Social Work Theory and Practice i

7/29/2019 Social Work Theory and Practice i

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/social-work-theory-and-practice-i 1/33

SOCIAL WORK THEORY AND PRACTICE I

I. ASSESSMENT

The process of gathering, analyzing and collating salient data in a way that encompasses the

nature of the problem, the functioning of the client and significant others, motivation of theclient to work on the problem, environmental factors that contribute to the problem and

resources available or needed to address the problem (Zastrow, 2010).

CHARACTERISTICS OF ASSESSMENT

Assessment is ongoing - from initial contact through to termination of the case. The

context involves:

information gathering – to assess client’s problem and resources

additional information – reassessment is usually required

Assessment is two-fold – incorporates client’s active involvement in the change process

to the best of his/her abilities. Content is derived from:

Worker –client interaction

Worker observation of client

This facilitates empowerment of the client and provides the individual with a

sense of self-worth.

Assessment is individualized – client specific as each individual comes with his/her own

unique situation

Assessment is limited – the process is never complete as it is impossible to gaincomplete understanding of any situation

It is important that the worker has sufficient understanding to help theclient

resolve issues especially in a crisis situation.

ASSESSMENT TASKS

1. Identification of the need/ problem as well as the client’s strengths/resources.

2. Identification of the information needed to further understand the problem andto determine the appropriate treatment to address the problem.

3. Collection and analysis of the information.



SOURCES OF INFORMATION

1. Client’s verbal report - this is often the primary source of data and in many cases

the only source. A variety of information can be had this way: the description of the

problem, feelings about the problem, views of the person’s personal resources to

combat the problem, person’s motivation to make effort to resolve the problem,

the history of the problem and what has been done in an attempt to manage the

problem.

In some cases, such as substance dependence, the client might not tell the truth and

so it will be necessary to verify client’s detail of the situation with other sources

such as the community, family member, friend, neighbor or school community.

2. Assessment forms -these forms usually collect social/demographic data such as –

name, telephone number, educational background, forensic and employmenthistories, next of kin among others

3. Psychological tests - administered by psychologists or psychiatrists. These are test

which seek to gather information on relationships, self-esteem, depression, stress,

phobias, abuse, etc. These instruments are used to assess the client’s level of

functioning.

4. Nonverbal behaviour - these cues are important to the worker in identifying what

the client is actually thinking and feeling. Nonverbal behaviours include gestures,

breathing, posture, eye movement, eye contact and tone of voice among others.

Such cues give information about stress levels, or even whether the client is telling

the truth.

5. Home visits and interaction with significant others - this yields information about

how client interacts with others as well as environmental factors.

GUIDE FOR ASSESSING PROBLEMS

1. What specifically are the problems? It is important in assessment to articulate the

dimensions of the problem/s as accurately as possible.

2. How is the problem viewed by the client? The meaning the client assigned to the

problem can be more important than the problem itself.

3. Who is involved in the problem system? This system consists of all the people who

are involved in the problematic situation.



4. How are the participants involved? This question seeks to identify the role of each

member of the problem system. Detailed information will be needed on how each

affect and is affected by the problem.

5. What are the causes of the problem? Knowing this is usually important in

determining ways of intervention.

6. Where and when does the problem occur?

7. What are the frequency, intensity and duration of the problem? Such information

helps in specifying the severity of the problem and clarifies its impact on the family.

8. What is the history of the problem behaviour?This helps to identify the event /s

that precipitated the problem and what was happening in the person’s life at the

time the problem began.

9. What does the client want?If the client’s desires are realistic and obtainable, then

the worker should focus on helping the client to achieve same. If however what the

client wants is not realistic, this should be fully explained to the client.

10. How has the client attempted to handle the problem? This can reveal valuable

information on the client’s coping and problem-solving skills.

11. What skills does the client need to combat the problem?

12. What external resources areneeded to combat the problem?

13. What are the client’s skills, resources and strengths?This could help empower

client to use skills they already posses.

14. What are the recommended courses of action? Otherwise called the treatment

plan or intervention plan, this involves setting goals and working to achieve those

goals. These are goals that should be set by both client and worker.



II. INTERVIEWING

The interview is the primary tool of the social worker. It is the structure for operationalizing

the interaction between worker and client (Johnson and Yanca, 2007).

PURPOSE OF INTERVIEWING

Each interview should have a specific purpose or goal. Generally this purpose may be to

obtain information needed to carry out some task or function, or to work together to meet

the client’s need. Hence, some interviews are directed towards getting information and

others towards giving help. Most interviews are however, geared at obtaining both.

The method used in conducting an interview is largely dependent on the purpose of the

interview. Although interviewers should be clearly aware of their objectives, it is usually

unwise to seek to realize these objectives through direct action. That is, interviewers should

allow clients to talk freely about their problems and situations, rather than ask pointed

questions that may inhibit the clients.

The type of information sought is determined primarily by the function of the agency from

which the client seeks help. It is essential therefore, that the interviewer be thoroughly

acquainted with the purpose and significance of each question that is asked.

The interviewee should be made to understand that each question is important. The

interviewer may need to explain in clear terms to the client, reasons behind some of the

questions asked. More often than not, interviewees are put at ease by the interviewer’s

straightforward statement of purpose.

Always remain open to the possibility that the client may have problems that he or she is

unable to articulate. The interviewer’s first task therefore is to put the client at ease and to

stimulate discussion about the problem. Because some clients interpret their inability to

answer questions as a failure, it is sometimes best to frame questions as issues to think

about over time instead of demanding an immediate answer.

