook
and write a summary on each one.
Useful Links
Email: [email protected]
Google Classroom Code: sc7ccth
Techbook: (Email me if you forget the
password)
https://elmsscobbie6.weebly.com/
CNN 10: https://www.cnn.com/cnn10
Review Videos: (Email me if you forget
the password)
https://elmsscobbie6.weebly.com/uni
t-reviews.html
6
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Table of Content
Essential Questions
Unit 1: Geography (Pages 3-6)
1.1 What is geography and how can it help us to understand the world?
1.2 How can the five themes of geography be used to show the relationship
between people and places? Why do geographers use a variety of maps to
represent the world?
1.3 How can geography be used to consider relationships between people
and places?
Unit 2: The Rise of Civilizations (Pages 7-10)
2.1 How do we learn about prehistoric societies?
2.2 How did early humans improve their lives?
2.3 In what ways did the agricultural revolution change human life?
2.4 Why do humans form civilizations?
Unit 3: Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt (Pages 11-18)
3.1 How did geography impact life in Mesopotamia?
3.2 How did religion and gender influence Mesopotamian society?
3.3 How did Mesopotamian technological and cultural innovations
influence future civilizations?
3.4 How did Egypt's location influence its development?
3.5 What effects did power and social class have on the lives of ancient
Egyptians?
3.6 How did the innovations of ancient Egypt impact its neighbors and
future civilizations?
Unit 4: Ancient India (Pages 19-23)
4.1 How did physical geography shape Indian civilization?
4.2 What effects did power and social class have on the lives of the ancient
Indian people?
4.3 How did religion influence Indian society?
Unit 5: Ancient Greece (Pages 24-29)
5.1 How did geography influence the development of Greek civilization?
5.2 To what extent were ancient Greek political systems democratic?
5.3 How has classical Greek culture affected our modern lives?
Unit 6: The Roman Republic and Empire (Pages 30-36)
6.1 How did geography and trade routes impact the growth of Rome?
6.2 Was the Roman Republic democratic?
6.3 How did Rome's transition from Republic to Empire impact its citizens?
6.4 How did the spread of Roman culture influence life throughout the
Empire?
6.5 Why did Rome decline and fall?
Unit 7: Ancient China and Japan (Pages 37-43)
7.1 What were the greatest achievements of the Tang and Song dynasties?
7.2 How did Mongol conquest change relations between regional societies?
7.3 How did trade shape Chinese society during the Ming Dynasty?
7.4 What effects did power and social class have on Japanese feudal
society?
Unit 8: African Empires (Pages 44-48)
8.1 How did the geography of Africa affect its settlement patterns and
commerce?
8.2 How did trade influence the politics and culture of African Empires?
8.3 How did contact with other religions change life in Africa?
Unit 9: The Middle Ages (Pages 49-55)
How did power and social class impact life in Medieval Europe?
How did the Black Death spark social, political, and economic change
throughout Europe?
Unit 10: American Societies (Pages 56-57)
10.1 How did physical geography shape the early societies of North
America?
10.2 How did the ancient societies in Latin America become so powerful?
CNN 10 Template (58)
Student Review Activity (59-70)
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1.1 The World at Your Fingertips Notes
Vocabulary
Delta- An area where a river deposits soil into the ocean.
River- A natural flow of water that runs through the land.
Glacier- A large area of slow-moving ice.
Valley- An area of low land between hills or mountains.
Peninsula- An area of land that sticks out into a lake or ocean.
Notes
1. In their work, geographers are guided by two basic questions: (1) Where are things located? And (2) Why are they
there?
2. To find the answer, geographers use the five themes of geography to organize information.
3. The Five Themes of Geography
a. Movement
b. Regions
c. Human-Environment Interaction
d. Location
e. Place
4. Geographers can’t easily study the whole world at one time. So they break the world into regions.
5. North Carolina is a part of the region in the United States known as the South. Within North Carolina there are four
physical regions: the Tidewater, the Coastal Plain, the Piedmont, and the Mountains.
6. North Carolina is divided into four geographic regions. The regions help to determine the way of life of North
Carolinians.
7. The islands off the North Carolina coast form the beach for much of the Tidewater.
8. A large portion of the land in the Tidewater is wetland most of the year, meaning that the soil is soaked or flooded
with water.
9. The richest soil in the state is to be found in many areas of the Coastal Plain. The region takes up about a third of the
area of North Carolina.
10. North Carolina’s Piedmont region is a place almost anyone can recognize immediately, for it has an unforgettable
feature— its red clay.
11. The line that divides the Piedmont from the Coastal Plain is called the fall line.
12. Farming has been as much a tradition in the Piedmont as the Coastal Plain. However, except for certain rich areas
with unusually rich brown soils farming has always been a struggle in the Piedmont.
13. Travelers from the east see North Carolina’s mountains long before they cross into them. The Mountains region
historically was never as populated or developed as the other regions of the state.
14. Social Studies is a way to learn about the world. It draws on information from five fields of learning—geography,
history, economics, government, and culture.
15. Geography is the study of people, places, and the environment.
16. Landforms are the major physical features on Earth.
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1.2 Many Regions, Many Cultures Notes
Vocabulary
Geography- The study of Earth's surfaces and the processes that shape it; the connections between people and their
environment.
Location- The position of anything on Earth's surface.
Region- An area distinguished by a unique combination of trends or features.
Mental Map- A map in a person's mind that contains his or her knowledge of an area or people.
Physical Geography- A kind of geography that studies Earth's natural features such as climate, soil, plants, animals,
landscape, and the locations of those things.
Human Geography- A kind of geography that studies human population, its cultures and activities, and their effect on
the physical world.
Compass Rose- A map feature that usually shows the four cardinal directions.
Globe- A round model of Earth that shows the continents and oceans in their true shapes.
Legend- Tells the user about the symbols used on the map.
Longitude- The series of imaginary lines that run north and south from one pole to the other.
Latitude- The series of imaginary lines that circle Earth parallel to the Equator; used to measure distance north or south
of the Equator.
Scale- Tells the user the size of a map in relation to the size of the real world by giving the ratio between distances on the
map and actual distances on the Earth.
Notes
1. The Five Themes of Geography
Movement Regions
Human-Environment Interaction
Location
Place
2. Location
Absolute Location
A latitude and longitude (global location) or a street address (local location).
Relative Location
Described by landmarks, time, direction, or distance. From one place to another.
3. MR. HELP!
M – Movement
R – Regions
HE – Human Environment Interaction
L – Location
P – Place
4. Geographers try to understand not only where things are located but also why they are located there. To do this they
use the Five Themes of Geography.
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5. Geographers organize their work by focusing on places.
6. Historians focus on time periods.
7. Physical geography is one of the main branches of geography. It involves the study of Earth’s natural features,
including water, landforms, vegetation, and climate.
8. An ecosystem consists of all the living and nonliving things in an area and how they relate to and depend on each
other.
9. Human geography involves studying human activities as they relate to Earth.
10. Geographers analyze how people adapt to the environment to better cope with it.
11. Absolute location is the exact spot on Earth where something exists.
12. Relative location is the general position of where something is in relation to other things.
13. There are seven continents in the world: Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe, Australia, and
Antarctica.
14. Most maps have basic map components that help you interpret the contents of the map: a legend, a scale, and a
directional indicator.
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1.3 Building a Global Perspective Notes
Vocabulary
Cartographer- A person who makes maps.
Physical Map- A type of map that shows landforms and bodies of water found in the area -shows the Earth's
natural features.
Political Map- A map that shows all the boundaries of nations and other political units.
Thematic Map- A map that show information related to a certain theme or subject.
Notes
1. Mapping Our World
Maps are designed to highlight information about specific locations.
A map is a diagram that visually represents a place on Earth.
There are many different kinds of maps, and they are all used to show different kinds of information.
Cartographers are the people who make maps.
Cartographers use different colors to visually represent the physical features that are being mapped.
2. Physical Map
Physical maps identify mountains, deserts, bodies of water, and other landforms.
The map key is a box or list found in the corner or on the side of a map. It explains the map symbols.
3. Political Maps
Political maps identify political boundaries between places.
Without political maps, you might not know where most of the dividing lines fall between cities, states,
or even different countries.
4. Thematic Maps
Thematic maps show information about a specific theme or subject.
5. Defining Regions
A region is a group of nearby places that all share certain characteristics.
o Physical regions are defined by having similar landforms or other physical characteristics.
o Cultural regions are defined by human characteristics rather than physical characteristics.
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2.1 Rise of Humans Notes
Vocabulary
Archaeologists- Social scientists who study how people lived in an earlier time.
Artifact- An object made by human beings; often refers to a primitive tool or other relic from an earlier period.
Dig Site- A place where an archaeological dig is going on.
Fossil- The remains (or an impression) of a plant or animal that existed in the past.
Culture- The attitudes and behavior that are characteristic of a particular social group or organization.
Hominin- Are humans and their early ancestors.
Notes
1. Archaeologists as Detectives
Archaeologists are social scientists who study how people lived in an earlier time.
They are like detectives. They investigate the clues left behind and piece together the story of how ancient peoples lived.
2. The Study of Artifacts
Many archaeologists today work for universities or museums.
Archaeologists travel to the location where ancient people lived to search for artifacts—remains and objects.
What archaeologists find provides them with information about what early life was like.
3. Tools of the Craft
Fossils and other artifacts help to explain who lived in certain areas and when they lived there.
4. Careful Study
Archaeologists use smaller tools to avoid destroying anything.
Archaeologists use artifacts to learn about ancient people and cultures.
5. Technology
Looking at technology can tell us about the lifestyles of people.
6. Hominin Habitats
Hominin are humans and their early ancestors.
Hominins were very adaptable.
They endured for several million years during unpredictable environmental change.
The unpredictable weather played a large role in where early hominins chose to settle.
Hominins lived by sources of food and water.
If the environment changed, hominins had to move. Otherwise, they might die. They avoided places with few resources.
7. Location of Earliest Hominins
Much evidence of the earliest hominins has been found in Africa.
8. Adapting to New Environments
The ability to adapt was necessary for survival.
Caves protected them from the elements. Their shelters also provided a place to store food.
Eventually, hominins learned to use fire.
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2.2 Early Humans Notes
Vocabulary
Ice Age- A period of time when huge sheets of ice covered much of the Earth's land, formed from ocean water, leaving
ocean levels lower than they are now which exposed dry land that connected the continents.
Hunter-Gatherer- A person who finds food by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild grains, fruits, and nuts.
The Fertile Crescent- A crescent-shaped area where agriculture and civilizations evolved first.
Bering Land Bridge- A narrow strip of land scientists believe existed 15,000 years ago, that connected Alaska and
Siberia.
Notes
1. Early Humans
Historians are not sure exactly where the first Homo sapiens, or modern humans, appeared. However, the
earliest fossils have been found in the south and east of Africa.
2. Ice Age
During the Ice Age humans lived by following and hunting the large herds of animals that roamed across the
lands. As early humans traveled, they would gather nuts, fruits, and plants. Early humans constantly had to
find both food and water.
During the Ice Age, early humans did not live in Europe. The climate was too cold. But the Ice Age ended
around 40,000 years ago. When this happened, the climate of Europe grew milder and more inviting for
humans.
Lower sea levels caused by the Ice Age meant that more of the Earth was covered by land. This allowed
humans to reach many places by foot.
3. The Birth of Society
Early hunter-gatherers most likely began to work and live together in social groups over time.
Scientists also believe that early hunter-gatherers took care of members of their groups.
Living together in groups was also important for hunting. Early humans used hunting tools like spears and
knives.
Fire provided warmth and a way to cook. It provided protection from animals or enemy humans. Fire also
turned meals into social gatherings.
4. Language
Language allows us to communicate our thoughts quickly and easily.
It also allows us to share knowledge. Language helps to create human culture.
5. Cave Paintings
Creating art takes time and effort. The creation of art shows that humans had moved beyond simply struggling
to survive and had begun to create culture.
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2.3 Neolithic Revolution Notes
Vocabulary
Agriculture- The practice of cultivating the land or raising live stock.
Agricultural Revolution- The time when humans first began to domesticate plants and animals and no longer relied
entirely on hunting and gathering.
Bronze Age- A period characterized by the manufacture and use of bronze tools and weapons.
Migration- The movement of people from one country or locality to another.
Notes
1. Neolithic Revolution
The Neolithic Revolution, or Agricultural Revolution, did not happen quickly. It occurred gradually, over
several thousand years.
The cold temperatures of the Ice Age ended about 11,700 years ago.
As these nomadic peoples moved from region to region, they began to find areas with lots of animals and
plants and other natural resources.
People settled in the area that is today known as the Fertile Crescent. People who settled in such areas learned
how to help the local plant life grow.
2. The First Crops
Over time, people learned how to plant and grow certain crops. Then they were able to better control their
food supply. At that point, they could begin to settle in one place.
Most historians believe that women were the first people to begin farming.
Storing crops allowed early farmers to keep their food supply steady.
Researchers generally believe that barley and wheat were the first crops that were planted and harvested.
3. Animals
Dogs were the first animals tamed and raised by humans. Dogs were most likely domesticated by early
nomads to help with hunting.
Goats and sheep were the first domesticated farm animals.
With the use of tamed animals, fewer people were needed in the fields. People could specialize in other
activities that they were good at, such as making tools. Specialization led to new ways of working that
brought improvements to people's lives.
