Date post: | 04-Jun-2018 |
Category: |
Documents |
Upload: | prabu-noenitz |
View: | 218 times |
Download: | 0 times |
of 37
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
1/37
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
EM306
THEMODYNAMIC II Group Research Assignment
Name ID Number Course
Prabu Gunasagaran 1001027982 Mechanical EngineeringNikthian Mony 1000820310 Mechanical EngineeringSyed Ali Mohsenian 1000923912 Mechanical Engineering
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
2/37
Table of Contents
No. Description Page1 Introduction 1
2 1.0 Thermodynamics properties used in the system
1.1 Thermodynamic Analysis of the Solar AbsorptionCooling system
1.1.2 Absorbents
1.1.3 Refrigerant-absorbent combinations
1.2 Adsorption Cooling Method
1.3 Desiccant cooling system
2 - 4
4 - 6
6
6
6 - 9
9 - 11
3 2.0 Specific Devices and availability in the market 11 - 17
4 3.0 Introduction to potential improvement 17 - 26
5 4.0 Potential to society, economic, geographic conditions, and
consideration for successful commercial implementation in
Malaysia
26 - 31
6 References 33 - 35
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
3/37
1
Introduction
Today, renewable energies supply 14% of the world primary energy demand. These
renewable energies include biomass, hydro and other renewables. Other renewables include solar,
wind, tidal, geothermal and wave energy and are approximately 1% of the world primary energydemand. However, the utilization of these other renewables is increasing faster (5.7% annually)
than other primary energy sources (International Energy Agency (IEA), 2004). Threats of climate
change, exhaustion of fossil fuels and the need for secure energy supply stimulate the utilization
of renewable energies. In short, today s global energy system is unsustainable in economic, social
and environmental terms. In the near term renewable energies may be a solution for the problems
mentioned above although they have some drawbacks.
This assignment project discusses on the feasibility, sustainability and potential ofimplementing the solar air conditioning for Malaysia. This assignment will cover the following
topics which are Use of thermodynamics principles for the system, specific devices, equipment in
market or in development, Potential improvements or alternatives available, potential to the social,
economic, and geographic condition in Malaysia and consideration for the successful commercial
introduction of solar air conditioning in Malaysia based on existing research journals and
development obtained from relevant and reliable sources.
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
4/37
2
1.0 Thermodynamics properties used in the system .
The first topic of coverage is on thermodynamics properties used in the system. The
demand for thermal air-conditioning is increasing the annual energy use of room air conditioner
was about 1.7 GW h in 1990 and is estimated to reach 44 GW h in 2010. Solar heating and air-
conditioning is one possible way to reduce building fossil fuel consumption and greenhouse gas
emission in low-energy buildings. Three technologies are available for solar heat-driven air-
conditioning which are absorption, adsorption and desiccant cooling. Among these technologies,
absorption is the most widely used with 59% of the installed systems in Europe against 11% for
adsorption and 23% for desiccant cooling.
Adsorption chillers have lower COP than absorption ones but can work at lower driving
temperature. Different heat-driven cooling technologies are available on the market at capacities
above 40 kW. However, the use of smaller scale systems in the residential/building sector implies
further research and development work as nearly none of the mentioned technologies is available
on the market at these small capacities.
There are many thermodynamic analysis that have been performed on this 3 forms of technologies.
The most widely researched method is the absorption system and this system is classified into 2
categories which is intermittent and continuous. Both of these types include four basic componentswhich are; generator, condenser, evaporator and absorber.
The intermittent type consist of two major operations which is the regeneration and refrigeration.
In the regeneration process, the refrigerant-absorbent solution is heated to drive the refrigerant
vapor off the solution. The necessary heat can be provided by the use of solar collectors (flat-plate,
cylindrical, or any other kind depending on the temperature range needed). Traveling from the
generator into the condenser, the refrigerant vapor is condensed and stored. Then, the refrigeration
process takes place during which the liquid refrigerant vaporizes and produces a cooling effect inthe evaporator, whereas the refrigerant vapor is re-absorbed by the absorbent (solvent) in the
absorber. These two operations occur one after another and the cooling effect is therefore
discontinuously produced and therefore the name intermittent. This method was the earlier
methods developed and was a less effective cooling method than the continuous cooling method
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
5/37
3
as air-conditioning is generally needed in a continuous fashion. Therefore, the continuous cooling
absorption cycle was developed.