It is also possible to probe too deeply. Some sleeping dogs are better left sleeping,

especially if the interviewer is unprepared to handle such disclosure when they arise.

HOW TO INTERVIEW

To be skillful at interviewing takes many years of practice. The interviewer must be

consciously aware of the subtleties in the interviewing process for the interview to be



spontaneous and seamless. In other words, techniques must be learned, absorbed and

utilized naturally.

TECHNIQUES

1. Observation - listen to what is not said. Be aware of inconsistencies and gaps in the client’s

story. From all the details observed in an interview select only a few items to report. This

means that the interviewer is asked to report what he or she considers salient points.

It is always good to remember that we are not totally objective and so what one interviewer

considers salient might not be thought to be by another, as we all see the world from our

vantage point. That is why it is important to get the client’s view on the situation.

2. Listening- this is fundamental to the interviewing process. A good interviewer is a good

listener. The person who often interrupts the client, or who is too silent is not a good

listener. People appreciate listeners who indicate by relevant comments or questions that

they have grasped the essential points of the story.

3. Begin where the client is- the first step in the interview process is to make the client feel

comfortable. To do so, the interviewer must be relaxed. Clients can be quickly put at ease if

they are allowed to state their purpose for seeking the service. Allow the client to talk freely

at first. The interviewer should try to match his/her style of language with that of the client.

4. Questioning- this is a crucial part of interviewing. Abrupt or trick questions are

inappropriate. Questions should not be framed in an accusing manner.

Do not be the amateur detective. Ask questions that will help the client, not those that seek

to satisfy your curiosity. The questions asked should serve to obtain needed information and

to channel clients’ information in fruitful ways.

Try to adjust the pace of questioning to fit the client’s needs. To go too slowly could suggest

lack of interest and to go too quickly can cause the interviewer to miss important cues.

5. An interviewer’s comment is usually closely aligned to the questions that interviewer asks.

There is a lot of difference between expression and communication. To effectively

communicate the interviewer pays attention to his manner of expression. The interviewer

must think professionally while using the language of the client.

6. Answering personal questions- these sometimes arise during interview because a client

wants to be polite or thinks it is the social thing to do. Sometimes a client’s ethnic

background taught them that it is something desirable to do in developing a meaningful



relationship. Other times, it could be the way client introduce his or her problem to the

interviewer.

7. Leadership- interviewers should assume leadership throughout the interview process, by

encouraging clients to express themselves. When interviewers know the function and policy

of their agencies, as well as the areas in which they may serve clients, they are moreeffective in guiding the interview along a path that will help them determine how to help

clients.

8. Interpretation- the interviewer must be able to interpret various clues to clients’ underlying

situations as presented through the clients’ behaviours and conversations.

There are several types of variables that affect the nature of interviews. These include

How the interview was initiated – was it a voluntary action on the part of the client?

Was it formally planned, or a walk-in request?

Where the interview takes place – does the interview takes place in an office, at home,

a hospital ward or some other setting?

The experience of the worker and client with each other – have this worker and client

had previous contact with each other? Is this contact a part-time limited or long term

contact?

PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEW

In preparation for the interview the worker has 3 tasks:a) planning the environment for the interview (worker thinks about the physical conditions of

the interview). The space is so arranged to encourage working together

b) planning the content of the interview – in planning the content the worker should recall the

goals for this particular interview, in addition to the task to be accomplished. Notes of

previous sessions may also be reviewed, and so during this stage the structure of questions

and of the interview itself will be taken into consideration

c) ‘tuning in’ – in tuning in the worker first tries to anticipate the client’s needs and feelings in

the interview and to think about his/her own response to those feelings and needs. The

worker tries to identify his/her own feelings and /or attitude that may interfere with

communication.

STAGES OF THE INTERVIEW

An interview has several stages, these are:

1. Theopening or beginning phase where there is relationship-building and assessment takes

place.



2. The middle/working-together stage which involves evaluation, planning and action. It

involves evaluating success and barriers to success and taking action to maintain success

and overcome barriers.

3. The ending stage which is the termination of the interview.

III. ESSENTIALS OF COUNSELLING

Counsellors try as best as is possible to select approaches that best suit the individual needsof their clients. Steps that are used to begin and strengthen the helping relationship

include:

1. Make personal contact

The relationship between client and counsellor is the foundation of counselling. This

means that the counsellor and the client must make contact. This involves being with,

communicating with, and touching the client emotionally. During this phase, be open to

the client’s lead. If he/she starts to chat, chat for a minute then return to the business

of counselling. This helps to develop trust in the client.

2. Develop a working alliance/partnership

It is important that the counsellor engages the client in such a way that both work

together to resolve the issue(s) that brought the client to counselling. This is facilitated

through the worker extending understanding, respect and warmth. Counsellors should

employ good listening skills as this helps them to learn about their clients, and so

develop bonds of trust and support.

3. Explain couselling to the client

Clients often approach counselling expecting to be cured. If mistaken expectations are

not addressed, clients may fail to progress or drop out of counselling. Areas to be

explained depend upon the following:

a) presenting problem

b) agency policies and procedures

c) informed consent forms

d) limitations to what a client can do



e) responsibility of the client – he/she does most of the talking, experiences painful

emotions before healing begins

f) people are not in counselling because they are weak or insane

g) issues of confidentiality

h) realistic hopes of improvement

4. Pace and lead the client

This is how much direction the counsellor gives the client. Two effective ways of pacing

clients are reflection of feelings (counsellor recognizes what the client feels and then

voices the feeling) and restating contents of a conversation (counsellor notices the

client’s expression and paraphrases it). This facilitates the counsellor’s ability to

develop a good sense of when to continue to probe or stop.

