Und
erst
andi
ng o
f pla
nt-s
oil h
ealth
for
sust
aina
ble
bana
na p
rodu
ctio
nD
r. To
ny P
attis
on, T
egan
Kuk
ulie
s, W
ayne
O’N
eill
Dep
artm
ent o
f Agr
icul
ture
, Fis
herie
s &
For
estry
Que
ensl
and
Dr.
Agu
stin
Mol
ina
Bio
vers
ity In
tern
atio
nal
Out
line
Con
cept
sA
gric
ultu
re
Soi
l hea
lth m
odel
Indi
cato
rsS
oil f
unct
ions
Con
stra
ints
Man
agem
ent p
ract
ices
Exa
mpl
esE
xam
ple
1: S
oil a
men
dmen
tsE
xam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on
Indu
stria
l agr
icul
ture
•E
ase
of m
anag
emen
t im
porta
nt
•M
onoc
ultu
res
•C
rops
and
cul
tivar
s se
lect
ed
for m
arke
ts•
Inte
nsiv
e in
puts
Subs
iste
nce
agric
ultu
re•
Man
agem
ent c
ompl
ex•
Div
ersi
ty o
f cro
ps•
Cro
ps a
nd c
ultiv
ars
sele
cted
fo
r tas
te a
nd re
plan
ting
•Lo
w in
put
Agr
icul
ture
pro
duct
ion
char
acte
ristic
s
Wha
t is
cons
trai
ning
ban
ana
prod
uctio
n?
Potential production
Actual production
Mod
el fo
r soi
l hea
lth
Soil
indi
cato
rs•P
hysi
cal
•Che
mic
al•B
iolo
gica
l
Soil
func
tions
•Stru
ctur
al•N
utrit
iona
l•H
ydro
logi
cal
•Pat
holo
gica
l•T
oxic
olog
ical
Con
stra
ints
•Inh
eren
t•I
nduc
edEn
viro
-impa
ct•N
utrie
nt lo
ss•S
edim
ent l
oss
•Che
mic
al lo
ss
Prod
uctio
n•Y
ield
•Eco
nom
ics
•Dis
ease
Man
agem
ent
•Soi
l•P
lant
Mod
el fo
r soi
l hea
lth
Soil
indi
cato
rs•P
hysi
cal
•Che
mic
al•B
iolo
gica
l
Phy
sica
l soi
l hea
lth in
dica
tors
Inhe
rent
cons
train
ts Indu
ced
cons
train
ts
Che
mic
al s
oil h
ealth
indi
cato
rs
Bio
logi
cal s
oil h
ealth
indi
cato
rs
~800
mill
ion
bact
eria
Soil
biol
ogy
~800
,000
fung
al
form
ing
units
= ~
42 m
of
fung
al th
read
s (h
ypha
e)
Soil
biol
ogy
~8 m
illio
n ac
tinom
ycet
es(b
acte
ria w
ith th
read
s lik
e fu
ngi)
Soil
biol
ogy
Up
to ~
1,30
0 ne
mat
odes
Soil
biol
ogy
~137
mite
s
Soil
biol
ogy
~1 a
nt
Soil
biol
ogy
Soil
biol
ogy
indi
cato
rs
diag
nost
ic
Soi
l nem
atod
e co
mm
unity
stru
ctur
e
Soi
l bio
chem
ical
act
ivity
KM
nO4
redu
cabl
e C
Fluo
resc
ein
diac
etat
eβ-
gluc
osid
ase
Pred
atory
nem
atode
Plan
t-par
asitic
nem
atode
Fungal
-fee
din
g n
emat
ode
Bac
terial
-fee
din
g n
emat
ode
Soil
biol
ogy
indi
cato
rs
expl
anat
ory
Mol
ecul
ar m
etho
dse.
g. T
RFL
P,
454
pyro
sequ
enci
ng
Trad
ition
al m
etho
dse.
g. S
elec
tive
med
ia
Phys
iolo
gica
l pro
filin
ge.