In a continuous absorption cycle, refrigeration and regeneration processes; occur at the same time
and a continuous cooling effect is produced. The flow diagram is shown by Figure 1. Weather
conditions such as insulation ambient temperature are important factors in a solar heating and
cooling system design. Performance of solar systems may change during the day and be different
between a clear day and a cloudy day. Due to these factors and the lack of solar energy at night,
consideration of a storage unit for any continuous solar utilization system is essential. The solar
heat is added to the generator for the purpose of continuous vaporization of the refrigerant from
the solution. After the vapor refrigerant and the solar energy input to the collector refrigerant passes
through the condenser heat is removed from the refrigerant vapor and the pure refrigerant isliquefied. The liquid refrigerant then goes through an expansion valve into the evaporator wherein
cooling is achieved by continuous vaporization of the refrigerant at low temperature. The
vaporized refrigerant is then dissolved in the weak refrigerant-solvent solution present in the
absorber which forms a strong refrigerant solution. This rich solution is then pumped back into the
generator through a small liquid pump and the cycle continues. Since the recombination of the
refrigerant with the solvent in the absorber is exothermic, heat must be removed from the absorber
in order to maintain a sufficiently low temperature so that a high chemical affinity between the
refrigerant and the weak solution can be assured. For the operation of an absorption cycle, cooling
water (or air) used in the condenser and absorber should be at room temperature (or at any other
available heat sink temperature). The pressure in the absorber which is equivalent to the pressure
in the evaporator and the concentration of refrigerant in the absorber determine the temperature of
the absorber. For an ideal absorption cycle, the refrigerant should be liquefied at its saturation
temperature in the condenser. Therefore, the temperature of the condenser depends on its pressure.
The generator pressure, which is identical to the condenser pressure, and the concentration of the
refrigerant in the generator determine the minimum temperature of the generator which has to bemaintained for the continuous vaporization of the refrigerant. Theoretically, the refrigerant
concentration in the generator must be less than that in the absorber. In principle, four factors are
considered, evaporator temperature, condenser temperature, and the concentrations of the
refrigerant in the generator, and absorber, will determine the operating conditions of an ideal
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
6/37
4
absorption cooling cycle. In an actual absorption cycle there exists a heat exchanger (economizer)
between the generator and absorber for the purpose of recovery of heat in the flow from generator
to absorber and preheating of the flow from absorber to generator. In certain cases of absorber
cooling cycles, there may exist a secondary generator for a better separation of refrigerant and
absorbent.
Figure 1: Example of an absorption cooling cycle
The absorption technique uses the following combinations of working fluid as refrigerant-
absorbent mixtures as the following NH3+H20, NH3+NaSCN, and H2O+LiBr combination which
are the favorable candidates used in the solar absorption cooling cycle.
1.1 Thermodynamic Analysis of the Solar Absorption Cooling system
The coefficient performance (COP) of an absorption cooling system is defined as the ratio of
cooling effect by the evaporator and the solar energy input to the collector is defined by:.
( ) = | | / | |
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
7/37
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
8/37
6
between the compounds which qualify as refrigerants for absorption solar cooling systems. H20
and NH3 have relative1y high heats of vaporization per unit mass around atmospheric pressure.
1.1.2 Absorbents
In screening of absorbents for absorption solar cooing systems stability, toxicity, corrosivity and
mutual Solubility with refrigerant, should be considered as the criteria. The criteria for selection
of absorbents should be the boiling point and melting point of the candidate. Generally normal
boiling points above 100 C should satisfy the low volatility requirement of the absorbents. Criteria
for maximum melting point of absorbent allowable depends on the crystallization possibility of
the absorbent. However, some absorbents form eutectic solutions with the refrigerants even with
temperatures below the melting point of the absorbent.