5. Speak briefly

Generally counsellors should speak less than their clients. Except when summarizing

communicate with clients in one or two sentences. Counsellors can employ the

technique of ‘minimal encouraging;’ using phrases such “uh huh” to show active

listening.

6. Say nothing when you don’t know what to say

It is largely the client’s job to talk. During silent periods in sessions the counsellor may

sit quietly and allow the client to resume talking. Silence doesn’t necessarily mean

withdrawal from the helping process, but rather, it allows the client time to process

thoughts and feelings.

7. Confront as much as you support

In counselling, confronting does not mean opposing the client, but rather pointing out

discrepancies between the client’s goals and actions. It is unwise to use confrontation

in the initial stages of the counselling relationship. Once a bond has been established

between the counsellor and the client confrontation may increase the client’s

awareness and motivation to change.

8. Individualize your counselling

The counsellor is encouraged to develop his/her own style of counselling. Observe theclient’s use of language in an effort to engage at a matching conceptual level. Be careful

not to use jargons that will confuse clients. The counsellor may need to make

adjustments to his/her language or posture so that style suits each client. Remember,

you talk with clients, not to them.

9. Notice resistance



Resistance by client could indicate his/her level of readiness for change and the type of

intervention that the counsellor should use. It is important that resistance be explored

at the appropriate time if the client is to progress in treatment.

10. Focus on feelings of clients

It is important that clients express their feelings in sessions; however, this often provesdifficult for them. Counsellors recognize and address these feelings of clients in an

effort to help them get rid of emotional pain. Counsellors typically look out for the

following feeling words – anger, fear, sadness and joy.

11. Plan for termination at the beginning of counselling

Termination should not be abrupt, it should be planned. Counsellor and client should

have a tentative understanding of when the counselling engagement will end. The

counsellor should talk with the client about how he/she feels about the termination.

The counsellor should say goodbye, summarize the counselling experience and discuss

the client’s future plans.

12. Arrange the physical setting appropriately

The counselling process is impacted by the physical characteristics of the counsellor as

well as the counselling setting. Bearing this in mind the counsellor should:

a) dress appropriately

b) remember confidentiality

c) attend to the physical space – sit so there is no obstacle between self and client

d) conduct counselling in a quiet setting

e) avoid interruptions and distractions

f) be prompt

g) invest in a box of tissue



IV. THE HELPING RELATIONSHIP

This relationship is where there is an agreed on purpose; a specific time frame; one in which

the worker devotes self to the interests of the client; and one that carries the authority of

specialized knowledge, a professional code of ethics, and specialized skill.

Characteristics

1. Concern for others

This is an attitude that reflects warmth, sincere liking, friendliness, support, and an

interest in the client. It communicates a real desire to understand person in situation.

2. Commitment and obligation

This is a sense of responsibility for the helping situation. Dependability and consistency

are also involved. The worker must have a willingness to enter into the world of others,

with its hurts and joys, its frustrations and commitments.

3. Acceptance

This is a nonjudgmental, noncritical attitude on the part of the worker, as well as a

realistic trust of the client and respect for the client’s feelings. Belief that the client canhandle his/her own problems and can take charge of his/her own life.

4. Empathy

The ability to communicate to the client that the worker cares, has concern for the

client, is hearing what the client is perceiving, wants to understand, and is hearing and

understanding.



5. Clear communication

This is the capacity to communicate with the client in ways that enable the client to fully

understand the message being sent.

6. Genuineness

The worker’s honesty about self and his/her own feelings. This is the ability to separatethe experiences and the feelings of the worker from those of the client. Genuineness on

the part of the worker allows the client to become what the client wants to be. It is

present when the worker’s communication is understood and comfortable for the

client. The worker’s style of helping should not be an inflexible use of technique.

7. Authority and power

This is the expectation that the client will work to fulfill needs and responsibilities and

will want to resolve the situation. This involves encouraging the client to go beyond the

present level of functioning and providing guidance and resources so that goals can be

reached. It involves insistence that the client does what he/she can for him/herself.The worker’s knowledge and skills are the bases for authority and power.

The client must know that the worker’s power and authority are not to be used to

dominate or control him/her but to assist him/her in having his/her needs, and those of

others around him/her, met in a positive, mutually beneficial manner.

8. Purpose

The helping relationship has a purpose known to, and accepted by, both worker and

client. *According to Compton &Galaway, this is the most important characteristic of

all.



V. THE TREATMENT PLAN

The treatment plan is one of the most important aspects of intervention. It is the tool that

the counsellor and client create to guide them through the treatment process. Treatment

planning begins as soon as the initial assessment is completed as the client may have needs

that must be addressed immediately.

Each treatment plan is individualized – because each client is different, for the same goal,

the counsellor may have different objectives.

The treatment plan incorporates goals (brief statement of the problem that the counsellor

hopes to help client resolve/behaviour to change in the client) that may be short, medium

or long term. They are geared toward the client learning new and more functional ways of

coping with life’s challenges. It is facilitated through various objectives (specific, observable

skill needed to achieve a set goal) and techniques. It is centred on the problem that the

client brings to treatment.

The plan comes at the end of the diagnosis of the problem, and it:

tells what the client will do intreatment

takes into account all the physical, emotional and behavioural problems relevant to the

client’s care

takes into consideration the clients strengths and weaknesses



The treatment plan details the therapeutic interventions – what is going to be done, when it

is going to be done and who is going to do it. The plan must take into consideration each of

the client’s needs and outline clear ways of addressing each need.

