SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS

RESEARCH METHODS Research Methods

Approaches to inquiry

Used to describe, explore, and explain social reality

Quantitative Methods Used to collect numerical information or information

that can be converted into numerical data

Qualitative Methods Used to collect information that is not readily

convertible into numerical data

THE BASIC WHEEL OF SCIENCE

Theory

Hypothesis

Observation

Conclusion

Deduction

Induction

RESEARCH PROCESS: STAGE 1-ABSTRACT THOUGHT DEVELOPMENT

Theory Testing OR

Theory Developmen

t

Idea

INDUCTIVE INQUIRYQuestion

About Social Reality

Observation

Concept

Concept

THEORY

DEDUCTIVE INQUIRYQuestion

About Social Reality

Concept

Concept

THEORY

HYPOTHESISIndependent Variable (X) Dependent Variable

(Y)Intervening Variable (Z)

THEORIES AND HYPOTHESES Theory

Statement explaining the relationship between phenomena of interest

Hypothesis Testable expectation about the relationship

between phenomena of interest

CONCEPTS AND VARIABLES Concepts

Imprecise mental abstractions of phenomena Concepts are the building block of theories

(Babbie 2013) Variables

Concepts comprised of at least two measurable categories

EXAMPLES OF COMMON VARIABLES IN SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH Demographic Characteristics

Race/ethnicity Gender

Socioeconomic Status Income/Assets Education

Other Variables Perceived Discrimination Social Isolation

RESEARCH PROCESS: STAGE 2-PLANNING

Research Method

Specify Concepts/Variable

s

Operationalization

Population/Sample

COMMON RESEARCH TOOLS Surveys

Face-to-Face

Mail

Telephone

Internet

Qualitative Field Research In-Depth Interviews

Ethnography

Participant Observation

ADDITIONAL RESEARCH TOOLS Content Analysis Experiments Historical Research Evaluation Research

OPERATIONALIZATION Operationalization

Operationalization is the process where we specify how we will measure concepts of interest unambiguously

Example of operationalization We will measure education with four mutually

exclusive categories LESS THAN HIGH SCHOOL

HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATE / GED

SOME COLLEGE

COLLEGE GRADUATE OR HIGHER

RESEARCH PROCESS: STAGE 3-DATA COLLECTION, ANALYSIS, AND DISSEMINATION

Data Collectio

n

Data Processin

gAnalysis Reporting

GATHERING DATA Establish Population of Interest Primary vs. Secondary Data Sampling technique (primary data

collection)

POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES Population

Entire collection of units of interest

E.g., All adults in the United States

Sample A subset of units from our population of interest

E.g., 2,000 adults in the United States

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:NONRANDOM SAMPLING Nonrandom Sampling

Can be used naively to get an easy sample

Used more appropriately in qualitative research

Provides one with good informants

More attention on detailed data than generalizable data

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:RANDOM SAMPLING Random Sampling

Random means that samples are selected according to chance, not personal judgment

Generally used in quantitative research

Intended to provide a representative sample

QUALITATIVE DATA PROCESSING/ ANALYSES Transcription Coding and Memoing Finding Patterns in the Data Summarizing

STATISTICAL ANALYSES Statistic

Numerical summary of a sample

Parameter

Numerical summary of a population

STATISTICAL ANALYSES (CONT.) Descriptive Statistical Analyses

Analyses used to describe your sample

E.g., what is the average income in your sample of 2,000 adults in the United States?

Inferential Statistical Analyses

Analyses that uses information from the sample to make estimates about the population of interest

E.g., based on the sample data, what is the estimated average income of all adults in the United States?

STATISTICAL ANALYSES (CONT.) Univariate Statistics

Percentage and Rates

Averages

Multivariate Statistics Correlation

Regression Models

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY Reliability-Degree to which an instrument or

test yields similar results on repeated trials Reliability pertains to the consistency of results

Tells us that we are measuring something—not necessarily what we want though

Validity-Degree to which an instrument or test actually measures what we intend to measure

RELIABLE, BUT NOT VALID

RELIABLE AND VALID

NOT RELIABLE, NOT VALID

HYPOTHESIS TESTING Null Hypothesis-default position; assumed

to be true until proven otherwise Null hypothesis typically specifies that there is

no relationship between 2 or more phenomena

Alternative Hypothesis-The hypothesis for which we are trying to find support

Hypotheses are falsifiable, but never proven

3 CRITERIA FOR CAUSALITY Correlation

2 variables must be related in some way Time-Order

The causal mechanism must precede the effect in time

Non-Spuriousness Relationship between 2 variables cannot be

explained by some third variable

RESEARCH ETHICS Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval Informed Consent Debriefing after experiments DO NO HARM TO

PARTICIPANTS/SUBJECTS!