g. B
iolo
g ec
opla
tes
Mod
el fo
r soi
l hea
lth
Soil
indi
cato
rs•P
hysi
cal
•Che
mic
al•B
iolo
gica
l
Soil
func
tions
•Stru
ctur
al•N
utrit
iona
l•H
ydro
logi
cal
•Pat
holo
gica
l•T
oxic
olog
ical
Soil
heal
th fu
nctio
nsA
gric
ultu
ral s
oil f
unct
ions
Soi
l stru
ctur
alst
abili
tyS
tore
&
Rec
ycle
nut
rient
sSto
re
wat
erS
oil
biod
iver
sity
Ecos
yste
m s
oil f
unct
ions
Rem
ove
toxi
ns a
nd
heav
y m
etal
sReg
ulat
e gr
een
hous
e ga
ses
Sup
port
plan
t gr
owth
Sup
ply
nutri
ents
Sup
ply
wat
erS
uppr
ess
pest
s &
dis
ease
Filte
r tox
ins
Agr
icul
tura
l soi
l fun
ctio
ns =
pro
duct
ion
Soi
l stru
ctur
alst
abili
tyS
tore
&
Rec
ycle
nut
rient
sSto
re
wat
erS
oil
biod
iver
sity
Ecos
yste
m s
oil f
unct
ions
= E
nviro
-impa
ct
Rem
ove
toxi
ns a
nd
heav
y m
etal
sReg
ulat
e gr
een
hous
e ga
ses
Sup
port
plan
t gr
owth
Sup
ply
nutri
ents
Sup
ply
wat
erS
uppr
ess
pest
s &
dis
ease
Filte
r tox
ins
Link
ing
soil
indi
cato
rs w
ith s
oil f
unct
ions
Soil
heal
th in
dica
tors
Phy
sica
lC
hem
ical
Bio
logi
cal
Soil
func
tions
Out
puts
Stru
ctur
eN
utrit
ion
Wat
erP
ests
&
dise
ase
Toxi
nsG
HG
Pro
duct
ion
Env
iro-
impa
ct·B
ulk
dens
ity‚
Div
ersi
ty·
Par
asite
s·
Nitr
ate-
N‚
Org
anic
C
Link
ing
soil
indi
cato
rs w
ith s
oil f
unct
ions
Soil
heal
th in
dica
tors
Phy
sica
lC
hem
ical
Bio
logi
cal
Soil
func
tions
Out
puts
Stru
ctur
eN
utrit
ion
Wat
erP
ests
&
dise
ase
Toxi
nsG
HG
Prod
uctio
n
Envi
ro-
impa
ct
·N
itrat
e-N‚
Org
anic
C‚
Div
ersi
ty·
Par
asite
s·
Bul
k de
nsity
Goo
dC
autio
nC
onst
rain
ed
Com
mon
indu
ced
bana
na s
oil c
onst
rain
tsC
ause
Prod
uctio
nEn
viro
-impa
ct
Com
pact
ion
Res
trict
s ro
ots
Poo
r aer
atio
nW
ater
logg
ing
Ero
sion
Tilla
geE
cono
mic
Low
org
anic
CE
rosi
onN
utrie
nt o
veru
seN
utrie
nt im
bala
nce
Aci
dific
atio
nE
cono
mic
N le
achi
ngP
loss
Aci
dific
atio
nLo
w b
iodi
vers
ityP
ests
& p
atho
gens
Poo
r dis
ease
su
ppre
ssio
nP
oor n
utrie
nt re
cycl
ing
Pest
icid
e us
eE
cono
mic
Red
uced
bio
dive
rsity
Mod
el fo
r soi
l hea
lth
Soil
indi
cato
rs•P
hysi
cal
•Che
mic
al•B
iolo
gica
l
Soil
func
tions
•Stru
ctur
al•N
utrit
iona
l•H
ydro
logi
cal
•Pat
holo
gica
l•T
oxic
olog
ical
Con
stra
ints
•Inh
eren
t•I
nduc
edEn
viro
-impa
ct•N
utrie
nt lo
ss•S
edim
ent l
oss
•Che
mic
al lo
ss
Prod
uctio
n•Y
ield
•Eco
nom
ics
•Dis
ease
Man
agem
ent
•Soi
l•P
lant
Link
ing
man
agem
ent w
ith s
oil f
unct
ions
Pra
ctic
eS
oil F
unct
ions
Pro
duct
ion
Env
iro-im
pact
Structure
Nutrition
Water
Disease
Toxin
Structure
Nutrition
Water
Disease
Toxin
GHG
Pre
-pl
ant
Tilla
geFa
llow
cro
pO
rgan
ic a
men
dmen
tP
ost-
plan
tFe
rtilis
erIn
sect
icid
eH
erbi
cide
Bio
ferti
liser
Org
anic
am
endm
ent
Cov
er c
rop
Pos
itive
Cau
tion
Uns
ure
or n
o ef
fect
Exam
ple
1: S
oil a
men
dmen
ts in
ban
anas
•C
onst
rain
ts:
–In
here
nt:d
erm
osol
(28%
san
d, 4
2% s
ilt, 3
0% c
lay)
–
Indu
ced:
com
pact
ion,
poo
r dra
inag
e, w
eak
aggr
egat
e st
abili
ty, l
ow
orga
nic
C, l
ow s
oil b
iolo
gica
l div
ersi
ty.