The treatment plan must be measureable - set of problems that staff can measure. The

problem must be specific – issue of the individual that needs treatment.

Writing the treatment plan

1. Identify the problem(s) of the client – what is the problem and why does the client need

your intervention

2. Write the long-term goals – statement of the client’s identified problem

3. Write the short-term goals and objectives – small measureable steps which need to be

accomplished to ensure that long-term goals are achieved

4. Write interventions – actions to be taken that will enable client to achieve short-term

goals and objectives

5.

Ensure that both counsellor and client sign the treatment plan

CASE ANALYSIS TEMPLATE

1 Topic/Area of Concern

2 Brief Scenario

3 Issues for Counselling

4 Etiology/Cause

5 Goals for Counselling &

Treatment

Therapeutic intention Approach

Short

Medium



Long

6 Applicable Counselling Theories

7 Applicable Counselling

Techniques

8 Intervention

9 Resources

10 Timeline

11 Possible Obstacles

VI. SOCIAL WORK THEORIES

Their construction

Social work is complex and varies according to the culture in which it is practiced. Theories

about social work must therefore be a product of the context in which they arise. They

must also influence the contexts, because theories affect what people do and say within

social work. Hence, Rein and White (1981) stated:

“The knowledge that social work seeks must be developed in living situations in the field.

This does not only include the client’s situation, but all the other intersect ing network of

offices, agencies, professionals, government structures and pressure groups that act

together on the agency”.

Malcolm Payne therefore argues that “social work theory is created within social work, out

of an interaction with social work practice, which in turns interacts with wider social

contacts. He further noted that 3 sets of forces construct social work.

Those which create and control social work as an occupation. Needs would call for

social work. Certain protocol would control it as an occupation.



Those which create clientele among people who seek or are sent for social work help.

There has to be criteria for who seek help. Those who need restoration to former

functioning.

Those which create the social context in which social work is held. The implementation

of social policies which creates an environment in which practice takes place.

This in part speaks to the statements and understanding of who is a social worker and what

processes define one as such. This to a large extent depends on social changes in society.

Political and public perception of personal need condition those social forces and the way in

which services should be organized to meet such needs. Organization of services and

agencies, legislation, economic capacity and managerial techniques of an organization affect

how social work is done in that organization.

A major feature of social work theory is the extent to which it can offer explanations and

guidance in dealing with the pressures put by clients on the perception of workers of theirsocial circumstances. A theory which is inadequate in dealing with the needs of a client will

likely be partially accepted or replaced by another.

Theory is a statement of what social work is and prescribes what social workers must do in

various situations. It follows therefore, that to some extent social work theory is defined

not only by academic developments and empirical study, but by what social workers actually

do.

Use in Practice

Practice is a process. To make this process effective, relationship is important - relationship

between worker, client and agency. In practice, there need to be a broad knowledge base,

theoretical backing, assurance that practice is culturally relevant, the underpinning of

ethical values, laws/rules which govern whatever is done and relevant skills such as

communication, comprehension and relationship building.

Knowledge in social work is derived from 2 main sources:

i. Confirmed knowledge by virtue of empirical testing and/or observations.

ii. Assumptive knowledge accepted and acted upon as though it was true, but which has

not yet been confirmed by empiricism. How this comes about according to Payne

quoting Berger and Luckman’s (1971) idea of social construction is that :

Our social activities become habitual and so we share ideas about how things should be

or how things are. We also behave according to this shared knowledge.



We institutionalize these conventions (habits, behaviours) as many now agree about the

understanding of that aspect of society.

These understandings are now legitimized by a process that attach meanings and

integrate these ideas about reality in an organized plausible system.

Uses of Theories

Theories help practitioners to do the following:

o describe what happens during practice

o provide a model which can be applied to a wide range of situations in a structural way,

so that principles and actions can be extracted that will give our practice consistency

o provide approaches and perspectives on complex human activities, which enable

participants to order their minds and help them manage the situations presented during

practice

o offer explanations that will help us understand why an action results in particular

circumstances and help identify the circumstances when these happeno account for what we have done during practice

o prescribe certain actions, so we know what to do when faced with certain

situations/problems

Distinctions between the terms Model, Perspective and Theory

1. Model - describes what happens during practice in a general way. It applies to a wide

range of situations in a structured form so as to give a framework to activities in a

consistent manner.

Examples

Problem-solving

Task-Centred Solution-Focused

Cognitive-Behavioural

Crisis

Narrative



2. Perspective - expresses values or views of the world which allows participants in

practice to order their minds in such a way that they are able to manage themselves

during practice.

Examples

Strengths Feminist

Eco-systems

3. Theory - accounts for why an action resulted in a particular way (explanatory).

Examples of Developmental Theories

Systems

Psychodynamic

Social Learning

Conflict

Examples of Developmental Theories

Moral (Kohlberg)

Cognition (Piaget)

Psychosocial (Erikson)

Integrating Theory with Practice

Studies have shown that there is often difficulty by some student social workers in applying theory

in the practice setting. Payne suggests three approaches to deal with this difficulty.

1. Use theories to clarify, criticize and interrogate each other - for example case workers maysometimes see resistance to treatment as unhelpful and something to overcome. However,

the worker could view this resistance as a defense against hurt; it could be a sign that

something important is being kept back by the client that needs to be revealed. In each of

these cases, a theoretical position is taken which informs the judgment or assessment of the

work role.

We tend to think about clients on a rational level in terms of case-work or cognitive-

behavioural work. In psychodynamics for example, clients are viewed based on emotional

motivations. We need to beware of seeing clients’ problems as based solely on their

thought processes or perceptions, lack of emotions or lack of control. We should ask

ourselves what the emotions are and what the behaviours represent.