4. Gradually Change
People in settled farming communities had an advantage over hunter-gatherer groups. Their communities had
advanced tools and large populations. They could produce a steady supply of food. These communities could
grow and spread faster.
Over time, people changed from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled members of farm-based communities.
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2.4 Early Agricultural Civilizations Notes
Vocabulary
Civilization- A society with cities, a central government, job specialization, and social classes.
Specialization- The development of skills in a specific kind of work.
Luxury Item- Something that gives pleasure but is not necessarily needed to live.
Social Hierarchy- The division of society by rank or class.
Architecture- The discipline dealing with the principles of design and construction of buildings.
Religion- An organized collection of beliefs, cultural systems, and world views that relate humanity to the supernatural,
and to spirituality.
Monotheism- The belief in one god.
Polytheism- The belief in many gods.
Notes
1. Early Agricultural Civilizations
The development of agriculture—
producing crops and raising farm
animals—provided a steady food supply
people could rely on.
With a steady food supply, more people
could settle in one place. They began to
build stronger and longer-lasting homes
and live in larger communities. They
began to develop civilizations.
2. Specialization of Labor
Division of labor allowed early humans to become skilled at certain tasks. They now had time to do things
they wanted to do.
Specialization of labor created a new feature of civilizations—social hierarchy. A social hierarchy is a system
in which people are ranked in different classes, one above the other.
There are fewer members in the top class than at the bottom.
3. Cities and Government
Cities are usually the center for culture, religion, government, and the invention of new tools.
4. Religion and Literature
An important mark of a civilization is its ability to share its culture. This is particularly true of its knowledge.
The organization of religion and the invention of written languages were major cultural advances that took
place in early civilizations.
Members of ancient civilizations usually followed the same religion. Religion united the members of a
civilization.
5. The Importance of Geography
Many of the earliest civilizations arose near natural sources of water.
6. Exchanges Among Early Civilizations
Cities provided early humans with the main things they needed to live. Cities also encouraged culture to
develop.
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3.1 Geography of Mesopotamia Notes
Vocabulary
Civilization- An advanced state of human society, in which a high level of culture, science, industry, and government has been
reached.
City-State- An independent kingdom or state made up of a city and the surrounding lands it controls.
Empire- A large group of territories and people who are ruled by a single leader or nation.
Silt- A mixture of rock and soil that is carried by water that creates fertile soil that is good for growing crops.
Irrigation- The artificial application of water to land.
Levee- A ridge or embankment built along the edges of a river or stream to prevent flooding.
Dam- A barrier that people build across rivers or other bodies of water so they can store the water or move it to another location.
Scribe- A person who was educated and wrote books or other documents by hand.
Commerce- The act of buying and selling goods and services.
Notes
1. Locating Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia was one of the earliest known civilizations in human history. Mesopotamia sprang up near the banks of a
major river, where the land was fertile and good for growing crops.
The abundance of food grown in Mesopotamia allowed the civilization to expand and trade with other civilizations.
Mesopotamia was established in the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the Fertile Crescent.
2. Big Cities
Mesopotamia was a civilization made up of separate settlements sometimes called city-states. Each city-state usually was
controlled by a strong ruler. At different points in history, different empires or kingdoms ruled these cities.
3. Resources and Geography
The Tigris and Euphrates rivers flooded each year, bringing nutrient-rich silt to the river valley where Mesopotamia
developed. This soil and the water from the rivers were both extremely important to agriculture.
4. Agricultural Innovations
With large irrigation systems, they were able to produce enough crops to feed an entire city and then some. Irrigation
was an important advance that allowed crops to thrive.
Mesopotamians domesticated animals and invented a new seeder plow that made planting more efficient.
The advances in agriculture made it so that it was easier for people to grow more food. With this abundance of food
people began to take on other roles in society.
5. Farming and Other Jobs
As the cities grew, different members of Mesopotamian society continued to develop specialized skills that met the needs
of people living in cities.
Most people had jobs dealing with agricultural production.
Thanks to the farmers, cities were supported with surplus food and other jobs thrived. With plenty of food to feed
everyone, the cities continued to grow.
6. Overseas and Land Travel
Agriculture allowed for a system of trade to spring up, first within individual cities and later between different cities and
outside civilizations.
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3.2 Mesopotamian Society Notes
Vocabulary
Ziggurat- An ancient religious structure built in the major cities of Mesopotamia that are similar to the pyramids.
Social Pyramid- A way of illustrating the social organization of a particular society. The people with the most wealth are at the top.
The people with the least money and the lowest social position are on the bottom.
Cuneiform- A system of writing that was widely used in the ancient Middle East.
Notes
1. Religion in Mesopotamia
Religion played an important role in the daily
life of ancient Mesopotamians. The
Mesopotamians believed in polytheism.
2. A Social Pyramid
Mesopotamian kings held a great deal of
political and religious power. They determined
the laws, collected taxes, and organized labor
for large projects such as digging irrigation
ditches.
Mesopotamian people viewed their kings as conduits to their gods, so kings were also responsible for religious
ceremonies. Religion gave kings the authority to rule, and in return kings fulfilled religious obligations.
Mesopotamian people viewed their kings as conduits to their gods, so kings were also responsible for religious
ceremonies. Religion gave kings the authority to rule, and in return kings fulfilled religious obligations.
The king, priests, and other important leaders made up the top tier of Mesopotamian society. Scribes and other merchants
were a step below the top tier, and peasants and slaves were found at the bottom layer of the social pyramid.
3. Writing
Sumerian writing is called cuneiform. Sumerians first used cuneiform to keep business accounts and other records. The
best-known work of Sumerian literature is the Epic of Gilgamesh.
4. Farmers
Peasants farmed the land surrounding the cities. They sold their extra food to people living in the cities. Farmers also
gave a certain amount of their crops to the king.
5. The Role of Women
In all social classes, men held more rights and responsibilities than women.
6. The Four Empires of Mesopotamia- Because Mesopotamia had rich agricultural land and a lively culture, many different
empires conquered it.
a. Akkadian Empire
b. Babylonian Empire
c. Assyrian Empire
d. Neo Babylonian Empire
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3.3 Mesopotamian Innovations and Contributions Notes
Vocabulary
Inventor- A person who invented a particular process or device or who invents things as an occupation.
Invention- The action of inventing something, typically a process or device.
Epic- A long poem or story usually about gods and heroes doing great deeds.
Hammurabi- Ruler of the first dynasty of Babylon; famous mainly because of the laws he set down known as the Code of
Hammurabi.
Code of Hammurabi- A set of laws established by Hammurabi that covered several areas of law, including economic law, family
law, criminal law, and civil law.
Notes
1. Cradle of Civilization
Southwest Asia has often been called the Cradle of Civilization, because the world’s first civilizations developed there.
Mesopotamians were the first to develop writing, to use the wheel, and to form huge empires.
The world’s earliest civilization developed in Southwest Asia in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
2. Trade and Society
Sumerians obtained many of the materials for their buildings and art through trade. Sumer lacked many raw materials, such
as wood and metals. To obtain these materials, Sumerians traded with people.
A social pyramid is a way of illustrating the social organization of a particular society. The people with the most wealth are at
the top. The people with the least money and the lowest social position are on the bottom.
3. Mesopotamian Innovations
The Sumerians learned to build elaborate structures and irrigation systems.
The Sumerians also invented the wheel.
Sumerians also invented the plow and learned to use bronze.
Sumerians built sewers.
They even performed basic surgery.
4. The Development of Written Language
Mesopotamians introduced such developments as the first known writing system, the first complete code of law,
and The Epic of Gilgamesh.
The Sumerians used cuneiform writing in almost every part of their daily lives. Because of that, we know a lot about who the
Sumerians were and how they lived.
5. The Epic of Gilgamesh
An epic is usually about gods and heroes doing great deeds. The Epic of Gilgamesh is believed to be the earliest surviving
piece of literature.
6. The Splendor of Babylon
Nebuchadnezzar built the famous Hanging Gardens. Ancient writers listed the Hanging Gardens of Babylon as one of the
seven wonders of the ancient world.
7. The Babylonian Empire
Hammurabi was the king of Babylon. He was a brilliant warrior, who united all of Mesopotamia in what became known as
the Babylonian Empire.
Hammurabi is most famous, though, for his code of laws. Hammurabi’s Code consists of 282 laws.
Hammurabi created a consistent code of conduct for citizens and judges alike, setting clear guidelines for how lawbreakers
would be punished.
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3.4 Geography of Egypt Notes
Vocabulary
Egypt- Located in the northeast corner of the African continent, this country is a land of deserts, mountains, and the Nile
River.
Nile River- The longest river in the world. The Nile is the most important feature of Egypt’s geography.
Delta- A triangular area of flat land shaped by deposits of silt at the mouth of a river.
Economy- The way a country manages its money and resources to produce, buy, and sell goods and services.
Notes
1. The Big Picture
The Nile is the longest river in the world. It is also known as the site of one of the world’s earliest civilizations—
ancient Egypt. Egypt, the land of pyramids and pharaohs.
The Nile flows through the Sahara, the largest desert in the world and one of the harshest. The civilizations that
developed along the Nile depended on the river to irrigate their lands and to make life possible.
2. The Geography of Egypt
a. Like the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, the Nile flooded every year. Unlike floods on the Mesopotamian
rivers, however, the Nile’s floods were predictable.
b. The floodwaters that poured over the river’s banks covered the surrounding land with a rich black silt. Because of
these floods, a narrow band of fertile soil stretched all along the Nile. It was in this band that Egyptian civilization
developed.
c. The richest and most fertile soils in all Egypt were found in the Nile Delta. A delta is an area at the mouth of a
river, often triangle shaped, made up of silt deposits.
d. Although the desert was mostly unlivable wasteland, its presence was something of a comfort to the Egyptians.
The Sahara was so difficult to cross that it discouraged peoples from invading.
e. The Nile itself also helped prevent invasions. South of Egypt, the Nile flowed through a series of cataracts, rocky
stretches marked by swift currents and rapids. Because of these dangerous currents and falls, boats could not sail
through the Nile’s cataracts.
f. The area where the Nile flows into the Mediterranean Sea is called a delta.
3. Ancient Egypt
In ancient times, most of the population of Egypt lived near the Nile River.
Farming was generally successful around the Nile because of a material called silt, which was left by the river
when it floods.
4. Location, Location, Location
All of history’s earliest civilizations developed in river valleys, due to the fertility of the soil that allowed for the
eventual development of an agricultural surplus.
The annual flooding of the Nile led to a bounty in agricultural production that jump-started Egyptian civilization
and made Egypt the granary of the ancient world.
5. Why Does It Matter
Egypt’s geography was the reason it developed into such an advanced civilization. Its major cities, and much of
its population, were centered along the Nile. The river has made life in the region possible.
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6. The Pharaohs
At the head of Egypt’s government was the king, who eventually
became known as the pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians believed
that the pharaoh was really a god in human form. As such, people
thought that the pharaoh was responsible for Egypt’s prosperity.
Powerful as the pharaoh was, he could not rule Egypt alone. The
kingdom was simply too big and too complex for one person to
govern. To aid him in ruling, the pharaoh was surrounded by a
well-established bureaucracy, a highly structured organization
managed by officials. In Egypt, many of these officials were the
pharaoh’s relatives.
7. The Growth of States
Agriculture and the irrigation projects were the foundations of early Egyptian civilization. A surplus of crops
enabled some Egyptians to work in other jobs besides farming. The combination of growing governments and
specialized workers led to the growth of towns.
8. Egypt’s Trade Economy
Egypt was able to trade its agricultural products for goods that were scarce in Egypt, such as timber, precious
metals, and gemstones.
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3.5 Egyptian Society Notes
Vocabulary
Menes- The first king, or pharaoh, of Egypt. He is credited with unifying Lower and Upper Egypt under one rule.
Pharaoh- A ruler of ancient Egypt.
Horus- The God of the sky and of the pharaohs.
Dynasty- A series of rulers in a particular kingdom or empire, and each ruler in the series is said to be a member of the
same family.
Pyramid- A large stone structure that is built with a square base and has triangular-shaped sides that meet in a point at the
top.
Hieroglyphics- Symbols or pictures that stand for objects, ideas, or sounds.
Notes
1. Egyptian Society
Egypt’s first civilizations were small villages. These villages were scattered along the Nile River. During
those early days, Egypt was not united.
Over time, the people of Egypt formed two kingdoms. Egypt was divided into Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt.
Around 3100 BCE, the two kingdoms became one.
2. Pharaohs Unify Egypt
Menes succeeded in bringing together all the people living along the Nile into one nation. Menes became
Egypt’s first pharaoh, or ruler. Egyptians believed that Menes, and the pharaohs who followed him, were not
just kings. They were gods on Earth.
Menes founded Egypt’s first dynasty, or series of rulers from the same family. Through its long history, Egypt
was ruled by a string of dynasties.
3. Egypt’s Kingdoms
Historians group Egypt's history into three main time periods:
o The Old Kingdom
o The Middle Kingdom
o The New Kingdom
The time before the Old Kingdom is known as the Early Dynastic Period. During this time, Egypt’s culture
was beginning to form. The Egyptians had not yet built large cities.
Between each major era were Intermediate Periods. These periods were times of change and conflict. No one
central power ruled over all of Egypt.