•Pr
actic
es:
–A
men
dmen
ts:
•M
ill a
sh•
Mill
mud
•C
ompo
st•
Org
anic
mat
ter
•U
ntre
ated
/ ba
re
•In
dica
tors
–A
gron
omic
: Bun
ch s
ize
–Ph
ysic
al:b
ulk
dens
ity, i
nfilt
ratio
n, a
ggre
gate
sta
bilit
y–
Che
mic
al:p
H, E
C, L
abile
C–
Bio
logi
cal:
Nem
atod
e co
mm
unity
Exam
ple
1: S
oil a
men
dmen
ts in
ban
anas
Bar
e so
il
Finger number per bunch Ex
ampl
e 1:
Soi
l am
endm
ents
in b
anan
asA
gron
omic
mea
sure
men
ts: B
anan
a bu
nch
size
Exam
ple
1: S
oil a
men
dmen
ts in
ban
anas
Bulk density (g cm3)
Infiltration (cm/min)
•M
ill a
sh a
nd o
rgan
ic m
atte
r had
sig
nific
antly
lo
wer
bul
k de
nsity
rela
tive
to u
ntre
ated
soi
l.•
Mill
ash
had
sig
nific
antly
incr
ease
d w
ater
in
filtra
tion
rela
tive
to u
ntre
ated
soi
l.
Bul
k de
nsity
Infil
trat
ion
Exam
ple
1: S
oil a
men
dmen
ts in
ban
anas
Labi
le C
con
tent
in s
oils
300
400
500
600
700
800 Ju
n-03
Jan-
04A
ug-0
4Fe
b-05
Sep
-05
Mar
-06
Oct
-06
LabileC (mg/kg)
Dat
e
Mill
ash
Com
post
Org
anic
m
atte
r
Mill
mud
Unt
reat
ed
•A
ll tre
atm
ents
sig
nific
antly
incr
ease
d la
bile
C b
y th
e en
d of
the
expe
rimen
t.
Gra
ss
hay
+ tra
sh
Exam
ple
1: S
oil a
men
dmen
ts in
ban
anas
Pro
porti
on o
f nem
atod
es b
elon
ging
to tr
ophi
c gr
oups
at t
he te
rmin
atio
n of
the
expe
rimen
t.
Exam
ple
1: S
oil a
men
dmen
ts in
ban
anas
•1st
bana
na c
rop
prod
uctio
n w
as s
timul
ate
by “f
ast”
actin
g am
endm
ents
.
•2nd
bana
na c
rop
prod
uctio
n co
nstra
ints
wer
e m
aske
d by
hi
gh fe
rtilis
er a
pplic
atio
ns.
•3rd
bana
na c
rop
prod
uctio
n w
as g
reat
est b
y ov
erco
min
g ph
ysic
al s
oil c
onst
rain
ts.
•O
verc
omin
g ph
ysic
al c
onst
rain
ts a
lso
incr
ease
d th
e an
tago
nist
ic p
oten
tial o
f the
soi
l and
redu
ced
plan
t-pa
rasi
tic n
emat
odes
.
Exam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on
•C
onst
rain
ts:
–In
here
nt:F
erro
sol (
49%
san
d, 2
6% s
ilt, 2
5% c
lay)
–
Indu
ced:
com
pact
ion,
low
CE
C, a
cidi
ty, l
ow s
oil
biol
ogic
al d
iver
sity
, Fus
ariu
mw
ilt.
•Pr
actic
es:
–R
educ
tion
in in
ocul
um–
Incr
ease
d pl
ant t
oler
ance
/ re
duce
d pl
ant s
tress
–In
crea
sed
anta
goni
stic
org
anis
ms
•In
dica
tors
–A
gron
omic
: Bun
ch w
eigh
t, bu
nche
s ha
rves
ted
–Ph
ysic
al:b
ulk
dens
ity, i
nfilt
ratio
n, a
ggre
gate
st
abili
ty–
Che
mic
al:p
H, E
C, L
abile
C, a
vaila
ble
nutri
ents
–B
iolo
gica
l:N
emat
ode
com
mun
ity, s
oil e
nzym
e ac
tivity
Dis
ease
sup
pres
sion
In s
pite
of t
he p
rese
nce
of a
pat
hoge
n an
d su
scep
tible
hos
t, di
seas
e do
es n
ot o
ccur
.