2. Choose one theory (selectivity) - some theories are written to be self-sufficient, covering all

or most eventualities the worker might encounter. Theories of this type are psycho-

dynamic and systems theories. Some theories that workers find useful, might not

completely cover the range of issues presented by the client and so the worker must put

together different theories. Selecting one theory will work however, if it is clear enough to



the worker and if the worker has a good grasp of its concepts to be able to apply it in the

required circumstances.

3. Put theories together (eclecticism) - given the complexity and diversity of issues social

worker have to deal with in their everyday functions, eclecticism usually takes place. That

is, workers use different aspects of different theories together. This can be used in differentways for example using crisis intervention in the initial stage in the case of an emergency,

then using psycho-dynamic over the long term for the same client.

It could also mean using different theories for different members of a family system.

Eclecticism therefore means a reliance on the worker’s skill, knowledge and value bases

which offer a secure base for moving among theoretical ideas.

VII. CASE RECORDING

Clinical records can be considered to be the legal business of the organization and as such,must be maintained in a manner consistent with agency policies, procedures and

professional practice standard. An organization would be in trouble if the legal integrity of

its records is questioned.

Writing Guidelines

The following are some basic principles in maintaining clinical records.

Every entry should be made near or at the time the matter occurred.

Entry should be made by person in the agency with knowledge of the act, event, condition,

opinion or diagnosis appearing in the record.

Every formal session with client, progress and current status of client should be recorded,

dated and signed by person making entry.

Every contact made or attempts at making contact should be recorded.

Dates are to be entered in chronological order.

Clients’ records should be kept in a secure place and be accessible only to authorized

persons.

Each page should identify the client by name and registration number.

If a mistake is made during entry, do not obliterate the original entry. Instead draw a single

line through the error, date and sign it. Then rewrite the correct entry.

Only use abbreviations which are approved by your agency .

Never use pencils to make entries. Black ink is preferable, as this facilitates legible

photocopying.

Informed consent entries, including explanations of benefit and risk of treatment or any

other procedure should be carefully documented and signed by both client and worker and

where applicable witnessed in writing.

Record the client’s own words and use quotation marks when recording what the client

said.



Be careful about what and how you record. The client might someday read it.

Process Recording

According to Graybeal and Ruff (1995), this is a continuum of methods that records the

process of work, ranging from written record to audio and videotaping, to observation.

Another definition by Urbanowski and Dwyer (1988) of process recording is “the written

account of the dynamic interaction that occurs during an interview or in other forms of

client contact.”

Purpose

To enhance learning and to develop a knowledgeable, skilled and ultimately autonomous,

professional social worker who examines his/her practice in a systematic, objective critical

way.

Benefitsi. It forces students to carefully listen and concentrate on each interaction between

themselves and clients and teaches them to recall what they hear and see (Urdang,

1975), therefore helping them to become active rather than passive observers

(Goldberg, 1985).

ii. It provide students with a tool for interviewing and re-experiencing interactions as well

as the opportunity to record thoughts, reactions and analyses on the work as it unfolds.

iii. It helps field instructors in their effort to individualize students and develop educational

plans. It also helps to identify strategies used by students and provides the opportunity

for supervisors to review and comment on each interaction between student and

clients.

iv. It helps to integrate classroom learning into field practice.

A model for process recording

1. Preparation and purpose (preparation)



At this stage base line or current information is captured. The aims and plans for

contact with client are defined and so too would be barriers to contact. Clarification of

roles and preliminary arrangements needed for that first contact would also be

concretized.

2. Process and relevant information (observation)At this stage initial observation of client will be done. Verbatim or paraphrased

description of what happened interpersonally (the content-dialogue) will be recorded.

3. Students’ thoughts and analyses (knowledge)

At this point students will record their response and gut feelings on the interaction and

content of dialogue with clients. The examination of students’ and clients’ functioning

will also be examined.

4. Interventions (skills)

This is an analysis of intervention, identification of skills and strategies used and the

extent to which the intervention(s) met the need of the client would be done at this

point.

5. Next steps (planning)

The planning of future directions where the clients are concerned; what further contacts

are to be made, what worker needs to do, what needs to be done by client and relating

plans to problems identified.

6. Questions (questioning)

This is evaluating whether the purpose of the session was accomplished and questionsrelated to the students’ practice knowledge and skills will be asked.

SOAP format of progress notes recording:

S – subjective: clients’ views of the problem or progress.

The writer first writes a capital S, and then circles it. Write the clients’ subjective view of the

problem or events using the clients own words in parenthesis.

O – objective: writer’s objective observations of progress of client.

Similar to the S, write a capital O and circle it. Then write your objective observations of the

client’s behaviour and personal appearance. Ws the client hostile, distracted, suspicious,argumentative? Was there suicidal or homicidal ideations?

A – assessment: writer’s assessment of client’s affect, mental status and psychosocial

functioning. Was the client looking sad, angry, flat, suspicious, euphoric, ashamed, depressed,

anxious or fearful?

P – plan: plan for future treatment as it relates to progress of client.



Do you and the treatment team continue with the current treatment plan, or do you need a

chance to update the treatment plan in light of documented problem or events?

NB: Each organization has its format for documentation. It is important therefore, that in the

case report writing skills, concepts rather than specific forms be learnt.

VIII. TERMINATION OF THE CLIENT-WORKER RELATIONSHIP

The closing of a case or the termination of services to a client should be viewed as a

component of the helping process. Ideally, termination is a mutual decision made by

worker and client. This should be done in a timely and responsible manner.