4. The Pyramids
The most famous symbols of ancient Egypt are the pyramids. Most of these huge structures were built during
the Old Kingdom. The pyramids were built as tombs for Egypt’s rulers.
5. King Khufu – Pyramid Builder
The Great Pyramid at Giza was built by King Khufu.
6. The Reign of Hatshepsut
Hatshepsut, one of the few women to rule Egypt. Officially, Hatshepsut was only the regent, ruling in the
name of her young son. Before long, however, she proclaimed herself to be Egypt’s pharaoh.
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The reign of Hatshepsut is best known for a huge trading expedition she sent to Punt, a kingdom on the Red
Sea. This expedition returned to Egypt with such products as gold, apes and other wild animals, and myrrh, a
valuable perfume.
When Hatshepsut died, her nephew took over as pharaoh. He destroyed statues, removed her name from
monuments, and tried to remove all record of her reign.
7. Social Structure of Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptians were born into a social group. They usually continued in the same jobs as their parents.
All classes supported the power of the pharaoh.
8. Temples and Religious Practices
Egyptians built temples to honor their gods and also to provide homes for them. Many temples also featured
obelisks, tall, thin pillars with pyramid-shaped tops. An obelisk was made from a single piece of stone and
carved with intricate designs.
9. Mummification and Burial
Central to Egyptian religion was the belief in an afterlife. The Egyptians believed that, after a person died, his
or her soul would go to live in the land of the dead.
10. Life After Death
Egyptians were buried with prized belongings, like jewelry. They wanted to have these items with them in the
afterlife. Egyptians from all social classes were mummified to prepare for the afterlife.
11. Egyptian Writing
The main Egyptian writing system was hieroglyphics.
Papyrus is a reedy plant that grew along the Nile. The Egyptians used the pulp of the papyrus to make paper
like sheets. Once dried, these sheets provided an excellent writing surface.
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3.6 Egyptian Innovations and Contributions Notes
Vocabulary
Tutankhamen- An Egyptian pharaoh commonly called King Tut. He is famous today largely because the fabulous
treasures of his tomb have been on exhibit around the world.
Kohl- A type of cosmetic, or makeup, made from lampblack or antimony.
Import- Something bought by one country from another in trade.
Export- Something sold to one country by another in trade.
Caravan- Any large group of people, typically traveling together, in single file.
Notes
1. Ancient Egypt
The art and artifacts discovered in Egypt have given us a great deal of insight into the culture, day-to-day life,
religious beliefs, and technological advances of the ancient Egyptians.
Most large statues from ancient Egypt show gods or pharaohs and once stood in temples. These statues were
designed to show the power and majesty of their subjects.
We know a great deal about the ancient Egyptians because they kept careful written records and because their
trade with other countries spread their culture throughout the region.
2. Egyptian Afterlife
Egyptians believed that when they died, they went to an afterlife. They filled their tombs with everything they
believed they would need such as food and clothing.
Much of ancient Egypt’s early art was created within tombs. Their murals showed Egyptians’ daily activities.
They also showed events from the past and afterlife scenes of the person buried in the tomb.
3. Medical Discoveries
Over time the Egyptians became masters of human anatomy. Doctors used their knowledge to treat patients,
both at home and at certain temples regarded as healing centers. These doctors set broken bones, treated
wounds, and performed simple surgical procedures.
4. Egyptian Innovations
Technological and cultural advances meant Egyptians had a high standard of living.
Egyptians could sell or trade their innovations to other societies, which made Egypt a powerful and influential
nation.
Many societies adopted the cultural and technological innovations of the Egyptians.
5. Trade Networks
Egyptian merchants used trade networks to ship their goods throughout the ancient world. They would export
materials they wanted to sell. They imported what they needed from other nations.
6. Egyptian Writing
The main Egyptian writing system was hieroglyphics.
7. Trading Ideas
Merchants used standard weights and measurements of Egypt to make sure trading was fair.
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4.1 Geography of India Notes
Vocabulary
Mountain Range- A group of mountains that are located close together.
Himalayas- Earth’s highest mountain range, began forming 40 or 50 million years ago. The mountains are still rising at
the rate of about one-fifth of an inch per year.
Mount Everest- The tallest landform on Earth with an elevation of 29,035 feet. It is located in the Himalayan Mountains
Range.
Subcontinent- A large, relatively self-contained landmass forming a subdivision of a continent.
Indus River- Located in Pakistan this river is a source of water for millions of people living along its course. The waters
of this river have been used for irrigation for thousands of years.
Ganges River- Located in India this river is a sacred river of Hinduism and is a source of water for millions of people
living along its course.
Monsoon- A strong wind that brings heavy rain to South Asia in the summer and droughts in the winter.
Harvest- The gathering of a ripened crop.
Notes
1. The Big Picture
Like Mesopotamia and Egypt, Ancient India was home to an early river valley civilization. The people of
Ancient India developed their own governments, languages, customs, and social structures as well as religions
and philosophies.
2. India’s Geography
The Indus River flows across the northwest edge of the Indian subcontinent. A subcontinent is a large
landmass that is part of a continent.
Much of this rain is brought to India by seasonal winds called monsoons.
The people of India’s first civilizations depended upon the monsoons to bring the water that their crops
needed. Monsoon rains flooded rivers, which then deposited fertile silt in which farmers could grow their
crops.
The geography of South Asia enabled these civilizations to grow and prosper.
3. Mountains and the Sea
The tall Himalayas, which contain Mount Everest, are located in the northeastern part of India.
The southern portion of India is surrounded by the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. The Arabian Sea
would eventually become an important trade route. Both of these bodies of water are part of the Indian Ocean.
4. Subcontinent
Although India is part of Asia, it is geographically separated from the rest of the continent by the mountains
to the north and the ocean to the south.
Water and mountains surrounded ancient India. This geographic isolation protected the people who settled in
this region.
5. Cities and Settlements
Indus settlements were well planned and carefully laid out. Uniformity among cities suggests that a central
authority held power over the civilization.
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6. Economy
Historians believe the economy of the Indus civilization focused on agriculture and trade. Most people probably
farmed and herded livestock. In cities, however, many people specialized in crafts such as pottery, metalwork, and
jewelry.
The Indus traded the goods they produced not only with people of nearby communities but with distant
civilizations as well. Traders from the Indus Valley brought goods to locations as distant as Mesopotamia.
7. Society
Although the people of the Indus Valley had a writing system, historians are not yet able to read it.
8. The Vedic Period
Sometime after 2000 BC, a new people took control of India. Historians often refer to this group as the Aryans.
Little archaeological evidence remains to document the early Aryan period in India. Most of what we know comes
from sacred writings called the Vedas, which include many details about Aryan history and society.
According to the oldest of the Vedas, society was divided into four social classes called varnas. Each varna played
a particular role in society.
9. Social Structure
Over centuries, the four varnas of the Vedic period were divided into hundreds of smaller divisions called castes.
Membership in a caste determined what jobs one could hold and whom one could marry. A social hierarchy
developed in which some castes had more privileges than others.
10. Rivers and River Valleys
Water is necessary for the survival of every civilization. Two large rivers flowed through ancient India. The two
major rivers of the region are the Indus River and the Ganges River.
11. Planting Around Monsoons
Farmers in South Asia depend on the monsoon rains to provide the water they need to grow their crops. Farmers
planted in the summer months, when water was available. They harvested in the fall. If the monsoon rains were
late, farmers and their crops suffered.
12. Civilization in the Indus Valley
Early farmers on the Indian subcontinent usually settled near rivers. Rivers provided rich fertile soil for planting
crops.
South Asian farmers began to farm in the river valleys because of the fertile land.
A steady food supply allows people to gather in large groups and allowed people to form civilizations.
As farmers grew a surplus of food, other workers began to specialize in occupations other than farming.
13. Rivers, Farming, and Civilization
The Indus Valley civilization was as advanced as other early civilizations, such as Mesopotamia and Egypt.
The Indus Valley civilization was also located close enough to other civilizations that its people could trade for
resources that they needed but did not have.
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4.2 India’s Rulers and Society Notes
Vocabulary
Natural Barrier- An obstruction that occurs naturally, for example a mountain range. These obstructions have been important
factors in human history, by blocking migration and invasion.
Vedas- A written collection of hymns, prayers, chants, and other religious writings that make up the most important part of the
sacred texts of Hinduism.
Hinduism- The dominant religion in India, is one of the world’s oldest religions. Believed to have originated on the Indian
subcontinent around 1500 BCE.
Caste System-Arranges people into hereditary groups within a society.
Buddhism- Both a religion and a philosophy, today this religion is the fourth largest on Earth, with about 360 million followers.
Notes
1. Aryan Invasion
For much of its early history, India was isolated by natural barriers such as mountains and oceans. However, at
times other civilizations and groups of people were able to cross the mountains and enter into the territory. One of
these groups was the Aryans.
The Aryan invaders conquered the people of the Indus River civilization in India. They settled in the fertile valleys
as farmers, raising cattle and horses that they had brought with them.
2. The Vedas
The Vedas are a written collection of hymns, prayers, chants, and other religious writings that make up the most
important part of the sacred texts of Hinduism.
The Vedas are believed to have first been written down in Sanskrit, one of the ancient languages of India.
3. Hinduism
Aryan religion mixed with local Indian beliefs and practices to form Hinduism, a new religion.
Hinduism has no founder. It evolved over thousands of years and was influenced by the cultures and traditions of
many peoples.
4. Brahman
Among the most basic tenets of Hinduism is the belief in Brahman, the eternal being that created and preserves the
world. Hindus believe that everything in the world is simply an aspect of Brahman.
5. The Caste System
The caste system divided people into groups that
dictated what jobs they could have, who they could
marry, and where they could live.
A person’s status and role within society was tied to the
group, or caste, he or she belonged to. Different groups
in society were responsible for different jobs and
responsibilities. People in one group were not allowed
to marry people from another group. A person was born
into a group and was not allowed to change groups at
any point in life.
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6. The Mauryan Empire
India's first empire, the Mauryan Empire, was established around 322 BCE. A great military leader,
Chandragupta Maurya, was the first true emperor in India. His grandson Ashoka is remembered as one of the
greatest kings in India's history.
Ashoka converted to Buddhism and instituted new policies throughout the empire. He promoted peace,
opened universities, and established new trade routes for his people.
Ashoka had stone pillars erected throughout India. These pillars were covered in engravings and markings
that told his story and shared his religious philosophies with his people.
After Ashoka died in 232 BC, the Mauryan Empire began to decline. As the Mauryan Empire collapsed, India
again divided into many regional kingdoms.
7. Dhammapada
Many of the sacred texts of Buddhism record the words of the Buddha. Among them is the Dhammapada. The
Dhammapada is particularly sacred to Buddhists.
8. Gupta Empire
Around 320 CE, the Gupta Empire began. During this time, the dynasty built roads throughout the empire,
reestablished Hinduism as the main religion in India, and made many scientific, mathematical, and cultural
advances.
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4.3 India’s Religions Origins and Characteristics
Notes
Vocabulary
Reincarnation- The belief that the soul is reborn after death in human –or some other form.
Karma- Describes how a person’s actions in one life can influence and affect the next life.
Dharma- The religious law that describes the way people should live in order to maintain the natural order of the world.
Missionary- Someone sent on a religious or charitable mission to a foreign country; often to convert others to a particular religion.
Notes
1. Hinduism
Religion often has had an important effect on culture.
The founders of most of the major religions are well known. Unlike most of the world’s religions, Hinduism has no
founder and no central organization.
2. Dharma and Karma
Every culture has its own code of rules for people to live by. Often, these rules are created by leaders or a central
government. Religious customs often influence the official laws of a society.
3. Reincarnation
Hindus also believe in reincarnation. According to this idea, when a person dies, he or she is reborn in a new physical
form. The final goal of life is to achieve moksha, or the “union with Brahman.”
4. Karma
How close one comes to moksha in a lifetime depends on the law of karma. Karma is a positive or negative force. It is a
result of good or bad actions taken during a person’s lifetime.
5. Dharma
Dharma is the religious and moral duties of a person.
6. The Cow!
The cow is the most holy animal in the Hindu religion.
7. Buddhism
Buddhism originated in India.
8. Four Noble Truths
i. All life is full of suffering
ii. The cause of human suffering is desire
iii. The cure for suffering is ending desire
iv. The way to overcome desire is to follow the Eightfold Path
9. The Eightfold Path
The Eightfold Path provided a system for people to follow in their daily lives. Its teachings help people to live a life
somewhere between a life without material goods and a life devoted to wealth and ease.
By following the Eightfold Path and living a good and honest life, one could achieve nirvana.
Nirvana is a state of heavenly peace and freedom from desire and suffering.
10. Buddhism
Buddhism spread throughout Asia by the Buddha’s missionary followers in the centuries following his death.
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5.1 Geography of Ancient Greece Notes
Vocabulary
Island- An area of land that is completely surrounded by water.
Peninsula- A piece of land that is surrounded by water on three sides.
City-State- An independent kingdom or state made up of a city and the surrounding lands it controls.
Persia- The old name for current-day Iran. It serves as a bridge between the East and the West.
Cyrus the Great- United most of what is today Iran under his control and established himself as the ruler of Persia.
Persian Wars- A series of wars between the Persian Empire and Greek city-states; Greek victories allowed Greek civilization
to define identity.
Allies- A state formally cooperating with another for a military or other purpose, typically by treaty.