Gen
eral
sup
pres
sion
The
capa
city
of t
he to
tal m
icro
bial
bi
omas
s to
sup
pres
s gr
owth
or a
ctiv
ity o
f pa
thog
ens
e.g.
dis
ease
sup
pres
sive
com
post
in
som
e cr
ops.
Spe
cific
sup
pres
sion
Dep
ends
on
a si
ngle
org
anis
m w
ith th
e ab
ility
to a
ntag
onis
e a
spec
ific
path
ogen
e.g.
Tric
hode
rma
sp.
Exam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on
Soil
ecol
ogy
fact
s•
1-10
% o
f soi
l bac
teria
are
cul
tivab
le. “
the
grea
t pla
te
anom
aly”
,(A
man
n et
al 1
995)
•Th
e zo
ne w
ith o
ne o
f the
hig
hest
con
cent
ratio
ns o
f
bact
eria
in th
e so
il is
aro
und
the
root
s. T
he
rhiz
osph
ere.
(Doo
rnbo
s et
al 1
995)
•30
-40%
of t
he c
arbo
n fix
ed b
y pl
ants
for t
he
atm
osph
ere
thro
ugh
phot
osyn
thes
is le
aks
thro
ugh
the
root
s. (B
ais
et a
l 200
6).
•U
p to
35%
of t
he s
oil o
rgan
ism
s sh
owed
ant
agon
istic
capa
city
to in
hibi
t gro
wth
of p
atho
gens
in v
itro
(Ber
g e
t al
2002
, 200
6)
•S
uppr
essi
on =
ƒ (E
nviro
nmen
t + M
anag
emen
t (so
il +
crop
)
Env
ironm
ent
Cro
pm
anag
emen
t
Soi
l m
anag
emen
t
Sup
pres
sion
Exam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on
Man
agem
ent o
ptio
ns a
nd p
ract
ices
Res
earc
hFo
cus
Bro
ad fo
cus
on
gene
ral s
uppr
essi
on
Spe
cific
supp
ress
ion
•Indi
cato
rs o
f dis
ease
sup
pres
sion
•Dia
gnos
tic s
oil h
ealth
indi
cato
rs
•Exp
lana
tory
soi
l hea
lth in
dica
tors
•Iden
tific
atio
n of
sup
pres
sive
mec
hani
sm
Time & investment of research
Exam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on
Trea
tmen
tPr
actic
eA
aspi
ratio
nal
B best
Cco
nven
tiona
lD
dele
terio
us
Rem
oval
of c
rop
resi
due
XX
Pla
nt d
efen
ce a
ctiv
atio
n ch
emic
alX
Pla
nt g
row
th re
gula
tor
X
De-
suck
erin
g (m
onth
ly)
XX
Pot
assi
um s
ilica
XX
Folia
r fer
tilis
ing
(May
-Aug
ust)
XX
Inte
rpla
nt g
roun
d co
ver
XX
Bar
e in
terp
lant
spa
ceX
X
Add
ition
al N
as
chic
ken
man
ure
X
Soilmanagement
Plantmanagement
Hygiene
Exam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on
Exam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on
Man
agem
ent o
ptio
ns a
nd p
ract
ices
•Indi
cato
rs o
f dis
ease
sup
pres
sion
•Dia
gnos
tic in
dica
tors
•Exp
lana
tory
indi
cato
rs
•Iden
tific
atio
n of
ant
agon
ists
Res
earc
hFo
cus
Bro
ad fo
cus
on
gene
ral s
uppr
essi
on
Spe
cific
supp
ress
ion
Time & investment of research
Exam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on
Rating
Descri
ption
1Pla
nt
show
ing n
o s
ym
pto
ms o
r yellow
ing
2Pla
nt
show
ing s
light
str
eakin
g a
nd /
or
yellow
ing o
f lo
wer
leaves
3Pla
nt
show
ing s
treakin
g a
nd/o
r yellow
ing o
f m
ajo
rity
of
low
er
leaves
and/o
r som
e s
ym
pto
ms o
n y
ounger
leaves
4Pla
nt
show
ing e
xte
nsiv
e s
treakin
g
and/o
r yellow
ing o
f m
ost
or
all o
f th
e
leaves.