Factors to be considered when deciding to terminate

Have the agreed upon service goals been reached?

Has an agreed upon time limit to service provision been reached?

Is the problem or situation that brought the client to the agency sufficiently resolvedso the client can function within an acceptable range and not at high risk of being

harmed by self or others?

Has the worker and/or agency made a reasonable investment of time, energy, and

skill without measurable results?

Has the client and/or worker reached a point where one or both do not anticipate

benefit from future contacts?

Has the client become inappropriately dependent upon worker or agency?

Would the client be more appropriately served by another agency or a professional

with specialized training?

Does a change of circumstances require termination of services (client is moving

from area served by agency, worker moving to another job…)

Transfer or reassignment of the client to another worker within the agency is sometimes

necessary. In a sense this too is a type of termination. Intra-agency transfer becomes

necessary when:



the worker will no longer be available to serve the client (worker moving to another

job …)

the client will be better served by someone with specialized skills or knowledge

a conflict between the worker and client cannot be resolved and is interfering with

service provision or client progress

for some reason, the worker simply does not like the client and cannot develop or

demonstrate necessary empathy and warmth

there is a serious and insurmountable gap in mutual understanding and

communication caused by differences in values, religious beliefs, language, or

cultural background

The social worker has a professional obligation to make a termination or transfer as positive as

is possible.

Guidelines to aid the process of termination

1. The worker should do everything possible to keep termination from being abrupt or

unexpected. Termination should be discussed during the contracting phase of the helping

process. The client should be reminded that intervention is goal oriented and time limited

so the client is aware that termination is inevitable.

2. The client will be gradually prepared for termination if the intervention includes, as it

should, an ongoing monitoring and evaluation of progress.

3. Realize that, in some cases, termination can be difficult because of your own psychological

needs. Some workers strongly want to be needed and appreciated and may maintain

contact with the client even when there is no professional reason for doing so. The worker

must guard against this potential problem.

4. As termination approaches, it is desirable to gradually decrease the frequency of contact. If

the client is quite dependent on the worker, the weaning process should be accompanied by

efforts to connect the client with natural helpers and informal resources within his/her

neighbourhood or social network.

5. The feelings of loss and anger that often accompany the ending of any important

relationship should be discussed by the worker, even if they are not first mentioned by the

client.

6. The scheduling of a follow-up interview or telephone contact several weeks after official

termination may be reassuring to the client who fears separation. Also, the client should be

informed that he/she can return to the agency if the need arises.

7. In a case where the client wants to terminate but the worker has sound reasons for wanting

to continue, the worker should explain these reasons to the client. The worker should also



explain any possible adverse consequences of terminating. If the client still wishes to

terminate, his/her decision should be respected.

IX. GENERALIST SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

This is practice in which the client and worker together assess the need in all of its

complexity and develop a plan for responding to that need. A strategy is chosen from a

repertoire of responses appropriate for work with individuals, families, groups, agencies and

communities. The unit of attention is chosen by considering the system needing to be

changed. The plan is carried out and evaluated.

Social Work is practiced on three levels; these are casework (micro), group work (mezzo)

and community work (macro). The generalist practitioner is knowledgeable and skilful in

the application of methods at all three levels. The worker may practice using a combination

of methods (Farley, et al, 2006, p. 63).

The levels at which social workers practice in the helping process are outlined below.

Casework – Individual or family

The social worker is involved in direct practice with individuals or families. The client isincluded in each step of the change process as much as is possible (Johnson &Yanca, 2004,

p. 68). At this level the worker-client relationship is very critical as the type of relationship

that is established can either make or break the helping process.

Group Work



This is the goal-directed activity with small treatment and task groups aimed at meeting

socio-emotional needs and accomplishing tasks. This activity is directed to individual

members of a group and to the group as a whole within a system of service delivery.

It refers to planned, orderly worker activities carried out in the context of professional

practice with people. The following are purposes of group work: aim to support or educate members

help members socialize and achieve personal growth

provide treatment for members problems and concerns

help members develop leadership skills so they can take increasing responsibility for

the group’s development (Toseland& Rivas, 2012,p. 11)

Community Work – embraces both direct work with community groups and work with inter-

organizational and planning levels. It is also concerned with enabling members to

collectively overcome problems and enhance the common feelings, solidarity and

competence in the community. Involves everybody from all angles, so all stakeholders canwork together to plan and enable people to become empowered.

This is done through one of or a combination of the following modalities:

Locality development/Community development

This model asserts that community change can best be brought about throughbroad-based participation by a wide spectrum of people at the local community

level. The model seeks to involve a cross-section of individuals in identifying and

solving problems. Some themes emphasized in this model are democratic

procedures, consensus approach, voluntary cooperation, development of

indigenous leadership and self-help.

Social action

The social action model assumes that a disadvantaged (often oppressed) segment of

the population needs to be organized, perhaps in alliance with others, to pressure

the power structure to increase resources or for social justice.

Social planning

The social planning model emphasizes problem solving. It assumes that community

changes in a complex industrial environment require highly trained and skilled

planners who can guide complex change processes.



X. THE ROLES OF REFERRING AND FOLLOW-UP IN PRACTICE

1. Referral

This is the process by which a social worker enables a client to know and use another

resource. It involves supplying the referral agency with information that may be helpful

in providing service to the client and then following up on the usefulness of the service

to the client. The worker must obtain written permission from the client/client’s

guardian, usually called a release of information, before sharing any identifying

information about the client system with an outside service (Johnson &Yanca, 2004,

p.261).