1.1.3 Refrigerant-absorbent combinations
The combination of a refrigerant and an absorbent should have the following characteristics in
order to qualify for use in absorption solar cooling systems: (i) Equilibrium solubility should be
high at the required temperature and pressure in the absorber. (ii) Absorption should be rapid and
the actual concentration of rich liquid should easily approach the equilibrium value. (iii) Pure
refrigerant vapor should be obtained from rich solution as easily as possible. (iv) The absorbent
should be non-volatile or (very much less volatile than the refrigerant). (v) The viscosities of
solutions should low under operating conditions. (vi) Freezing points of liquids should be lower
than the lowest temperature the cycle.
1.2 Adsorption Cooling Method
The adsorption cooling process utilizes the adsorbent-adsorbate characteristics and
produces cooling at the evaporator by t he combination of adsorption -triggered evaporation and
desorpti on-resulted- condensation. Figure 2 shows the schematic layout of the adsorption cooling
system that comprises the evaporator, the reactor or bed for thermal compression and the
condenser. Usually, activated carbon fiber and CO2 are used as adsorbents and refrigerant. For
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
9/37
7
continuous cooling operation, firstly a low-pressure refrigerant (hence CO2) is vaporized at the
evaporator due to external cooling load and is adsorbed into the solid adsorbent located in the
adsorber at evaporator pressure (Pe). The process of adsorption results in the liberation of heat of
adsorption at the adsorber providing a useful heat energy output and a cooling effect in the
condenser/evaporator heat exchanger. Secondly, the adsorbed bed is heated by the external heat
source and the refrigerant is desorbed from the adsorbent and goes to the condenser. At condenser
pressure (Pc) for condensation by pumping heat through the environment. The condensate
(refrigerant) is refluxed back to the evaporator via a pressure reducing valve for maintaining the
pressure difference between the condenser and the evaporator. Pool boiling is affected in the
evaporator by the vapor uptake at the adsorber, and thus completing the refrigeration close loop or
cycle.
Figure 2: Adsorbtion cooling cycle
As the adsorption cooling system is based on the energetic performances of adsorbant-refrigerant
pairs, the adsorption isotherms are used to evaluate the amount of adsorbate uptake and offtake
during adsorption/desorption processes.
To analyze the cycle, the cycle must be plotted on a Clapeyron Diagram. The various
characteristics could be obtained by the Clapeyron diagrams of the chemical heat pumps and it is
clearly be seen the isosteric and isothermic characteristics of the cycle. By plotting the sys tem s
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
10/37
8
cycle along the equilibrium lines of the clapeyron diagram, the operating pressure, the range of
temperature upgrade, mass of the working pairs required, amount of power consumed and heat
released, etc. could be predicted.
Adsorption refrigeration cycle is not too much different from absorption refrigeration cycle. Itcontains mainly condenser, evaporator, expansion valve, adsorbent bed, some adsorbent and some
adsorbate. The main adsorbent and adsorbate pairs are Activated Carbon/Ammonia, Silica
gel/methanol, Silica gel/water and Zeolite/water. In this system the compressor is replaced by a
thermal compressor which is operated by heat instead of a mechanical energy.
In evaporator the adsorbate evaporates by having heat from surroundings. Adsorbate adsorbed by
the dry adsorbent in the adsorbent bed. The heat is transferred in to adsorbent bed for desorption.
The desorbed material continues cycling in to the condenser. After condensation adsorbateexpands in the expansion valve and arrives to evaporator. The ideal adsorption cooling cycle on a
schematic vapor pressure diagram is given in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5 schematic vapor pressure diagram
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
11/37
9
In Figure 2.5, from point 1 to point 2 the adsorbent bed s temperature increases from T1 to T2
with transferring heat from outside in to the system. In preheating the vapor pressure is steady
without desorption. From point 2 to 3 the heat transfer to the adsorbent bed goes on. But in this
period from point 2 to 3, desorption begins and the desorbed water vapor condenses in steady
condensation pressure. Point 3 to 4 region begins after the maximum bed temperature reached and
desorption finished the bed temperature decreases to the T4. An expansion valve also helps the
pressure decrease. From 4 to 1 the heat transfer from bed to surroundings goes on. The adsorbate
that evaporates in the evaporator adsorbed by the adsorbent. This is a heat loosing process.