Notes
1. The Big Picture
Greece was the home of a series of advanced civilizations. The Greeks left behind a legacy that helped define what
we think of as Western civilization.
2. Minoans and Mycenaeans
Two distinct cultures developed in early Greece, the Minoans and the Mycenaeans.
3. The Minoans of Crete
The civilization we call Minoan developed on Crete. Minoan colonies grew up on dozens of Aegean islands. Ships
laden with trade goods sailed back and forth between these colonies and Crete.
The Greek culture of sailing and trading developed over thousands of years.
Minoan life was tied to the sea: sailing, trade, fishing, even playing in the waves were all common.
Much of what historians have written about Minoan civilization is the result of speculation and guesswork. Part of
the problem stems from the Minoans’ writing, which historians cannot read. Called Linear A, the language does
not appear to be related to those of mainland Greece.
4. The Mycenaean States
Historians consider the Mycenaeans the first Greeks, because they spoke a form of the Greek language.
Unlike Minoan writing, however, Mycenaean writing has been translated.
Mycenaean society was dominated by intense competition, frequent warfare, and powerful kings.
5. Islands and Mountains
While many ancient civilizations began in river valleys, the Greeks settled on a group of islands and peninsulas.
Greece’s steep mountains also affected the crops and animals in the region. Farmers raised goats and sheep because
they could graze on the sides of the mountains.
The land of the Greeks was surrounded by the Mediterranean, Ionian, and Aegean Seas, which made the Greeks
skilled at sea travel.
The surrounding water, plus the mountainous terrain of many of the Greek islands, helped to create a sense of
independence.
The Greeks formed numerous city-states for the purpose of self-government.
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6. Greek City-States
Society was centered on the polis, or city-state, which became the basic political unit in Greece. Because Greece
was so rugged, travel and communication between city-states was difficult. As a result, each polis developed
independently of its neighbors. Each developed its own form of government, laws, and customs.
The polis was the center of daily life and culture for the ancient Greeks. Each major polis had a different political
system that developed over time.
7. The Economy of Ancient Greece
Many of the Greek islands and peninsulas grew many olives and grapes.
8. Unique City-States
Greece’s geography made travel and communication difficult. As a result, it was hard to have one central
government. Because of this, the city-states grew separately. The city-states were often quite different from one
another because of their locations.
When they were threatened, the Greek city-states sometimes worked together to protect themselves.
9. The Persian Empire
The Persian Empire formed to the east of Greek civilization. This new empire became an enemy of the Greek city-
states. It wanted Greek land and power.
The Persian Empire formed when Cyrus the Great united much of what is today the nation of Iran. He conquered
many surrounding lands and incorporated them into the Persian Empire.
The Persian Empire’s increasing power led to conflicts with some of the Greek city-states.
10. The First Persian Invasion
Phalanx, a tight rectangle formation in which soldiers held long spears out ahead of a wall of shields.
11. Preparations for a Second Invasion
The Greek victory at Marathon shocked both Greeks and Persians. The Athenians could not believe that they had
defeated a much stronger foe. The Persians, humiliated, were furious.
In 480 BCE, Darius’s son, Xerxes, who was the new Persian king, launched an invasion by land and sea.
Faced with another invasion, the Athenians called on other Greek city-states to help fight off the Persians. Athens,
which had recently built a large and powerful navy, took charge of the Greeks’ fighting ships. Sparta took charge
of the Greeks’ armies.
Greek forces created a brilliant strategy, using their country’s rocky terrain to slow the advance of the huge Persian
army at Thermopylae. After a fierce battle, however, the Greeks were defeated.
After Thermopylae, the Persians marched south to Athens. Not wanting the Persians to get what they needed, a
clever Athenian commander lured the Persian fleet into the narrow Strait of Salamis near Athens. Because the
Persian ships were so much larger than the Greek vessels, they could not maneuver well in the strait. With their
opponents virtually helpless, the Greek warships cut them to pieces.
12. The End of the Wars
The Battle of Salamis changed the nature of the war. The next year, in 479 BC, a huge Greek army led by the full
might of Sparta crushed the Persians near Plataea. The Greeks won the Persian Wars.
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5.2 Greek Political Systems Notes
Vocabulary
Monarchy- A system in which only one person has the power to rule. This person is usually a king or queen.
Oligarchy- When several people have the power to rule. The oligarchs who rose to power in ancient Greece usually came
from the upper classes.
Tyranny- A government that is ruled by one person who took power by force.
Democracy- A type of government in which the people have the power to make political decisions.
Direct Democracy- A form of government in which all people, or all citizens, come together to pass laws and make
decisions for their communities.
Representative Democracy- A form of government where people elect representatives such as senators or members of
Congress. These representatives make decisions and create laws that mirror the interests of the people.
Notes
1. The Golden Age of Athens
As the leaders in the Persian Wars, Athens and Sparta became the two most powerful and influential city-
states in Greece. After the Persian Wars, Athens entered a golden age, an age in which it was the center of
Greek culture and politics.
2. Increased Influence
As the Delian League’s leader, Athens controlled its ships and money. As its leader, Athens gained more
influence in Greece.
3. The Age of Pericles
Much of the rebuilding of Athens was due to one man—Pericles. A skilled politician and a gifted public
speaker, Pericles was elected one of the city’s generals in the 460s BC and was re-elected many times.
Despite Pericles’s own personal power, he was a great champion of democracy. To encourage more people to
participate in government, he introduced payment for those who served in public offices or on juries. He also
encouraged the Athenians to introduce democracy into other parts of Greece.
4. Life in the Golden Age
During the Golden Age, trade brought great wealth to Athens. Athens was the heart of Greek culture during
this time.
5. Early Forms of Greek Government
Greece has a unique geography. Because of this, many early Greek cities were established on islands. Cities
on the mainland were separated by the hills and mountains.
Ancient Greeks built independent city-states rather than one united civilization. Different systems of
government were used to rule these city-states.
Herodotus, a Greek historian, is often called the “father of history”.
6. The Beginnings of Democracy
In the 500s BCE, the earliest democracy developed in the city-state of Athens. Later all Athenian citizens
participated in establishing government and laws.
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7. Athenian Democracy
Free male adults whose parents were born in Athens were citizens. Women were not allowed to take part in
government. Those who lived in Athens but did not have Athenian parents, or who were enslaved, could not
become citizens or take part in government.
Athens’ new style of government was a direct democracy. Every qualified citizen could vote.
Most democracies today are representative democracies, including the United States.
8. Forms of Government
9. Life in Athens
Athens was located near the sea. The surrounding area had little farmland of good quality. It was easier for
Athenians to travel by ship to trade for food and other resources. Athens became a center of culture.
10. Life in Ancient Sparta
Sparta created a culture based on military strength. Sparta power was based upon its military strength.
Spartans spent little time focusing on arts and culture.
11. Athens and Sparta
Athens focused on aspects of culture, societal roles,
and education. Sparta stressed military strength and
allowed women more freedom than they had in Athens.
12. The Peloponnesian League
For decades after the Persian Wars, tension built
between the Delian and Peloponnesian leagues. Athens
and its allies feared the military might of the other
league. In return, Sparta feared that Athens’s fleet
would stop it and its allies from trading. This mutual
fear led Athens and Sparta to declare war on each other
in 431 BC. The resulting conflict, known as the
Peloponnesian War, lasted many years.
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5.3 Greek Cultural Achievements Notes
Vocabulary
Amphitheater- A round or oval building, typically unroofed, with a central space for the presentation of dramatic events.
Socrates- An ancient Greek philosopher who lived in Athens during its Golden Age; teacher of Plato.
Socratic Method- A method of teaching by question and answer; used by Socrates.
Plato- An ancient Athenian philosopher; pupil of Socrates; teacher of Aristotle.
Aristotle- One of the greatest of the ancient Athenian philosophers; pupil of Plato; teacher of Alexander the Great.
Hippocrates- A medical practitioner who is regarded as the father of medicine; author of the Hippocratic Oath.
Mythology- The study of myths, legends, or folk tales.
Epic- A long narrative poem that describes heroic deeds. It can be either written or oral.
Alexander the Great- Was a king of Macedonia, an area just north of Greece, in the 300s BCE. He is known as one of the
greatest military leaders and conquerors the world has ever known.
Notes
1. The Golden Age of Greece
During the classical period of ancient Greece, philosophy, literature, architecture, and sculpture flourished. As a
result, this period came to be known as the Golden Age of Greece.
Philosophy, the search for wisdom, became an important part of life in Athens.
2. Socrates
Socrates, the famous Greek philosopher and teacher, developed a method of teaching that involved asking
questions and engaging people in debate. This approach came to be called the Socratic Method.
3. Plato
Plato was Socrates’ most important student. He established a school called the Academy that provided instruction
in mathematics, science, and philosophy.
One of Plato’s most famous dialogues is a work called the Republic, which describes an ideal state.
4. Aristotle
Plato also had a famous student, Aristotle, who analyzed the process of logical thinking and wrote books on many
topics, including forms of government.
Aristotle thought that monarchies, aristocracies, and democracies all had serious flaws. Because of this, he
reasoned that a constitutional monarchy would work best. With this type of government, a constitution limits the
power of the monarch.
5. Homer’s Epics
Probably the most famous works of Greek literature are also some of the earliest. They are two epic poems, the
Iliad and the Odyssey, both attributed to a poet named Homer.
The Iliad tells the story of the last year of the Trojan War.
The Odyssey tells the story of heroes from the Trojan War, it does not take place during the war itself. It tells of the
hero Odysseus, who angers the gods and is forced to wander the sea for 10 long years before he can return to
Greece.
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6. History
The first major writer of history in Greece was Herodotus, who lived in Greece during the wars with Persia. In his
most famous work, The Histories, Herodotus described major events of the wars, such as battles and public
debates.
7. Achievements of the Ancient Greeks
Ancient Greek thinkers were not just philosophers. For generations, Greeks had traded with many civilizations.
8. Gods and Heroes
Myths are stories told to explain natural phenomena or events of the distant past. The Greeks told myths to explain
where they came from, how they should live, and how to cope with an uncertain world.
9. The Gods of Olympus
The Greeks believed that the gods would protect them and their city-states in exchange for the proper rituals and
sacrifices.
The Greeks did not consider their deities perfect. Indeed, myths say the gods were flawed and often unpredictable.
Although almost all Greeks worshipped the same gods, each polis claimed one god or goddess as its special
protector.
Every four years, Greeks from various city-states got together there for the Olympic Games. In these games,
athletes met to compete against each other and to honor the gods.
10. Alexander the Great
Alexander the Great formed a huge empire, spread Greek culture into Egypt and many parts of Asia, and paved the
way for a new civilization to develop in those areas.
In 336 BCE, Alexander the Great became king of Macedonia, a northern Greek state. Alexander had been a student
of Aristotle.
From his base in Greece, he conquered many lands and defeated the Persian Empire, creating a great empire.
Alexander failed to set up a stable government. After his sudden death in 323 BCE, at age 32, his empire broke
apart into several states.
11. The Hellenistic World
By bringing together a number of diverse peoples in his empire, Alexander helped create a new type of culture.
This new culture blended elements of Greek civilization with ideas. In other words, the civilization was no longer
purely Greek, or Hellenic. (Hellas was the name Greeks used for their country.) As a result, historians call it
Hellenistic or Greeklike
Page 30
6.1 Geography and Economy of Ancient Rome Notes
Vocabulary
Rome- The capital city of Italy, this city was founded by the Roman Empire in 753 BCE.
Italy- A peninsula country on the north coast of the Mediterranean Sea, in the southern part of Europe. The Alps form the country's
northern border, and the Apennine Mountain Range runs down its length.
Weather- The state of the atmosphere at a place and time in regards to heat, dryness, sunshine, wind, rain, etc.
Climate- The weather conditions in an area over a long period of time.
Import- Bringing goods or services into a country from abroad for sale.
Export- Sending goods or services to another country for sale.
Monetary System- Anything that is generally accepted as a standard of value and a measure of wealth in a particular country or
region.
Notes
1. The Beginnings of Rome
Romans like to date the history of their city to 753 B.C. That is when a legendary hero called Romulus is said to have
founded Rome.
After Romulus, a series of Roman kings ruled the city. Sometime in the 600s B.C., however, the Etruscans conquered
Rome. The Etruscans were a people from northern Italy. But the Romans wanted self-rule. In 509 B.C., they overthrew
the Etruscan king and formed a republic. A republic is a government in which people elect their leaders. After the
overthrow of the Etruscans, Rome grew from a city into a country and then into a vast empire. Its location helped make
this growth possible.
2. Italian Peninsula
Rome’s location on the Italian Peninsula also played an important role in its development. Italy’s location on the
Mediterranean made it relatively easy for Roman ships to reach the other lands around the sea. This position made it
easier for Rome to eventually conquer and gain new territories. It also helped the development of trade routes.
3. Location of Rome
Rome is located in the center of modern-day Italy on a peninsula. Mountains protected Rome from attack and a warm
climate allowed year-round farming.
4. Lives of Early Romans
Most early Romans worked small plots of land. They planted grains such as wheat and barley. Farmers who owned land
also served in the army. In fact, for a time only landowners were allowed to join the army.
5. Rome’s Waterways
Access to freshwater allowed Romans to irrigate their crops, increasing agricultural output. Proximity to waterways
made trade easier, helping the economy grow.