5M
oth
er
pla
nt
dead s
ucker
alive
6M
oth
er
pla
nt
and s
ucker
dead
Exam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on
Exam
ple
2: E
xter
nal s
ympt
oms
Foc symptoms (1-6) Plants showing symptoms (%)R
atin
g 1-
6
Pla
nts
show
ing
sym
ptom
s (%
)
Rating
Descri
ption
1�
o v
ascula
r dis
colo
ration in p
seudoste
m
2�
sola
ted p
oin
ts o
f dis
colo
ration in
vascula
r tissue o
f th
e p
seudoste
m
3D
iscolo
ration o
f up t
o o
ne
�th
ird o
f vascula
r tissue o
f th
e p
seudoste
m
4D
iscolo
ration o
f �
etw
een o
ne�
thir
d a
nd
two t
hir
ds o
f th
e v
ascula
r tissue o
f th
e
pseudoste
m
5D
iscolo
ration o
f gre
ate
r th
an t
wo
�th
irds
and o
f vascula
r tissue o
f th
e p
seudoste
m
6�
ota
l dis
colo
ration o
f vascula
r tissue o
f th
e p
seudoste
m
Exam
ple
2: In
tern
al s
ympt
oms
Pseudostem rating (1-6)
Exam
ple
2: In
tern
al s
ympt
oms
Exam
ple
2: B
anan
a pr
oduc
tion
Bun
ches
pro
duce
d (%
)B
unch
wei
ght (
kg)
0.0
100.
0
200.
0
300.
0
400.
0
2011
-11-
0320
11-1
2-23
2012
-02-
1120
12-0
4-01
2012
-05-
2120
12-0
7-10
2012
-08-
2920
12-1
0-18
Cumulative bunch weights (kg)
Har
vest
dat
e
A B C D
Cum
ulat
ive
bunc
h ha
rves
t (kg
)
Bunches produced (%)
Bunch weigh (kg)
Man
agem
ent o
ptio
ns a
nd p
ract
ices
•Indi
cato
rs o
f dis
ease
sup
pres
sion
•Dia
gnos
tic in
dica
tors
•Exp
lana
tory
indi
cato
rs
•Iden
tific
atio
n of
ant
agon
ists
Res
earc
hFo
cus
Bro
ad fo
cus
on
gene
ral s
uppr
essi
on
Spe
cific
supp
ress
ion
Time & investment of research
Exam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on
Mic
robi
al a
ctiv
ity Bac
teria
l -fu
ngal
ratio
Cel
lulo
se d
egra
datio
n
Exam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on
Man
agem
ent o
ptio
ns a
nd p
ract
ices
•Indi
cato
rs o
f dis
ease
sup
pres
sion
•Dia
gnos
tic in
dica
tors
•Exp
lana
tory
indi
cato
rs
•Iden
tific
atio
n of
ant
agon
ists
Res
earc
hFo
cus
Bro
ad fo
cus
on
gene
ral s
uppr
essi
on
Spe
cific
supp
ress
ion
Time & investment of research
Exam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on
Exam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on
Bio
log
Phys
iolo
gica
l Mic
robi
al C
omm
unity
Pro
filin
g
Exam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on
Bio
log
Phys
iolo
gica
l Mic
robi
al C
omm
unity
Pro
filin
gD
iscr
imin
ant a
naly
sis
Exam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on -
L-ar
gini
ne
Upper asymptote
Exam
ple
2: D
isea
se s
uppr
essi
on -
Cor
rela
tion
L-ar
gini
ne v
ext
erna
l sym
ptom
sExternal symptoms (1-6)
Mod
el fo
r soi
l hea
lth
Soil
indi
cato
rs•P
hysi
cal
•Che
mic
al•B
iolo
gica
l
Soil
func
tions
•Stru
ctur
al•N
utrit
iona
l•H
ydro
logi
cal
•Pat
holo
gica
l•T
oxic
olog
ical
Con
stra
ints
•Inh
eren
t•I
nduc
edEn
viro
-impa
ct•N
utrie
nt lo
ss•S
edim
ent l
oss
•Che
mic
al lo
ss
Prod
uctio
n•Y
ield
•Eco
nom
ics
•Dis
ease
Man
agem
ent
•Soi
l•P
lant
Con
clus
ion
•S
oil h
ealth
can
be
used
to im
prov
e ba
nana
pro
duct
ivity
an
d re
duce
the
envi
ro-im
pact
by
usin
g a
mod
el th
at li
nks
so
il in
dica
tors
, soi
l fun
ctio
ns, c
onst
rain
ts a
nd
man
agem
ent p
ract
ices
.