1.3 Desiccant cooling system
Desiccant cooling systems combine sorptive dehumidification, heat recovery, evaporation and
heating to create a cooling process which can offer energy savings compared to conventional airconditioning systems. Waste heat or solar energy can be used for the required regeneration of the
sorbens in the dehumidifier, leading to further energy savings. Parametric studies, particularly of
the dehumidifier, have been undertaken. These show that it may be possible to reduce the
regeneration air flow without a significant reduction in the dehumidification efficiency, enabling
desiccant cooling systems to run with high COPs. The results of the measurements were used as
input parameters for a new dynamic simulation program, which was specifically developed for the
purpose of assessing the potential for desiccant cooling under different climatic conditions.
Desiccant cooling system takes air from outside or from the building, dehumidifies it with a solid
or liquid desiccant, cools it by heat exchange and then evaporatively cools it to the desired state of
a maximum 100% relative humidity in the inlet air stream. The desiccant must be regenerated by
heat. This can be achieved with solar energy from solar air collectors or liquid collectors.
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
12/37
10
Figure 3: Desiccant cooling system with solar air collectors.
Figure 3 shows how solar air collectors can be integrated. Adaptation to liquid collectors is also
possible with an air/liquid heat exchanger. By using solar liquid collectors the storage possibility
can increase the content of solar energy to the required auxiliary energy.
Figure 4 shows the process in a shematic, where the state points are numbered to correspond to the
points on the process schematic. Ambient air is dried and heated by a dehumidifier from 1 to 2,regeneratively cooled by exhaust air from 2 to 3, evaporatively cooled from 3 to 4 and then brought
into the building. The inlet humidifier allows control of the temperature and humidity. Exhaust air
at state 5 from the inside of the building moves in the opposite direction and is evaporatively
cooled to 6 up to saturation. At 7 the air is heated by the energy removed from the heat regenerator.
From 7 to 8 solar or other heat must increase the temperature up to the regeneration level of the
desiccant to regenerate the dehumidifier.
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
13/37
11
Figure 4: Conditions of air in a desiccant cooling system. A bypass flow of 25% is considered.
With the existing knowledge of thermodynamics, the absorption cooling method seems a more
viable cooling method compared to the adsorbtion cooling method for residential use in Malaysia.
This is due to the abundance of the materials used are widely available in Malaysia which is also
used in other processes and products. Desiccant cooling is also a viable option as Malaysia a humid
country and the desiccant cooling method deals with levels of humidity. The adsorption method
may not be the best choice for residential purpose but it may be applied in a large scale for
industrial applications.
2.0 Specific Devices and availability in the market
This part describes few examples of devices / equipment in market such as heat driven cooling
technologies in combination with solar thermal energy. A short overview about solar refrigeration
systems is explained with a basic analysis of thermodynamic. Furthermore, new developments ofopen (desiccant cooling) and closed (absorption and adsorption) cooling cycles are presented and
some of the new technologies are demonstrated in more detail. Additionally, recent installations
of solar-thermal of air conditioning systems are described as examples with their working
performance and system description. This report also includes small scale solar thermal absorption
cooling system design in the following pages. The general purpose of the design is to understand
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
14/37
12
how efficiently solar cooling system generates cooling, and to reduce the footprint of systems for
integration with existing and future domestic buildings
The energy use in the building sector for space heating, cooling and water heating, in the European
Union Based, reaches the level of on 40% of the total used energy. The building sector is the
biggest user of energy, having surpassed the transportation and industry sectors. Additionally, the
energy transformation processes and the use of energy are responsible for 94% of the total
emissions of CO 2, with 45% coming from the building sector. The applicability of solar cooling in
Greece was investigated in a medical centre in Igoumenitsa.
A transient simulation model were used to study the energy performance and economical
feasibility for integrating a solar liquid desiccant dehumidification system with a conventional
vapor compression air-conditioning system for the weather condition of Hong Kong. The vapor
compression system capacity in the solar assisted air-conditioning system can be reduced to 19 kW
from original 28 kW of a conventional air-conditioning system as a case study due to the solar
desiccant cooling.
How s a schematic diagram of a solar desiccant air-conditioning system. Ambient humid air enters
the supply air duct and passes through the packed type dehumidifier of the primary air handling
unit where it will be dehumidified and heated by dry desiccant. After exiting from the primary air
handling unit, the hot and dry air is then cooled by a cooling coil and then distributed to the room.