Rome began about 15 miles from where the Tiber River empties into the Mediterranean Sea. This distance gave Rome
extra protection. Its enemies had to move inland from the coast to reach the city.
6. New Styles of Architecture
Roman builders were excellent engineers. They found new ways to improve the structure of buildings. These ideas
included the use of arches, vaults, and domes.
The Romans developed a form of concrete that was both light and strong. They poured the mixture into hollow walls or
over curved forms to create strong vaults.
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7. Roman Roads and Bridges
Roman emperors stressed road building as a way to increase trade, strengthening the economy, and as a way to move
armies, increasing the capability of the empire to conquer even farther-flung lands. In addition to roads, Romans also
built many bridges. These bridges were made of stone.
8. Aqueducts
The Romans built aqueducts to bring water to cities. An aqueduct is a waterway made by people. Aqueducts brought
water to public fountains, where people collected water for their homes. Aqueducts also supplied water to public toilets
and bathhouses.
9. Monetary System
The development of metal coins used as money increased the economic power of Rome. The common monetary system
used throughout the Roman Empire made it easy and efficient to trade.
10. Review
Achievements such as roads, bridges, and coins helped Romans develop trade networks that allowed them to grow rich
and helped to unify the empire.
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6.2 Roman Origins and Early Political Structures Notes
Vocabulary
The Aeneid- A poem, written by Virgil, that tells the story of Aeneas, a Trojan who travelled to Italy, in search of a new home,
which he found in Rome.
The Etruscans- The Etruscans lived on the Italian peninsula. Although Rome flourished under the Etruscans, the Romans
rebelled and overthrew the Etruscans in 509 BCE.
Republic- A form of government in which people elect their leaders.
The Roman Republic- A period of the ancient Roman civilization when the government operated as a republic and began to
expand, conquering nearby Etruscan states until Rome ruled all of central Italy.
Dictator- One ruler with total control over the government.
Punic Wars- A series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage in 264–146 BCE. They were battling for control of the
Mediterranean Sea. At the time, Carthage was also called the Punic Empire.
Notes
1. The More You Know
The official language of the ancient Romans was Latin.
2. The Roots of Roman Civilization
Much information about the Romans comes from Roman historians and poets. Virgil, a Roman writer, describes
the story of Rome’s creation in his epic poem, The Aeneid.
Greek culture, politics, religion, and philosophy influenced the Romans, as did the Etruscans who had already
settled in Italy.
3. The Etruscans
The Etruscans were responsible for many of Rome’s large temples and the Roman Forum. They also gave the
Romans their alphabet, numerals, fashion, and art.
4. Patricians and Plebeians
In the early days of the Republic, the heads of a few aristocratic families, known as patricians, elected officials
from among themselves.
Patricians maintained their power through a patronage system in which wealthy Romans provided financial, social,
or legal support for lower ranking families in return for political backing and loyalty.
5. The Roman Republic
In about 509 BCE, Romans established a republic. A republic, which is a form of government in which people
elect their leaders.
Three social classes made up Roman society. These classes were the patricians, the plebeians, and the slaves.
Athens was a direct democracy while Rome was a representative government.
6. Principles of Democracy
Rome divided the responsibility of governing among three different groups. These were the magistrates and
consuls, the senate, and the assembly.
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7. Code of Laws
The Romans also started the democratic tradition of recording written laws. Rome’s first written laws were
produced on 12 bronze tablets.
Known as the Law of the Twelve Tables, the laws were displayed in the Roman Forum for all to see.
The Law of the Twelve Tables was Rome’s first written law code.
8. Life in the Republic
The Forum was the public square and the site of the most important government buildings and temples. The Forum
was the center of Roman life.
Despite the bustling nature of their city, the Romans prided themselves on their agrarian roots.
9. The Republic Expands
As Rome’s government changed, the Roman population continued to grow, and so too did the need for more land.
Soon Rome began to settle its growing population on land it acquired by conquering its neighbors.
Rome’s successful expansion would not have been possible without its powerful army.
The Roman army was organized into units called legions. The Roman army was a highly disciplined and well-
trained force that was capable of fighting in all types of terrain.
10. The Punic Wars
The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage in 264–146 BCE. They were
battling for control of the Mediterranean Sea. At the time, Carthage was also called the Punic Empire.
The Punic Wars began the spread of Roman influence. Because Rome wanted to control Mediterranean shipping
lanes owned by Carthage, three wars, collectively known as the Punic Wars, began.
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6.3 From Republic to Empire Notes
Vocabulary
Julius Caesar- A Roman general and statesman. He was also a prolific writer. He laid the groundwork for the transformation of Rome
from a republic to an empire.
Triumvirate- In ancient Rome a triumvirate was a ruling commission of three officials.
Ides of March- A day on the Roman calendar that corresponds to March 15th. It has become notorious as the date of the assassination
of Julius Caesar.
Assassinate- To murder (an important person) in a surprise attack for political or religious reasons.
Pax Romana- Latin for “Roman Peace.”
Notes
1. From Republic to Empire
Rome’s transition from republic to empire had a great impact on its citizens. Under the republic, the Roman people had
the ability to choose their own leaders and representatives.
As Rome expanded, many wealthy Romans neglected their civic duties. They thought only about gaining even more
power and wealth. This increased the differences between rich and poor. As a result, the threat of uprisings grew.
Eventually, civil war broke out. A civil war is an armed conflict between groups within the same country.
Finally, in 82 B.C., the patricians won. Sulla took power and became a dictator.
2. Julius Caesar
After Sulla died, other generals rose to power. One of them was Julius Caesar.
In addition to his military skills, Caesar was also a good politician. He gained a reputation as a reformer who supported
the common people. This, plus his military fame, made him popular with the plebeians.
In 44 B.C., Caesar was named dictator for life as opposed to the usual six months.
With the rise of Julius Caesar and the creation of the Roman Empire, people lost their right to choose their leaders. The
government was led by emperors whose power to rule was passed on through their family lines.
3. Political and Military Success
After a series of successes in the Punic Wars, Rome grew larger and stronger. At that time it was ruled by a triumvirate, a
group of three leaders.
4. Assassination and Legacy
Concern over Caesar’s growing power led to his downfall. A group of senators, fearing Caesar’s unrestrained power,
assassinated him. This act led to a lengthy and bloody civil war in Rome.
5. Augustus Rebuilds Rome
Augustus was the first emperor of Rome. Augustus governed well. He also began a civil service. A civil service is a
group of officials employed by the government. The Roman civil service collected taxes, oversaw the postal system, and
managed the grain supply.
6. The Roman Peace
The reign of Augustus began a long period of peace and stability in the Roman Empire. This period is called the Pax
Romana, or “Roman Peace.”
7. Agriculture and Trade
Agriculture and trade helped the empire prosper.
The empire fostered economic growth through the use of trade routes. Much of this trade relied on the quality of Roman
roads. It also relied on the security provided by the Roman military.
8. Currency
A common form of money made trade between different parts of the empire much easier.
9. Structures of City Life
The Romans came up with a number of practical solutions to some of their urban problems. They built sewer and
plumbing systems to improve sanitation. They also built aqueducts to carry fresh water from springs, streams, and lakes
into towns.
10. Roman Sports
To distract Romans from the problems of city life, the government provided entertainment at large public arenas.
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6.4 Roman Culture Life and Legacy Notes
Vocabulary
Paterfamilias- In this type of society the father was the absolute ruler of the family. Below the father were the other male members of
the family, including sons, uncles, and cousins.
Gladiators- Men who fought against one another or against large animals as a form of entertainment for others.
The Colosseum- A type of arena erected to entertain the public with spectacles such as mock battles, huge fights between gladiators
or between men and animals.
Legionnaire- A type of soldier who fought in the armies of the Roman Empire. Rome’s armies were composed of legions, and each
legion had about 6,000 soldiers.
Notes
1. Family and Society
The head of the Roman family was the father.
Roman women were expected to run the household and take care of the children. Roman women had little power outside
the home and could not vote.
Most parents gave their children some education at home.
2. Roman Society
Ancient Roman society was organized into three classes: patricians, plebeians, and slaves. Patricians were the ruling
class, and plebeians were commoners. Slaves made up the lowest—and largest—class in society.
3. Patrons and Clients
To make sure they were protected and had a greater say, plebeians sought the patronage, or support, of a member of the
patrician class. As clients, plebeians pledged their loyalty, assistance, and even military service to the patron. In return,
the patron represented the plebeian politically and legally.
4. Roman Sports
To distract Romans from the problems of city life, the government provided entertainment at large public arenas.
5. Slavery in Ancient Rome
Gladiators were professional fighters. Some slaves were forced to fight to the death as gladiators. There were no laws to
protect slaves, and they had no rights.
6. Slavery and the Economy of Rome
Because slaves did much of the work in the Roman Empire, many plebeians had no jobs and fell into poverty. As a
result, they were forced to survive on food handouts from the government.
7. Bread and Circuses
Bread and Circuses refers to distracting the people from their long-term problems by offering them food handouts
(bread) and entertainment such as chariot races and gladiator fights (circuses).
8. Religious Influences
The Romans borrowed many of their gods from the Greeks.
9. Moving People
The Romans constructed a vast network of roads to hold the empire together. These roads made it possible for Roman
armies to control the population in all areas of the vast empire.
10. Moving Water
The Romans provided water to their cities using aqueducts that carried water over long distances for drinking, irrigation,
and baths.
Public baths were a part of daily life in ancient Rome.
11. Law
Roman law also left its imprint on the world. The Romans used a system called civil law, a form of law based on a
written code of laws.
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6.5 A Weakening Empire Notes
Vocabulary
Diocletian- Known for having reorganized the empire after a period of disarray.
Throne- The special chair for a king, queen, or other powerful person.
Constantinople- Constantinople is the former name of Istanbul, the largest city in Turkey. Constantinople was once the capital of the
Byzantine and Ottoman Empires.
Constantine- The first Roman emperor to proclaim himself a Christian and to legalize Christianity.
Christianity- The world’s largest and most widely dispersed religion. More than 2 billion people are followers. It is a monotheistic
religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth.
Convert- To persuade or induce to adopt a particular religion, faith, or belief.
Notes
1. Big Ideas about Rome’s Decline and Legacy
Roman armies spent a lot of time fighting people who wanted to enter the empire.
2. A Weakening Empire
The Roman Empire had always depended on military conquest to fuel expansion, which in turn fueled the trade and the
tax system that made Rome rich and powerful.
But the leaders of these powerful armies began to use their position to seize power. Disaffected soldiers, far from home
and not always receiving their pay, marched on Rome to unseat the emperor and put their own generals in his place.
As a result of Rome’s economic problems, the vital trade industry that had made Rome great nearly came to a halt, and
many Romans fell into poverty.
3. Christianity and Judaism
The teachings of Jesus of Nazareth developed into a new religion—Christianity.
Nearly all of our knowledge of Jesus comes from the Gospels—the first four books of the New Testament. The New
Testament along with the books of the Hebrew Bible today make up the Christian Bible.
4. Roman Christianity
Over time Christianity spread through the Roman world. There were many reasons for this growth. The Christian
message of love and eternal life after death, regardless of social position, appealed to many.
5. Imperial Approval
The spread of Christianity through Rome was hastened by the conversion of the emperor Constantine to the religion in
the early 300s. In 313 he made Christianity legal within the empire. Although Constantine did not actually ban the
practice of other religions, his support for Christianity helped it to spread more rapidly through the Roman Empire.
In 391 Emperor Theodosius outlawed public non-Christian sacrifices and religious ceremonies. As a result, polytheism
gradually disappeared from the empire.
6. Emperor Diocletian
Emperor Diocletian, who ruled from 284 to 305, restored order and power within the empire by dividing his
administration into two factions: the Eastern and Western Empires.
7. Constantine
Constantine was the first Roman emperor to proclaim himself a Christian and to legalize Christianity.
Constantine, neglected the poorer western half of his realm to strengthen the eastern half, abandoning the city of Rome
itself for a new capital at Constantinople, which literally means “Constantine City.”
8. The Fall of Rome
In 410, Germanic “barbaric” tribes overran the city of Rome, proceeding to claim other Roman territories in the years
that followed.
The decline and ultimate collapse of a significant portion of the Roman Empire led to an extended period of
decentralized rule in Europe during the Middle Ages.
The Middle Ages was dominated by power struggles between the small kingdoms that had once been under Roman rule
or kept at bay by the Romans.
9. Byzantine Empire
The Eastern Roman Empire survived well into the 1400s.
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7.1 Chinas Reunification and Development Notes
Vocabulary
China- China is the world’s most populated nation. It holds one-fifth of Earth’s people. In total area it is the fourth largest
nation, slightly smaller than the United States.
Han- China’s predominant ethnic group. More than 90 percent of Chinese today are Han.
Dynasty- A family of rulers who rule over a country for a long period of time.
Civil War- A war between citizens of the same country.
Census- The procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population.
Silk Road- A system of caravan tracts that connected ancient China to civilizations to the west.
Marco Polo- An Italian explorer who visited China and brought Chinese culture back to Europe.
Confucianism- An ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius.
Notes
1. Four River Valley Civilizations
Unlike other river valley civilizations China was geographically isolated. The huge mountain chains, vast
deserts, and large expanses of water made the spread of ideas and goods to China difficult. As a result,
Chinese civilization developed along very distinct lines.