Referring a client doesn’t mean the end of the worker’s professional responsibility to

that individual. The worker may ask client to report back to him/her so as to secure a

progress report. This often facilitates a successful referral.

Referral involves:

a problem has been identified by worker and client for some time



the client is being sent on to a new phase, a new experience, another source of

help, leaving the worker behind or being left by the worker

more is involved than just saying goodbye to the client

Guidelines in making referrals

a) Ascertain the client’s readiness for referral, remember, the client will more likely

follow through with a referral if they see the need for it.

b) Determine together what source best matches the client’s wishes. It is important

that the counsellor is familiar with the policies, procedures and quality of service

provided by the referred agency.

c) Respect the client’s right to self determination, as you make recommendations as to

which resource is most likely to benefit the client.

d) Avoid making false promises or conveying unrealistic reassurance re: what another

agency can do in assisting the client.

e)

Avoid specifying what another practitioner in another agency will do. Practitionershave different methods and their own styles of carrying out their functions.

The following steps are useful in facilitating the successful connection between the client

and the referred agency.

a) Write out the necessary facts about contracting the agency; including information such

as name and address of agency, how to get an appointment.

b) Provide the client with the name of a specific contact person(s).

c) Prepare a brief statement addressed to the agency outlining the problem and services

required by the client (involve client in this process).

d) Encourage the client to call the agency from your office if possible, to set up anappointment.

e) Arrange for a family member/ friend to accompany client to the agency if he/she

exhibits signs of apprehension. Counsellor may wish to accompany client in exceptional

cases.

2. Follow-up

This is an essential aspect of effective referrals. It provides an opportunity to review

clients’ experience with the new agency and to conduct an informal evaluation. If the

client is still considered a part of the service plan, follow-up can occur within the context

of a regular meeting. If not, the worker may do so by telephone.

The purpose of follow-up therefore is to help the worker to:

gain information about the appropriateness of the service for the client and

others who may have similar needs

make appropriate referrals in the future



advocate for the client/assist the client in receiving the needed service

elsewhere

determine why the service was not utilised (Johnson &Yanca, 2004, p.261).

Elements of effective follow-up

a) Takes place from six to twelve monthsb) Support clients through periodic checks and review of plan or aftercare being

received.

c) Monitor client for regress, drug use among others.

d) Look for life changes – allows for adjustments in the client’s treatment plan to deal

with the changes

e) Help clients identify trigger mechanisms – experiences that prompt the cravings and

urges to revert to former modes of behaviour

XI. ENGAGING THE INVOLUNTARY CLIENT

The worker’s role is to build a working relationship with a client who was forced into contact

with a social worker or an agency.

The involuntary client is one who was mandated to go into treatment. The external

pressure to seek professional help may have come from the Courts, Probations…

Due to this, some clients may be resentful, angry and often belligerent. It can therefore be a

challenge to engage this client during the helping process.

In such cases the worker’s authority is more pronounced. The worker has to be fair and

compassionate in exercising authority. In this way, it could be atherapeutic experience for

the client, who likely associates authority with abuse and exploitation.



Using authority in a therapeutic way involves:

showing warmth, understanding, and support to the client

demonstrating a non-threatening and non-coercive attitude

helping the client to see that you are reasonable

clarifying your roles and functions, and also your expectations of client

being sensitive

Also take into consideration the following:

how the client may feel

reveal truthful information about why he/she is involved with your agency when

you first meet with the client

explain the role of confidentiality – if you have to prepare a report for the court, the

client has a right to know

inform the client of the adverse consequences that may occur if he/she refuses toconform

be prepared to encounter hostility, anger, shame, embarrassment and other

defensive reactions

allow client as much self-determination as possible within the legal limits

XII. ENGAGING THE HARD-TO-REACH CLIENT

The worker is required to build a relationship with a client who is distrustful and reluctant to

become involved in the helping process.

It is hard to build a relationship with thehard-to-reach client. Many of these individuals are

socially isolated, fearful and distrustful. Many are distrustful due to past life experiences.

Many have mental disorders and are uncomfortable with interpersonal relationships. The

greatest challenge with working with the hard-to-reach client is to break through his/her

mistrust.

Guidelines to follow when working with hard-to-reach clients



Be prepared to tolerate a great deal of testing behaviours.

Be patient when progress is slow

Be tactful with these clients as their feelings are easily hurt and they can be

supersensitive at the hint of rejection. Do not do anything that can be

interpreted as criticism

Remember that first impressions last, and that these clients form quick

judgements which are most often negative

You may have to do many things for the client in the early stages, before you

can actually begin to do things with the client. For a while this may feed the

client’s dependency needs, but this is okay as it is saying to the client it is “safe

to open up.”

Encourage frequent contact with client. This demonstrates the worker’s on-

going concern for the client

Explain to the client that his/her decision not to discuss a topic is respected and

that you will not discuss them. However, try and engage client in a discussion as

to why some topics are difficult to discuss and why people want to withhold and

protect certain information

Be willing to use unconventional methods to engage with clients

XIII. RESPONDING TO THE MANIPULATIVE CLIENT

Social workers need to be able to identify these characters or characteristics in individualswho are manipulative.

Many manipulators are called sociopaths, psychopaths or described as having anti-social

personality disorders. Many have a history of criminal activities; they lack social conscience

and show no remorse or guilt. They lack empathy and are unable to appreciate the feelings

of others. They are smooth talkers, superficial, grandiose in thinking, and shallow in

emotions, impulsive, have a strong need for excitement and risk –taking.