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
15/37
13
Solar air conditioning systems consist of two components coupled together: thermal solar
collectors and an absorption system. This system is mainly driven by the dilution heat effect of the
aqueous lithium bromide and has the capability to get power from a low relative temperature and
dispose part of this heat at high relative temperature, by means of the heat pump. This
thermodynamic equilibrium process is based on a pressure gradient caused by the effect of
concentration or temperature. The weight concentration for air conditioning is defined as the
percentage ratio between the weight of lithium bromide and the total weight of the solution in the
system. This work proposes a method for measuring the concentration of corrosive liquids, which
can be applied to the development of an optical device for determining the fluid concentration in
solar air conditioning systems.
The overall efficiency depends on the temperature and concentration of the working fluid, as
shown in figure below 1, for different pressure conditions of the condenser and in each process of
the evaporator.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a solar air conditioning system with temperature along the x-axis and
pressure along y-axis.
Active solar cooling uses solar thermal collectors to provide solar energy to thermally driven
chillers (usually adsorption or absorption chillers). The solar energy heats a fluid that provides
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0038092X05001672#fig1http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0038092X05001672#fig1http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0038092X05001672#gr1http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0038092X05001672#fig18/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
16/37
14
heat to the generator of an absorption chiller and is recirculated back to the collectors. The heat
provided to the generator drives a cooling cycle that produces chilled water. The chilled water
produced is used for large commercial and industrial cooling.
The following are common technologies in use for solar thermal closed-loop absorption airconditioning.
NH3/H2O or Ammonia/Water
Water/Lithium Bromide
Water/Lithium Chloride
Water/Silica Gel or Water/Zeolite
Methanol/Activated Carbon
Solar thermal energy can be used to efficiently cool in the summer, and also heat domestic hot
water and buildings in the winter. Single, double or triple iterative absorption cooling cycles are
used in different solar-thermal-cooling system designs. The more cycles, the more efficient they
are. Absorption chillers operate with less noise and vibration than compressor-based chillers.
In large scale installations there are several projects successful both technical and economical in
operation world wide including, for example, in Lisbon with 1,579 square metres (17,000 sq ft)
solar collectors and 545 kW cooling power or on the Olympic Sailing Village in Qingdao, China.
In 2011 the most powerful plant at Singapore's newly constructed United World College will be
commissioned (1500 kW).These projects have shown that flat plate solar collectors specially
developed for temperatures over 200 F (93 C) can be effective and cost efficient.
The Audubon Environmental Center in Los Angeles has an example solar air conditioning
installation. which failed fairly soon after commissioning and is no longer being
maintained [9] The Southern California Gas Co. Some Gas Company is also testing the practicality
solar thermal closed-loop absorption air conditioning at their Energy Resource Center (ERC) in
Downey, California. Solar Collectors from Sopogy and Cogenra were installed on the rooftop at
the ERC and are producing cooling for the bui ldings air conditioning system Masdar City in
the United Arab Emirates is also testing a double-effect absorption cooling plant
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_World_Collegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_air_conditioning#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_air_conditioning#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_California_Gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masdar_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masdar_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_California_Gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_air_conditioning#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_World_Collegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_energy8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
17/37
15
using Sopogy parabolic trough collectors, Mirroxx Fresnel array and TVP Solar high-vacuum
solar thermal panels.
The ISAAC Solar Icemaker is an intermittent solar ammonia-water absorption cycle. The ISAAC
uses a parabolic trough solar collector and a compact and efficient design to produce ice with nofuel or electric input, and with no moving parts.
Providers of solar cooling systems include SOLID, Sopogy ,] Cogenra Mirroxx and TVP Solar for
commercial installations and ClimateWell, Fagor -Rotartica, SorTech and Daikin mostly for
residential systems. Cogenra uses solar co-generation to produce both thermal and electric energy
that can be used for cooling.