Around 2000 B.C., farming settlements along the Yellow River began to grow into cities.
2. Shang Kings
About 1766 B.C., Shang family kings began to control some cities. They set up a dynasty, or rule by
generations of one family.
3. Dynastic Cycle
Chinese dynasties rose and fell in a pattern. Historians call the pattern of the rise and fall of dynasties in
China the dynastic cycle.
The idea that a good ruler had approval from the gods became a part of Chinese culture. When a ruler was bad
or foolish, the people believed the approval of the gods would be taken away. This idea was called the
Mandate of Heaven.
4. The Time of the Warring States
Invasion of Chinese lands was a constant theme in Chinese history.
5. China’s Ancient Philosophies
One philosophy was Legalism, or a belief that rulers should use the legal system to force people to obey laws.
These people decided that a strong government was the answer to China’s problems.
6. Confucianism
Confucius taught a code of proper conduct for people.
Confucius believed good conduct and respect began at home. One of Confucius’ most important teachings
was about filial piety, or treating parents with respect.
Confucius was also concerned with people’s behavior in society. Authority should be respected.
Confucius laid the groundwork for fair and skilled government officials.
7. Daoism
Daoists believed that a universal force called the Dao, or the Way, guides all things. All creatures, except
humans, live in harmony with this force. The individual had to learn to live in harmony with nature and with
inner feelings.
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8. The Great Wall
The first Great Wall linked smaller walls that had been built during the Time of the Warring States. The
earliest walls were built of earth. Later stone and brick were used. The Great Wall has been rebuilt and
extended many times.
9. The Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty ruled China from approximately 206 BCE–220 CE. Many historians view this era as an
important and prosperous period in Chinese culture and history.
10. Life During the Sui Dynasty
The Sui Dynasty was also the beginning of a golden age of art and culture. Many large and beautiful stone
Buddha statues throughout China were constructed during the Sui era.
11. The Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty established a long-lasting stable central government. The government encouraged
economic growth and trade, completing the Great Canal and adopting foreign influences.
The Grand Canal made transportation through China much easier.
12. War
The Chinese made important advances in military technology. Gunpowder was discovered during the Song
Dynasty. The Chinese were the first to create/use fireworks.
The crossbow was another important invention of the Chinese. However, the crossbow could be fired by
using a trigger. This made the weapon easier to use.
13. Currency
During the Song Dynasty, they began to make paper money.
14. Chinese Inventions and Discoveries
China had a large and growing population to feed. Because agriculture was so important in China, most of the
really important inventions during this period came about in agriculture. Chinese inventions made life easier
for farmers and made more grain available for trade.
15. Paper
Paper was invented in China. Before that time, books were made of costly silk. Inexpensive paper made
books available in a country that valued learning. Paper was important for a bureaucratic government that
kept many records.
16. The Silk Road
The Silk Road connected people and cultures, allowing for the exchange of goods and ideas among many
civilizations of the ancient world.
The Silk Road was not one continuous road; rather, it was a series of trade routes.
Travelers along the Silk Road were protected by the Great Wall of China.
17. Cultural Diffusion
Trade goods were not the only things that moved on the Silk Roads. Ideas and cultural customs moved on the
Silk Roads, too. This spread of ideas and customs is called cultural diffusion.
18. Examinations
Under the Song Dynasty, government positions went to the qualified individuals who passed a civil service
exam rather than being passed down through family lines. In order to become a civil servant, people had to
take tests.
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7.2 The Mongols Notes
Vocabulary
Mongolia- A country that lies between China and Russia, bordering with China to its south, east, and west and with Russia to
its north.
Steppe- A large area of flat grassland.
Genghis Khan- The ambitious and terrifying warrior originally named Temujin who united the nomads of Mongolia and
conquered a vast Asian empire.
Pax Mongolica- Latin for “Mongolian peace.” The term refers to a period of time when all of Eurasia was under the control of
the Mongolians, ruled by Genghis Khan.
Notes
1. The Mongols
Throughout its history, northern China had been attacked by nomadic peoples. In the 1200s a nomadic people
called the Mongols burst forth from Central Asia. They would create the largest land empire in history, and
conquer China in the process.
2. Nomads from the Steppe
The Mongols emerged as a powerful nomadic people on the Central Asian steppes. They herded sheep and
goats, which provided meat and milk for food and wool for clothing and shelter. Like many nomads, the
Mongols were skilled with horses and learned to ride at an early age. They were a tough people and fierce
warriors.
3. The Universal Ruler
For centuries the Mongols were divided into separate clans, each led by a khan, or chief.
In the late 1100s, however, a powerful khan named Temujin began to conquer his rivals and unite the Mongol
clans. In 1206 he succeeded, taking the title Genghis Khan, which means “Universal Ruler.”
With the Mongols united under his rule, Genghis Khan set out to build an empire. He organized the Mongols
into a powerful military machine.
4. The Beginnings of the Mongol Empire
Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, all the nomadic tribes of Mongolia came together in the early 1200s to
create the Great Mongol Nation.
Genghis Khan mounted warriors could live for days on horseback. Their saddlebags carried food, spare
clothes, tools, and weapons.
5. The Mongol Empire
After conquering northern China, Genghis and his warriors moved toward Central Asia with the goal of
controlling all the territory along the Silk Road.
6. Mongol Conquests
Following Genghis Khan’s death in 1227, his sons shared control of the vast empire.
The Mongols built a vast empire across much of Asia, and opened China and the region to greater foreign
contacts and trade.
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7. Life Under the Mongols
Kublai Khan was Genghis Khan’s grandson, who completed the conquest of China in 1259 and established
himself as the Great Khan.
In just 50 years, the Mongols had conquered the largest empire the world had ever known. Now, across their
huge kingdom, warfare had all but stopped.
8. Pax Mongolica
The Mongols established safe trade routes in all the lands they controlled, which included the entire length of
the Silk Road. As a result, traders from as far away as Europe could finally journey to China without fear of
attack.
9. Marco Polo’s Book
Through Polo’s book, Europeans learned of China’s great wealth as well as the country’s technology, food,
plants, and animals.
Europeans made fun of Polo and he was known as “Marco of a million lies.” Yet, the book described the
journey to China in careful detail. Merchants and travelers used it as a guide well into the 1800s.
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7.3 The Ming Dynasty Notes
Vocabulary
Zhu Yuanzhang- Founder and first emperor of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu became the leader of a rebel army which he led against
the Mongols.
Porcelain- A type of pottery first developed in China. It is famous for its white, smooth, nonporous surface.
Economy- The way a country manages its money and resources (such as workers and land) to produce, buy, and sell goods and
services.
Junk- An ancient Chinese sailing vessel/ship design still in use today.
Admiral Zheng He- Commanded the Ming Dynasty's fleet of immense trading vessels on expeditions ranging as far as Africa.
Supply and Demand- An economic concept that states that the price of a good rises and falls depending on how many people
want it (demand) and depending on how much of the good is available (supply).
Notes
1. Birth of a Dynasty
The Mongols had overrun China and seized power from the Song Dynasty. Ironically, the Mongols admired
Chinese culture and were dedicated to preserving it. But the Chinese people could never accept the rule of
people they considered to be barbarians.
Despite the wealth and peace China experienced the Mongols were overthrown in 1368.
During the Ming dynasties China prospered, but the empire entered a period of isolation in response to
increasing European contact.
2. Culture and Trade
Under Ming the Chinese made many developments in the arts and literature. During the Ming period, rising
literacy rates contributed to the growth of popular fiction, or fiction written in everyday language for the
common people.
Naval innovation and trade especially marked the Ming period.
3. Masters of the Oceans
The most popular type of boat in the Chinese fleet was called a junk.
Through advances in naval technology and navigating skill, Chinese ships explored India and Africa and
established trade relationships with West Asian kingdoms and with Europe.
4. The Explorations of Admiral Zheng He
Zheng’s voyages helped to spread Chinese goods and trade and also served to increase China’s influence and
control of the waters around Asia.
Wherever he went, Zheng He presented gifts from China, and in return several foreign leaders sent tribute to
China’s emperor. Zheng He’s voyages demonstrated Ming China’s growing sea power. After 1433, however,
a new emperor stopped the overseas voyages. The policy to end the voyages was part of a move in Ming
China toward isolation from the outside world.
5. Transcontinental Trade
China’s luxury goods were in high demand outside of China. Chinese merchants carried these goods to other
countries using the Silk Road, a network of interconnected trade routes.
Chinese trade routes linked Asia with Europe and Africa.
6. The Empire Turns Inward
After Zheng’s death in 1433, the emperor decided that the expensive voyages of exploration could be halted.
After Zheng’s death Western traders had to come to China to get its goods, which made Chinese trade more
expensive. As the supply of Chinese goods like porcelain and silk fell, the prices for those goods rose.
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7.4 Japanese Society Notes
Vocabulary
Emperor- A male leader of an empire or a ruler who has total power in a country or region.
Shogun- The highest-ranking samurai or general who received the title of Shogun for some great victory on behalf of the
emperor.
Daimyo- Regional lords who controlled local territories and had their own group of loyal samurai. All daimyo shared an equal
title, but some were more powerful than others.
Samurai- A Japanese warrior who was a member of the military upper classes.
Bushido- The traditional warrior’s code of the Japanese samurai, stressing honor, self-discipline, bravery, and simple living.
Haiku- A three-line poem with five syllables in the first line, seven syllables in the second line, and five syllables in the third
line. These poems do not rhyme, but they are traditionally written about nature.
Notes
1. The Land
The nation of Japan consists of thousands of islands. The islands form an archipelago, or large island chain.
The islands lie on the Ring of Fire—a zone of volcanoes and earthquakes that rings the Pacific. As a result,
Japan is home to hundreds of volcanoes, many of them active, and has frequent earthquakes.
Because of its island location, Japan is also subject to monster waves called tsunamis. In late summer and
early autumn, massive storms called typhoons rage through the region.
Steep mountains cover some 80 percent of the land. For this reason, only a small part of Japan is suitable for
farming.
Japan’s farmland, while limited, is highly productive, in part because of the islands’ fertile soil, mild climate,
and abundant rainfall.
2. The Sea
Surrounded by water, the early Japanese turned to the sea for food and transportation. The sea protected and
isolated Japan during much of its history.
3. Early Japan
The religion of Shinto, which means “way of the kami.” According to Shinto beliefs, everything in nature—
the sun, trees, rocks, animals—has a kami. Followers build shrines to kami and perform ceremonies to ask for
their blessings. A red gateway marks the entrance to each shrine.
4. The Yamato Clan
One of the most revered kami in Japan was Amaterasu, the sun goddess. Japan’s emperor still claims to be
descended from the Yamato clan.
5. Japanese Society
The Japanese people believed their emperor was descended from the gods, but by about 400 the emperor was
little more than a religious symbol.
In Japan, real power was in the hands of the noble families, who often fought each other to gain political
control.
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The noble families and the shogun relied on the military support of armed warriors called samurai.
6. Feudalism and the Samurai
In exchange for allegiance and military service, noble landowners gave property or payment to samurai
warriors. Most samurai were paid with food, generally rice.
The main role of the samurai was that of a warrior.
Samurai had to follow a strict code of ethics known as Bushido, which means “the way of the warrior.”
Bushido required samurai to be courageous, honorable, obedient, and most of all loyal.
Samurai who failed to obey or protect their lord were expected to commit seppuku— suicide.
7. The Way of the Warrior
The samurai owed loyalty to the emperor, his parents, his master, his teachers, and his friends. By showing
such obedience and loyalty, the samurai set an example of ideal citizenship for the lower orders.
8. Social Rank
Peasants made up the great majority of the population. They had very little power in society.
Because the peasants produced food, they were essential to the foundation of the state in feudal Japan. As a
result, the shogun and daimyo needed to keep the peasants happy but not allow them to gain too much power.
Although merchants occupied the bottom of the social structure, many of them became rich by wisely buying
and selling rice. For all classes, the economy of Japan was based on a rice standard.
9. Haiku
Haikus are traditionally written about nature.
Page 44
8.1 Geography of Africa Notes
Vocabulary
Plateau- A flat or gently rolling land that is higher than nearby areas.
Africa- The second-largest continent in the world.
Rainforest- A dense forest rich in biodiversity, found typically in tropical areas with heavy rainfall.
Migration- The physical movement by humans from one area to another.
Climate Zone- A specific area that has a specific climate. Climate zones can be tropical, dry, temperate, or polar.
Cultural Diffusion- The movement of customs and ideas from one culture to another.
Desert- An arid region that receives little precipitation. Most deserts receive an average of fewer than 10 inches of precipitation
each year.
Caravan- A company of traders or other travelers journeying together.
Notes
1. The Big Picture
The early peoples of Africa adapted to many different environments and created a variety of societies.
2. Starting Points
Africa, the world’s second-largest continent, has a broad range of environments. These environments played a
role in shaping the many cultures that arose in early Africa.
3. The Geography of Africa
Each region of the continent of Africa has its own terrain and provides different resources for the people who
live there. As a result, distinct cultures and ways of life developed.
Africa is nicknamed the "plateau continent”.
4. Climate and Vegetation
The Sahara, the largest desert in the world. Scattered throughout the desert are oases, or fertile areas, some
large enough to support villages.