Guidelines for working with the manipulative client

Be respectful as with any other client

Be direct and cautious when dealing with them

Be clear about your roles and functions – what you can and can’t do as a

professional

Outline clearly your expectations of the individual

Demonstrate firmness and strength of conviction

Become suspicious when the client takes an inordinate interest in your personal life

or your feelings about your job

Become suspicious when the client begins to say “you are the only person who

understands me”’ “if you could just do this one thing for me,” “how your husband

must love you.”

Consult with your peer or superior if you suspect that you are being drawn into a

manipulation. Discuss the issue with other team members, often you will find that

the client has given each member a different story

Examine your actions and feelings

Inform your client that you do not want him/her to lie to you. Sometimes

confrontation works, but one has to be careful.

Take careful note of the client’s body language

XIV. RESPONDING TO THE DANGEROUS CLIENT/SITUATION

To respond to a potentially violent client or a dangerous situation in a manner that reduces

the risk of being harmed.

At times the practice of social work places the worker in danger. According to the NASW

Workforce Study of licensed social workers, 2006 workers in criminal justice, child welfare,



and the addiction field were considerably more likely to experience dangerous situations

than workers in other areas of practice (, p. 224).

It is not surprising that workers dealing with clients experiencing high levels of distress will

at times face problems of workplace safety. A social worker may also encounter various bio-

hazardous materials in health care facilities and possibly during visits to clients’ homes.

To minimize the risk of being injured, the social worker should adhere to the following

guidelines:

1. Never enter a potentially dangerous situation without first consulting with others about

your plans.

2. A history of violent behaviour is the best predictor of future violence. Statistically

speaking, an individual with one or more of the following characteristics and life

experiences is more likely to commit the following acts:

a) has a history of committing violent acts

b) is violent when under the influence of alcohol or abuse

c) is/was the target of family violence during childhood

d) is/was the target of violence in his/her community

e) has been publicly humiliated

f) is part of a violent peer group

g) is experiencing a high level of stress

h) is a male teen or a young adult

i) has experienced a traumatic brain injury

3. The office/meeting room where the social worker will encounter a dangerous clientshould be set up so the worker has quick and easy access to the door or another escape

route. The room should also be clear of items that could easily be grabbed and used as

a weapon (letter openers, staplers, paper weight...)

4. An agency’s recordkeeping system should use some method of f lagging the case record

of a dangerous client so the social worker who is to meet the client for the first time can

take appropriate precautions. In addition, the agency should have a pre-established

emergency communication code so all staff will recognise a disguised request for

assistance.

5. When making a home visit that could develop into a dangerous situation, keep your

office informed of your itinerary and check in by phone according to a pre-arranged

schedule. Before entering a home/building, take a few seconds to look around and

think about your safety. (Are you alone?; Where are the escape routes?)

6. Never move through a doorway as a response to an invitation to “come in” unless you

can see the person who is speaking and he/she has seen you. When entering a room



containing a hostile person, move in slowly. Remain on the periphery until you can

assess the situation, and then move in slowly. Do not move into the person’s space.

Intrusive movements may trigger violent behaviour.

7. Be alert to anything about the situation that feels/looks unusual or out of place. We all

possess an unconscious danger detector. Thus, trust your gut feelings. If you feelafraid, assume that you are in danger, even if you cannot pinpoint why you are feeling

this way.

8. Most people who are angry will vent for 2-3 minutes then begin to calm down.

However, some individuals are further stimulated and aggravated by what they are

saying and thinking. If an angry individual is not calming down after a few minutes,

assume that the situation has become more dangerous.

9. Do not touch an angry person; do nothing that could be interpreted as threatening. If

possible, sit rather than stand, because sitting is a less aggressive stance. Also

encourage the client to sit, as it usually has a calming effect. However avoid sitting in an

overstuffed chair or sofa because it can be difficult to rapidly get up and out of a well-

cushioned chair. Avoid sitting on a cushioned chair or sofa, because it may contain a

needle left over from a drug injection. Pick a hard, moveable chair that can be used for

protection if you are attacked.

10. Be alert to signs of imminent attack, such as flaring nostrils, rapid breathing, dilated

pupils, pulsing veins, grinding teeth, pointing fingers, clenching fists, choppy movements

and speech, crouching upper body, and bobbing or dipping movements of the body. Do

not turn your back to an angry or distraught person or let that person walk behind you.

If the danger level of the situation escalates, leave.

11. When in the home of a potentially violent person, be alert to the fact that guns are

usually kept in the bedroom and that the kitchen contains numerous potential weapons.

If the person has threatened you and then moves quickly to one of these rooms, leave

immediately.



REFERENCES

Compton, B. et al. (2005). Social Work Processes: Ca. Brooks/Cole

Farley, William O. et al. (2006). Introduction to Social Work: Ma: Allyn and

Bacon

Fox, R. &GutheilI. A. (2000).Process recording: a means for conceptualizing

and evaluating practice:

Johnson, Louise C. and Yanca, Stephen J. (2004). Social Work Practice: A

Generalist Approach: MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Payne, M. (1997).

Toseland, R. W. & Rivas, R. F. (2011). An Introduction to Group Work Practice.

New York: Allyn and Bacon

Journal of teaching in social work, vol.20, 1, 2, 39-55.

http://www.vcu.edu/slwweb/currentstudents/fieldinstruction/processrecording

.html

http://www.vcu.edu/slwweb/currentstudents/fieldinstruction/processrecording.html







Date post:	14-Apr-2018
Category:	Documents
Upload:	gabrielle-katt
View:	226 times
Download:	0 times

Social Work Theory and Practice i

Documents