Sociological Perspectives onSociological Perspectives onEnvironmental ProblemsEnvironmental Problemsand Commons Dilemmas)and Commons Dilemmas)
Overview
• What is Sociology?
• What is Environmental Sociology?
• What are some examples of research byenvironmental sociologists?
Official Definition of the American Sociological Association:Sociology is the study of social life, social change, and thesocial causes and consequences of human behavior.
What is Sociology?What is Sociology?
Sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations,and societies, and how people interact within these contexts.Since all human behavior is social, the subject matter ofsociology ranges from the intimate family to the hostile mob;from organized crime to religious cults; from the divisions ofrace, gender and social class to the shared beliefs of acommon culture; and from the sociology of work to thesociology of sports.
WHATWHAT’’S MISSING?????S MISSING?????
What is Environmental Sociology?What is Environmental Sociology?
Environmental Sociology’s Three Primary Concerns:
1. What are the social causes of environmental changes?
2. How might humans halt these changes?
3. What are the possible social impacts of theenvironmental changes caused by humans?(What are the social impacts of proposed solutions to theenvironmental changes caused by humans?)
“The study of interaction between the environment and society.”
Catton, W. and R. Dunlap. 1978. “Environmental Sociology: A NewParadigm.” The American Sociologist 13: 41-49.
What are the social causes ofWhat are the social causes ofenvironmental changes?environmental changes?
Technology vs. Population
P E
O
T
P=Population
O=Social Organization
E=Environment
T=Technology
Environmental sociologists have attempted to movebeyond this simplistic duality…
I = (P) X (A) X (T)I = (P) X (A) X (T)I = the environmental impact a society has
P = Population
A = Affluence (e.g., per capita income)
T = Technology
Criticisms of this model include:
1. Assumes simple linear relationship
2. Simplifies (and perhaps overemphasizes) social organizationas “affluence”
One solution has been to conceptualize “social organization” morespecifically as including cultural, social and personality “systems”
What is Social Organization?What is Social Organization?•Power: the ability to impose one’s will on another (moresubtly…influence over other’s choices)
•Social Context: the system of meanings, and availablestrategies for communicating meanings, within a givensituation
•Social Values: Beliefs and ideas about what is good,right, or beautiful that are held collectively by members ofa social group
Other aspects of social organization: stratification (i.e., systemsof inequality), social structure, education, traditions, beliefs,myths, production of knowledge, and more
How might humansHow might humanshalt environmental changes?halt environmental changes?
Society’s technological bias has focused on three types of solutions:
1. Use of more technology to “fix” the problems (e.g., newtechnologies to find new sources of oil)
2. Appropriate technology (e.g., solar, hydro, geothermalor other renewable energy sources to meet energydemands)
3. Technological simplification or “atavism” (e.g.,abandoning harmful technologies and returning to“simpler” times)
Non-technological FixesNon-technological Fixes1. Cognitive (or knowledge) fix…“Give people the right
information and they’ll change their behavior”PROBLEMS: A-B split, structural obstacles, attribution ofresponsibility
2. Structural (or legislative) fix…“Give people no choice bymandating certain behaviors”PROBLEMS: lack of political power or will, unintendedconsequences
3. Behavioral fix…“Reward people for the ‘correct’ behavior”PROBLEMS: consumers aren’t always rational, inequitabledistribution of impacts
Which works best?A combination of all three…and social scientists can help predictthe best balance (but first we need to know the problem and itscauses)
What are the social impactsWhat are the social impactsand/or their possible solutions?and/or their possible solutions?
Environmental sociologists have tended to focus on thedistributional impacts of environmental changes.Extensive evidence of inequitable distribution has beenobserved over the last 15 years, a driving force of theEnvironmental Justice movement.
Our original model,at left, has no arrows
leading away from‘E,’ as does themodel at right.
P E
O
T
SOCIAL CAUSES OF…
P E
O
T
SOCIAL IMPACTS FROM…
Distributional Impacts ofDistributional Impacts ofClimate Change PoliciesClimate Change Policies
…… a ton of CO2 reduced in a ton of CO2 reduced inAfrica has the same impactAfrica has the same impact…… as a ton of CO2 reduced as a ton of CO2 reducedin Minneapolis. Butin Minneapolis. But ……[r]educing carbon[r]educing carbonemissioemissions invariably alsons invariably alsoreduces toxics reduces toxics …… like lead like leador mercury. An urban-or mercury. An urban-based coal fired powerbased coal fired powerplant that offsets its CO2plant that offsets its CO2emissions by helping toemissions by helping toplant treeplant trees in Africas in Africacontinues continues to emitto emitpollutants that adverselypollutants that adverselyaffect the health of localaffect the health of localresidents.residents.
Using $10 per ton of CO2Using $10 per ton of CO2as the average offset priceas the average offset price(current prices are as low(current prices are as lowas $3 per ton), the U.S.,as $3 per ton), the U.S.,which generates about 20which generates about 20percent of the world'spercent of the world'sgreenhouse gases, couldgreenhouse gases, couldbuy complete absolutionbuy complete absolutionfor about $50 billion afor about $50 billion ayear. For that price ityear. For that price itwould announce to thewould announce to theworld world …… that we are not that we are notresponsible for any netresponsible for any netnew greenhouse gases.new greenhouse gases.The cost is less than halfThe cost is less than halfthe annual spending on thethe annual spending on thewar in Iraq.war in Iraq.
Environmental SociologyEnvironmental SociologyResearchResearch
Social causes of environmental change
Macro-level TheoriesTreadmill of ProductionRisk Society
Micro-level analysesSocial traditions, routines, practices,behavioral motivation
EXAMPLE: What one daily activity of individualsconsumes more water than any other?
ShoweringShoweringthat focus on resource use alone, including injunctions touse less water, fail to appreciate the bigger picture -namely the longer-term transformation of normal practice.Technologically grounded efforts (like the design andpromotion of low flow showerheads) have to beunderstood and situated in this wider context.
Significant factorsPiped water and private bathsElectrification and instant hot waterHygieneTransformation of body as site of self-representation
What to conclude aboutWhat to conclude aboutshoweringshowering……
…it should by now be clear that the quantities of energy andwater consumed by those who shower are more significantlyaffected by the nature of showering as a practice than byindividual environmental commitments. In the longer run, whatmatters is how the practice of showering is defined andconceptualised. The case of showering indicates that by focusingexclusively on the resources involved - that is on energy andwater - policy makers have failed to pay anything like enoughattention to the services and practices that their consumptionmakes possible. In environmental terms, the challenge is to avertthe normalisation of distinctively resource intensive combinationsof technology and convention - not to promote efficiency as anend in its own right.
Environmental SociologyEnvironmental SociologyResearchResearch
Ways of Halting Social Causes of Environmental Change
Macro-level TheoriesEcological Modernization
Micro-level AnalysesBehavior change research (e.g., recycling)
What would it take to get peopleto recycle?
Environmental SociologyEnvironmental SociologyResearchResearch
Macro-level AnalysesEnvironmental Justice research
Micro-level AnalysesCommunity and Family impacts of contaminationEnvironmental illness experience
Social Impacts of Environmental Changes