The Sahel, a strip of land that divides the desert from wetter areas. Although the Sahel is fairly dry, it has
enough vegetation to support hardy grazing animals.
Savanna, or open grassland. Tall grasses, shrubs, and a few trees grow there. A variety of wild herd animals
live on the savanna, as do the meat-eating animals that prey upon them. The majority of Africa’s people live
on the savannas as well.
5. Large River
Africa is best known for the Nile River, the longest river in the world.
6. Adapting to Africa’s Environment
The first people to live in Africa had to adapt to the continent’s varied climates and features. Insufficient
water supplies and poor soil in some places made farming difficult. When rainfall is uncertain, such decisions
become more difficult.
Another danger is caused by parasites, or small organisms, that thrive in Africa’s tropical areas.
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7. Patterns of Human Settlement
People tend to settle where they have access to water and other natural resources and where the climate is not
too hot or cold.
8. Themes of Geography
Geographers are guided by two basic questions: (1) Where are things located? And (2) Why are they there?
To find the answer, geographers use the five themes of geography to organize information.
9. Early African Societies
Anthropologists think that the first humans lived in East Africa. Over thousands of years, people spread out
from that region into other parts of the continent.
The Great Rift Valley, has been credited as the home of the oldest stone tools and was once inhabited by
human ancestors.
During the early phase of their history, Africans lived as hunter-gatherers. Around 9,000 years ago, though,
some Africans began to farm.
In some parts of Africa, pastoralism, or the practice of raising herd animals, arose before farming.
10. Empires Built on Salt and Gold
Resources such as salt and gold helped to build great empires such as the Ghana, Mali, and Songhai since salt
was used by many people to preserve food.
11. Social Structures
African societies developed village based cultures built around clans, or families with common ancestors.
12. Africa’s Iron Age
The development of Africa’s Iron Age changed many aspects of life. Changes in technology helped early
African communities grow.
With the ability to make iron tools, early Africans could live in places where they could not before. With
more places to live and more land for growing food, Africa’s population increased.
Iron tools were useful for farming hard soils around Africa.
13. Trade
In West Africa, several kingdoms—Ghana, Mali, and Songhai—prospered from the trade of gold and salt.
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8.2 Growth of African Empires Notes
Vocabulary
Tax- A charge against a citizen's person or property or activity for the support of government.
Merchant- A person who provides materials, products, or services to a buyer, usually in exchange for money.
Trade- The exchange of goods and services by sale or barter.
Supply and Demand- The term supply refers to the willingness and ability of producers to offer goods and services for sale.
The term demand refers to the desire for a good or service and the ability to pay for it.
Dhow- A type of sailboat used in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea trade.
Great Zimbabwe- Refers to the complex stone city that became a center of trade.
Notes
1. Transition to a Settled Lifestyle
Africa’s earliest peoples were nomadic hunter-gatherers. Experts believe that agriculture in Africa probably
began by 6000 B.C.
Africa’s earliest peoples settled on the savannas, which had the best agricultural land. Grain grew well in the
savannas. In addition to growing grain, Africans began to raise cattle. Agriculture drastically changed the way
Africans lived. Growing their own food enabled them to build permanent shelters in one location.
2. Early Societies in Africa
Few African societies had written languages. Instead, storytellers shared orally the history and literature of a
culture. For example, these storytellers, or griots kept this history alive, passing it from parent to child.
Archaeologists’ main source of information about early West African cultures has been from artifacts.
3. Migration
Migration is a permanent move from one country or region to another. The causes of migrations fall into three
categories: environmental, economic, and political. When looking at migration, historians and geographers
speak of push-pull factors. These factors can either push people out of an area or pull them into an area.
Farming Techniques
o Slash and Burn- A patch of the forest is cut down and burned. The ashes are mixed into the soil
creating a fertile garden area. However, the land loses its fertility quickly and is abandoned for
another plot in a new location.
4. Salt
Salt can also be used to preserve food, or keep it from spoiling. Salt mines were an important part of
the trade and economy of early African empires.
Caravans are groups of people traveling together (normally across deserts) who band together for safety.
Caravans are used to transport goods, people, and information from one place to another.
The two most important trade items were gold and salt.
5. The Mali Empire
The Mali Empire embraced Islam and built the great Muslim cultural and learning center of Timbuktu.
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6. Mansa Musa
In 1324 Mansa Musa set out on a hajj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca. When Mansa Musa left Mali for the trip to
Mecca in 1324 he gave away enormous amounts of gold. Because of this, Europeans learned of Mali’s
wealth.
Mansa Musa’s hajj also had effects outside of Africa. For example, it brought Mali to the attention of people
in Europe, and Mali began to appear on European maps for the first time. Within a century, Europeans began
to search West Africa for the source of Mali’s riches.
Empires rose in West Africa. They did this by taking control of trade routes between gold and salt mines.
7. Swahili Traders
Trade led to a blending of African, Arab, and Asian cultural influences along East Africa’s coast.
8. Great Zimbabwe
Scholars think that Great Zimbabwe was part of Africa’s thriving trade network because of the kingdom’s
location.
A middleman is a person who buys something from one person and sells it to another, making a profit on the
sale.
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8.3 Religion and Culture in Africa Notes
Vocabulary
Indigenous- Native to or coming from a particular region.
Ancestor- One, such as a parent, grandparent, great-grandparent, who precedes another in lineage.
Coptic Christianity- A branch of Christianity that developed in Egypt in the first century.
Mecca- The holiest city in Islam.
Notes
1. Religion in Africa
Although the majority of Africans are now Muslim or Christian, traditional religions have endured and still
play a big role. Religion plays an important role in daily life in Africa, marked by prayers of gratitude in times
of plenty and prayers of request in times of need.
2. Traditional Religion in Africa
The traditional religions of Africa are polytheistic. Africans also believed in magic. They believed the local
witchdoctor could perform feats of magic.
Africans often use masks representing cultural heroes, gods, and ancestors in their worship ceremonies. Many
African traditional religions also use statuettes.
African traditional religions have not spread far outside of Africa. Each religion remains relatively limited to
the specific region of the ethnic group practicing it.
Traditional religions continue to be practiced throughout Africa today.
3. Christianity Enters Africa
Christians entered Egypt around 100 and developed a type of Christianity called Coptic Christianity.
The native Christian of Egypt or Copts believed Jesus had one nature that combined the human and divine.
Many Romans, though, claimed Jesus had two natures: one divine and the other human.
Eventually Christian theologians confirmed the two-nature view of Jesus. The Coptic Christian Church,
however, rejected the decision and broke away from Rome, creating its own independent church.
Christianity remained a minority religion on the continent.
4. The Rise of Islam
The Arabian Peninsula is a crossroads of three continents—Africa, Europe, and Asia. One set of shared ideas
would become a powerful force for change in the world—the religion of Islam.
5. Beliefs and Practices of Islam
The main teaching of Islam is that there is only one
God, Allah.
Mosque, an Islamic house of worship.
Alms, or money for the poor.
Hajj, or pilgrimage.
The Qur’an is the holy book of the Muslims.
6. Islam Spreads to Africa
During the 800s, Muslim merchants began to trade on a regular basis with parts of West Africa. Because of
this trade, many of the merchants and rulers of West Africa converted to Islam.
Islam remains the main religion in many African countries.
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9.1 Medieval Society and Politics Notes
Vocabulary
Middle Ages- A period in Europe between the fall of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Renaissance. During this
time, Europe was divided into small kingdoms.
Charlemagne- One of Europe's most successful monarchs who managed to reunite much of Europe after the fall of the Roman
Empire. However, after his death, the empire again fragmented into smaller kingdoms.
Fief- Land granted by a lord to a vassal in exchange for loyalty and service.
Feudalism- A political system in which nobles are granted the use of lands that legally belong to their king, in exchange for
their loyalty, military service, and protection of the people who live on the land.
Manorialism- An economic system based on the manor and lands including a village and surrounding land which were
administered by a lord.
Serf- A person who was allowed to have a house and a plot of land in return for paying rent to his or her lord.
Nation-State- An independent country that is made up of a single dominant nationality rather than many nationalities.
Magna Carta- A document that granted a list of rights to nobles and limited royal power.
The Inquisition- An attempt by the Catholic Church to fight heresy.
Heresy - The holding of beliefs that contradicted the teachings of the Church.
Genghis Khan- Leader of the Mongol empire.
The Crusades - A series of military campaigns by Christian nations in Europe over Muslim-controlled lands that were
considered holy by Christians.
Joan of Arc- A French peasant girl who believed she had religious visions, during which she heard the voices of saints
instructing her to defeat the English and drive them from France.
Notes
1. The Big Picture
After the fall of Rome, large and small kingdoms appeared in Europe. In most of these kingdoms, Christianity
had a powerful influence on people’s lives. The spread of Christianity, largely through the work of
missionaries and monks, helped unify Western Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire.
2. Christian European Society
Following Rome’s fall, Christianity appealed to many Europeans. Early in this period, known as the Middle
Ages or medieval times, many people’s lives were filled with doubt, suffering, and hardship. Christianity
offered them comfort, the promise of a happy afterlife, and a sense of community.
3. Charlemagne’s Rise to Power
Charlemagne was a great leader. When Charlemagne defeated a people, he incorporated their land into his
sphere of influence and formed alliances with local rulers. In this way, he increased both the size and the
power of the Carolingian kingdom.
The Papal States made up a region in central Italy that was under the control of the pope.
Charlemagne was a skilled warrior and commander who won countless victories. Charlemagne was not just a
fighter, though. As emperor, he supported religion and education to strengthen his rule.
As emperor, Charlemagne worked closely with the church to create a unified Christian empire.
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4. Origins of the Vikings
Vikings came from northern Europe. Because of their northern homelands, the Vikings were also called the
Norsemen or the Northmen
Looking for new sources of food and wealth, some Viking leaders decided to take what they needed from
other people. Thus began the Viking raids.
The Vikings were superb shipbuilders and sailors.
People were constantly afraid because they had no warning that the Vikings were coming.
Not all of the Vikings who left Scandinavia were raiders. Some were explorers in search of new lands.
Around A.D. 1000, Vikings under Leif Eriksson reached North America. They settled on the eastern shore of
what is now Canada.
5. The Feudal System
During the Middle Ages, Europe was divided into small kingdoms. Secular and religious authorities struggled
for control and influence within these states.
In the Early Middle Ages, most kings did not have much control over their kingdoms. Over time this changed.
Soon after the death of Charlemagne a political and military system called feudalism developed. Within this
system, lords owned huge amounts of land.
6. Feudal Society
Feudalism gave rise to a hierarchical social system that consisted of four classes: kings, nobles and church
officials, knights, and peasants.
7. Manorialism
Within Medieval Europe an economic system called manorialism developed. In this system, the central focus
of each fief was the lord’s manor house. Some lords developed the manor house into a castle, which was often
surrounded by thick stone walls for protection.
The peasants did most of the work that was needed on the manor. In return for their work, the lord provided
protection for the peasants by maintaining an army.
Many peasants who worked on manors were serfs. Serfs were not slaves, because they could not be bought or
sold. However, serfs did not have the freedom to leave the manor. So in this way, they were bound to their
lord’s estate.
8. The Rise of Kings
During the High Middle Ages, the economy of Europe began to get stronger. Farms grew more crops, more
people became prosperous, and the population grew significantly. Soon a merchant class began to arise.
The movement of peasants from manors to towns caused the system of manorialism to break apart, and
feudalism to weaken. The economic recovery also made kings wealthier. Kings hired powerful armies, gained
control over their lords, and established control over large areas.
During the Late Middle Ages, four powerful kingdoms developed into nation-states—England, France, Spain,
and Russia.
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9. The Great Charter
King John angered the nobles with a series of laws and decrees that the nobles believed were unfair. In 1215
CE John was forced to sign a document called the Magna Carta.
The Magna Carta contained many provisions that restricted the king’s power. The document also ended the
king’s ability to arrest and punish people without cause or to take their property without following legal
procedures.
By restricting the king’s power, Magna Carta suggested that even kings were not above the law. Because of
this, many people today consider Magna Carta one of the most important historical documents in the
formation of modern democracies.
10. The Inquisition
The Inquisition, meant to stamp out non-Christian and nonorthodox practice and beliefs, and was carried out
across Europe.
In the Spanish kingdom the Inquisition was the worst in Europe. Muslims and Jews, as well as ordinary
Spanish Christians, were accused, tried, tortured, banished, and killed.
11. The Beginning of the Crusades
The Crusades themselves were a series of military campaigns by Christian nations in Europe. They were
intended to stop the expansion of Islamic nations and reclaim Muslim-controlled lands that were considered
holy by Christians in the Middle East. Four major campaigns took place from 1095 to 1212 CE.
Although the Crusaders succeeded in controlling part of the Holy Land for periods of time, they failed in their
goal of permanently controlling the region. Also, their efforts caused bitter feelings between Muslims and
Christians for centuries.
12. Hundred Years’ War
From 1337 to 1453 CE, the Hundred Years’ War raged between the French and English over control of
France. This conflict was not one long war, but rather a series of wars divided by various broken treaties.
13. Joan of Arc
Joan of Arc was a French peasant girl who believed she had religious visions. These visions told her that God
had chosen the French King to defeat the English and drive them from France.
After Joan’s death, French troops employed the use of cannons to fight the longbows of the English and were
able to drive them out of France by 1453, ending the Hundred Years’ War.