•Id
entif
ying
soi
l con
stra
ints
mea
ns th
at m
anag
emen
t pr
actic
es c
an b
e ta
rget
ed to
ove
rcom
e th
e lim
iting
fa
ctor
s an
d in
dica
tors
use
d to
ens
ure
desi
rabl
e ch
ange
s ar
e oc
curr
ing.
•S
uppr
essi
on o
f soi
l bor
ne d
isea
se, s
uch
as F
usar
ium
wilt
, can
be
achi
eved
by
over
com
ing
soil
cons
train
ts a
nd
shift
ing
the
soil
biol
ogy
to in
crea
se in
dige
nous
an
tago
nist
ic o
rgan
ism
s.
Ack
now
ledg
emen
ts
•C
o-au
thor
s•
Tega
n K
ukul
ies
•W
ayne
O’N
eill
•D
r. G
us M
olin
a•
Fund
ing
•A
CIA
R•
Que
ensl
and
Gov
ernm
ent
•A
ustra
lian
Ban
ana
Gro
wer
s A
ssoc
iatio
n•
Hor
ticul
ture
Aus
tralia
Ltd
•Tr
avel
•C
onfe
renc
e or
gani
sers
•B
iove
rsity
Inte
rnat
iona
l•
Taiw
an B
anan
a R
esea
rch
Inst
itute
Soil
heal
th in
tera
ctio
ns Solid
soil
par
ticl
es
Phys
ical
soil
pro
per
ties
Wat
er
Air s
pac
es
Phys
ical
soil
pro
per
ties
Wat
er
Air s
pac
es
Ca2
+
K+
Mg+
NO 3
-
NO 3
-
Mn+ Na+
Chem
ical
soil
pro
per
ties
Chem
ical
soil
pro
per
ties
Bio
logic
al s
oil
pro
per
ties
Fungal
hyp
hae
Mites
Nem
atodes
Pro
tozo
aBac
teria
Org
anic
mat
ter
Phys
ical
soi
l fun
ctio
ns•S
oil s
truct
ure
•Wat
er s
uppl
y
Che
mic
al s
oil
func
tions
•Nut
rient
av
aila
bilit
y
Bio
logi
cal s
oil f
unct
ions
•Pes
ts &
dis
ease
su
ppre
ssio
n•T
oxin
deg
rada
tion
Nor
mal
isin
g in
dica
tors
Constraint score
Constraint score
Constraint score
Con
stra
inin
g pr
oduc
tion
No
cons
train
ts o
n pr
oduc
tion
Agr
icul
tura
l pro
duct
ion
char
acte
ristic
s
e.g.
Ban
anas
e.g.
Whe
ate.
g. C
itrus
e.g.
Ban
anas
•In
duce
d an
d in
here
nt s
oil
cons
train
ts.
Phy
sica
l con
stra
ints
Link
ing
soil
indi
cato
rs w
ith s
oil f
unct
ions
Soil
heal
th in
dica
tors
Phy
sica
lC
hem
ical
Bio
logi
cal
Soi
l fun
ctio
nsS
truct
ure
Nut
ritio
nW
ater
Pes
ts &
di
seas
eTo
xins
GH
G
Pro
duct
ion
Env
iro-im
pact
Con
stra
ints
to h
ealth
y ba
nana
soi
lsB
anan
a pr
oduc
tion
in A
ustra
lia is
an
inte
nsiv
e, m
echa
nise
d in
dust
ry.
Agr
icul
tura
l soi
l eco
logy
Und
ecom
pose
d or
gani
c m
atte
r
CO
2 +
Pho
tosy
nthe
sis
Par
asiti
sm
Mut
ualis
m
Link
ing
soil
indi
cato
rs, f
unct
ions
& p
ract
ices
Soil
heal
th in
dica
tors
Phy
sica
lC
hem
ical
Bio
logi
cal
Soil
func
tions
Stru
ctur
eN
utrit
ion
Wat
erP
ests
&
dise
ase
Toxi
nsG
HG
Pro
duct
ion
Env
iro-im
pact
Man
agem
ent p
ract
ices
Soi
lP
lant
Am
endm
ents
, till
age,
veg
etat
ion
cove
r, fe
rtilis
er, p
estic
ides