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9.2 The Black Death Notes
Vocabulary
Plague- Any widespread and usually highly contagious disease
with a high fatality rate.
Black Death- An outbreak of bubonic plague that spread
throughout Europe and much of Asia in the 14th century.
Flagellants- Someone who whips themselves for religious
discipline or public penance.
Population- All of the people who live in a certain region, city, or nation.
Death Rate- A measurement of the number of deaths per 1,000 inhabitants of a given location. It is one of a number of
statistics that demographers look at to describe and predict population trends.
Supply and Demand- The term supply refers to the willingness and ability of producers to offer goods and services for
sale. The term demand refers to the desire for a good or service and the ability to pay for it.
Inflation- An economic term that generally means a rise in prices for most goods and services.
Urbanization- The movement of people from rural areas, usually called towns, to urban areas, which are called cities.
Textile- A piece of cloth that is produced by weaving, knitting, bonding, or felting.
Notes
1. The Big Picture
During the High Middle Ages, many changes took place in Europe. The growth of trade brought about new
business practices and bigger towns.
Towns and cities grew during the High Middle Ages as the amount of trade increased between Europe and
other continents.
2. Trade Fairs and Markets
Trade fairs were held in towns and drew huge crowds because merchants were willing to travel long distances
to visit them. Trade fairs were generally places for sales between merchants who serviced different parts of
the economy.
Trade fairs were held once a year at specific locations. Some could last for months. The schedule of the fairs
was staggered so that merchants could travel from one to the next. As a result, some merchants spent most of
their time on the road, traveling from one trade fair to another in search of profits.
Trade fairs were not events attended by the average person. For everyday needs, people visited their weekly
local markets.
3. Money and Credit
Trade encouraged people to use money. Credit, or the promise of later payment. In return for goods, a
customer signed a document that stated when and how payment would be made.
The increased use of money and credit eventually led to the creation of Europe’s first banks.
4. New Technologies
Advances in farm technology contributed to the move to cities. Improved technologies meant that fewer
people were needed to work on farms. This, in turn, enabled more people to move to cities and try to build a
life for themselves.
1. What information would you use to
support?
2. How would you prove that?
3. How would you disprove that?
4. What is the relationship between that?
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5. Guilds
With so many people living in towns and cities, craftspeople began to see a need to organize themselves in
order to protect their own interests. Eventually, they created trade organizations called guilds.
All the members of a guild had the same occupation. One of the primary functions of a guild was to restrict
competition. Working together, members of a guild set standards and prices for their products. In this way,
guilds provided mutual protection and also insured quality control.
An apprentice spent several years working with a master craftsperson, learning the basic skills of the craft.
6. Daily Life in Cities
Most cities lacked public sanitation facilities, so trash and other waste piled up in the streets. Rats and insects
lived in this waste, making disease a common threat. In addition to the threat of disease, fire and crime made
medieval cities dangerous.
Cities provided benefits for the people who lived there. Churches, eating halls, and markets were common
places for people to meet and socialize.
7. The Plague Begins
Plagues, infectious diseases that spread among a large population of people, were not uncommon in the
Middle Ages.
As Italian sailors escaped the Mongols, they brought the plague with them into Europe. The plague then
quickly spread across Europe. The bubonic plague had two forms in which it could spread from person to
person.
o The first form of the disease could infect the victim’s blood. Simple physical contact could spread the
disease.
o In the second form of the disease, coughing, sneezing and breathing could spread the disease. With
this form, physical contact between people was not necessary for the disease to spread.
The Black Death spread through Europe on trade routes. Death rates were often more than 50 percent of the
population of a city, and often entire towns were wiped out.
8. The Black Death Transforms Society
The high contagion rate of the Black Death caused people to avoid each other. Many fled towns and cities.
Many believed God was punishing humans by sending the plague. They began to lose faith in the Roman
Catholic Church.
Almost one-third of the Europe’s population died.
9. Europe Depopulates
A limited population meant that workers could demand more pay for their labor.
The Black Death reduced the population of Europe by approximately one-third.
It reached all classes of society, the resulting labor shortage led to growth of towns and cities and the end of
the feudal system, as serfs began to receive wages for their work.
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10.1 North American Societies Notes
Vocabulary
The Bering Strait- A narrow stretch of water that separates Alaska from Russia.
Region- An area distinguished by a unique combination of trends or features.
Social Class- A term that refers to groups of people in a society who have basically the same economic status, which
leads to other similarities.
Indigenous People- A term used today to refer to groups of people who are descendants of those who lived in a country
or a region at the time that others immigrated to—or conquered or colonized—that place.
Hunter-Gatherer- A member of a nomadic people who live chiefly by hunting, fishing, and harvesting wild food.
Notes
1. Setting the Stage
While civilizations were developing in Africa, Asia, and Europe, they were also emerging in the Americas.
Human settlement in the Americas is relatively recent compared to that in other parts of the world. However,
it followed a similar pattern. At first the ancient people of the Americas survived mainly by hunting. Over
time, they developed farming methods that ensured a more reliable supply of food.
Thousands of years ago, the Americas were connected by a land bridge to Asia. Most experts believe that
some of the first people came to the Americas from Asia over this land bridge. The land bridge is known as
Beringia. The first Americans arrived sometime toward the end of the last Ice Age.
No one knows for sure when the first Americans arrived. Most experts believe the earliest Americans traveled
by foot across the land bridge. The earliest Americans lived as hunters.
2. Following the Game
Because they were hunters, the earliest Americans found it necessary to move regularly in search of food.
Whenever they did settle in one place for a short time, prehistoric Americans lived in caves or temporary
shelters.
With the end of the Ice Age, around 12,000 to 10,000 years ago, came the end of land travel across Beringia.
As the great glaciers melted, sea levels rose. The ancient land bridge disappeared under the Bering Strait.
3. Agriculture Creates a New Way of Life
Gradually, the earliest Americans became more familiar with plant foods. They began to experiment with
simple methods of farming. Their efforts at planting and harvesting led to agriculture. This dramatically
changed their way of life.
The cultivation of corn and other crops provided a more reliable and expanding food supply. This encouraged
population growth and the establishment of large, settled communities.
As the population grew, and as farming became more efficient and productive, more people turned their
attention to nonagricultural pursuits. They developed specialized skills.
With the development of agriculture, society became more complex. The stage was set for the rise of more
advanced civilizations.
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4. Complex Societies
No great empires were created by North American groups. However, the people of North America did create
complex societies. These societies were able to conduct long-distance trade and construct magnificent
buildings.
5. Trading Networks Tie Tribes Together
Trade was a major factor linking the peoples of North America. Trade networks stretched across much of
North America and people established lively marketplaces that brought together trade goods from all over.
6. Religion Shapes Views of Life
Another feature that linked early Americans was their religious beliefs. Nearly all native North Americans
believed that the world around them was filled with nature spirits.
Most Native Americans recognized a number of sacred spirits. Some groups held up one Supreme Being, or
Great Spirit, above all others.
Native American religious beliefs also included great respect for the land as the source of life. Native
Americans used the land but tried to alter it as little as possible.
7. Lifestyles of Native Americans
The environment has played a significant role in shaping the lives of the people who live in North America.
The people of this region have also shaped their environments to some extent.
Indigenous peoples adapted their lives to suit their environment, from the clothing they wore, to the materials
they used to build their homes, to the foods they ate.
Indigenous peoples around North America relied on the resources available to them through fishing, hunting,
and agriculture.
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10.2 Latin American Societies Notes
Vocabulary
Terrace farming- A method of growing crops on the sides of hills or mountains.
Polytheism- The belief in many gods.
Tribute- Payment by one nation to another for protection or as an acknowledgment of surrender.
Conquistador- Spanish conquerors who were powerful soldiers on a mission to gain wealth and territory for the nation of
Spain by conquering other peoples during the Age of Exploration.
Andes Mountains- The Andes are the world's longest continental mountain range, located in South America.
Notes
1. Latin American Societies
There were many smaller nations, but the Maya, the Aztec, and the Inca developed into the three strongest
empires of Central and South America.
Long before the arrival of European explorers, Central and South America was inhabited by peoples with
their own distinctive cultures and civilizations.
2. The Maya
The Mayan civilization first appeared in Mexico.
Archaeologists have found pyramids at many Maya cities. Pyramids were religious structures and, as in
Egypt, could be used as tombs.
The Maya built many great cities. The ruins of these cities, and the roads the Maya built to connect them,
remain today. Located between the civilizations of North and South America, Mayan cities were well placed
to become trade hubs.
3. Daily Life
Most of the Mayan people lived and worked as farmers. The Maya practiced terrace farming on hillsides.
Corn was the most important crop for early American people. The Maya grew cacao beans, which are used
today to make chocolate. Mayan chocolate was not sweet like we think of it today, but a hot, bitter drink. The
Maya also used cacao beans as a form of money.
4. Religious Beliefs
To gain favor with their gods, the Maya made offerings of animals, plants, and jade. Sometimes they even
made human sacrifices.
5. A Society of Thinkers
The Mayan developed a number system and a complex collection of calendars to track the 12-month solar
year, as well as the Long Count calendar to track long periods of time and the Sacred Round calendar, used to
determine the dates for religious ceremonies and events.
6. The Aztec Empire
Aztecs were known as savage warriors. They built the city of Tenochtitlán on an island on Lake Texcoco in
part to protect themselves from their enemies.
The Aztec Empire grew until it ruled over much of south-central Mexico.
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7. Religion of the Aztec
The Aztec religion was polytheistic. Human sacrifice was often part of Aztec worship. Aztec paid tribute to a
higher power—their gods—by sending them the beating hearts and blood of their people.
8. Montezuma and Cortés
Montezuma, the last emperor of the Aztec Empire, ruled from 1502 to 1520.
9. The Inca Empire
The Inca Empire extended over much of the length of the South American continent. The Andes Mountains
terrain and climate presented difficult challenges for the Inca.
10. Farming in the Andes
Because the Inca lived on such steep mountain slopes, farming was difficult. To solve this problem, the Inca
built terraces.
11. Travel
The Inca also built canal systems to carry freshwater both to their crops and to the cities. They also built a
system of roads and bridges to connect cities and to make travel, trade, and communication throughout the
mountainous region easier.
The Inca used llamas to transport goods over the rugged roadways and relay runners to deliver messages to
locations across the empire quickly.
12. Machu Picchu
Machu Picchu was a sacred ceremonial center for the Inca high in the Andes.
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DATE THREE MAIN IDEAS REFLECTION: THINGS YOU WONDER,
CONNECTIONS YOU MADE, LINGERING
QUESTIONS.
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Unit 1: Geography
1.1 What is geography and how can it help us to understand the world? ________________________________________________
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1.2 How can the five themes of geography be used to show the relationship between people and places? Why do geographers use a
variety of maps to represent the world? _________________________________________________________________________
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Unit 2: The Rise of Civilizations
2.1 How do we learn about prehistoric societies? __________________________________________________________________
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2.2 How did early humans improve their lives? ___________________________________________________________________
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2.3 In what ways did the agricultural revolution change human life? __________________________________________________
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Unit 3: Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt
3.1 How did geography impact life in Mesopotamia? ______________________________________________________________
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3.2 How did religion and gender influence Mesopotamian society? ___________________________________________________
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3.5 What effects did power and social class have on the lives of ancient Egyptians? ______________________________________
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3.6 How did the innovations of ancient Egypt impact its neighbors and future civilizations? ________________________________
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Unit 4: Ancient India
4.1 How did physical geography shape Indian civilization? __________________________________________________________
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4.2 What effects did power and social class have on the lives of the ancient Indian people? ________________________________
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4.3 How did religion influence Indian society? ___________________________________________________________________
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Unit 5: Ancient Greece
5.1 How did geography influence the development of Greek civilization? ______________________________________________
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5.2 To what extent were ancient Greek political systems democratic? _________________________________________________
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5.3 How has classical Greek culture affected our modern lives? ______________________________________________________
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Unit 6: The Roman Republic and Empire
6.1 How did geography and trade routes impact the growth of Rome? ________________________________________________
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6.2 Was the Roman Republic democratic? _______________________________________________________________________
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6.3 How did Rome's transition from Republic to Empire impact its citizens? ____________________________________________
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6.4 How did the spread of Roman culture influence life throughout the Empire? _________________________________________
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6.5 Why did Rome decline and fall? ____________________________________________________________________________
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Unit 7: Ancient China and Japan
7.1 What were the greatest achievements of the Tang and Song dynasties? _____________________________________________
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7.2 How did Mongol conquest change relations between regional societies? ____________________________________________
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7.3 How did trade shape Chinese society during the Ming Dynasty? ___________________________________________________
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7.4 What effects did power and social class have on Japanese feudal society? ___________________________________________
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Unit 8: African Empires
8.1 How did the geography of Africa affect its settlement patterns and commerce? _______________________________________
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8.2 How did trade influence the politics and culture of African Empires? _______________________________________________
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8.3 How did contact with other religions change life in Africa? ______________________________________________________
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Unit 9: The Middle Ages
9.1 How did power and social class impact life in Medieval Europe? _________________________________________________
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9.2 How did the Black Death spark social, political, and economic change throughout Europe? _____________________________
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Unit 10: American Societies
10.1 How did physical geography shape the early societies of North America? __________________________________________
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10.2 How did the ancient societies in Latin America become so powerful? _____________________________________________
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