The very latest solar air conditioning technology
Above is an exampla of Australian commercial solar air condition. Also known as Solar cooling
is a term that encompasses a range of technologies designed to utilise a solar thermal input
(typically very hot water) to delivery cool air into a building. The suns heat can be turned into
cool air via a number of different thermodynamic reactions, resulting in cooling with minimal
electrical input.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolic_troughhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_collectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_air_conditioning#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_air_conditioning#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_air_conditioning#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mirroxx&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ClimateWellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fagorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rotartica&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SorTech&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daikinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daikinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SorTech&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rotartica&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fagorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ClimateWellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mirroxx&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_air_conditioning#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_thermal_collectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolic_troughhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sopogy8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
18/37
16
Two main types of solar cooling and low energy cooling technologies:
Absorption and Adsorption based chiller systems
These thermal cooling systems utilize well-known thermodynamic processes to deliver chilled
water that can be adapted for cooling applications, both large and small. These systems can utilize
solar thermal heat, waste heat, supplemental heat, or a combination of all three.
Absorption and Adsorption chillers are well known for their longevity and low maintenance
requirements. And by storing solar heated water in tanks, they can even deliver solar cooling after
the sun goes down.
We offer a range of sorption chiller systems, including specialist units that are capable of delivering
temperatures below freezing for low-energy refrigeration purposes.
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
19/37
17
3.0 Introduction to potential improvement
Energy efficiency has become universally recognized as one of the most cost-effective ways of
enhancing energy security, addressing climate change and promoting competitiveness in industry.
Improving efficiency is perceived as the key strategy in making the worlds energy system more
economically and environmentally maintainable. Potential improvements exist in all economies across all
areas; at home, in factories, office buildings, airports, shopping malls, power plants, etc.
While the industry has flourished in some countries, it has had difficulty taking off in others.
Despite government efforts to introduce Energy efficiency related targets and regulations, progress in the
development of the Energy efficiency industry in Southeast Asia remains sporadic. The study focuses on
Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam. Taken together, these five countries accounted for
86% of ASEANs total GDP in 2010, and present a sizeable market for Energy efficiency te chnologies and
products.
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
20/37
18
The study seeks to estimate the size of the potential Energy efficiency improvements in the region
in terms of potential power savings from the user perspective. It also outlines in detail the barriers to the
continuous development of the Energy efficiency market based on the results of stakeholder interviews and
surveys, and proposes solutions to address these barriers in order to unlock the full potential of the regional
Energy efficiency improvements.
The study is based on survey questionnaires and face-to-face interviews with a diverse portfolio of
companies, including Energy efficiency technology suppliers, ESCOs, and Energy efficiency product users.
These included both European and non-European companies, spanning many industries including
chemicals, energy generation & distribution, food & beverage, logistics, pharmaceuticals, property
management and steel manufacturing. Several government agencies, financial institutions and academic
institutes were also interviewed to obtain their perspectives on the Energy efficiency issue in Southeast
Asia.
This document can hopefully serve as a broad guide on a possible way forward for key stakeholders
in the Energy efficiency industry in the region.
Southeast Asia is a resource-rich region the region as a whole has been a key exporter of oil, natural
gas and coal. Indonesia was the worlds second largest coal exporter in 2010 3. Vietnam is home to the
worlds largest gas pipeline in terms of combined gas and liquids flow 4, while Malaysia w as the worlds
third largest LNG exporter in 2010. 5 Countries in the region mainly rely on oil, natural gas and coal as their
energy and power sources, with minor contributions from hydro-electric, renewable and geothermal
sources.
In 2009, the IEA forecasted that Southeast Asia will become a key global energy market and future
growth driver. The regions steadily growing economy is expected to lead to its energy and power
consumption almost doubling between 2010 and 2020. Over the next few decades, the region is expected
to witness an exponential increase in energy demand, energy related investments and spending.
Improvements in annual energy outputs of over 9% are possible in some parts of the world. The best
performing areas are largely based the tropics. This is encouraging as solar energy already performs well
in these areas and enhanced cooling. could increase cost-effectiveness.
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
21/37
19
The vital need of cooled air and air conditioners In the ASEAN region is as we have discussed is a very
important aspect as the countries are demanding more and more units as the economy is growing, we all
know that the fossil fuels are running out and they are not as efficient as we want them to be, to run the A/C
we need electricity in this time witch for the time being we are receiving this by fossil fuels and non-
renewable power, the potential of new technology is there and that is solar power solar power is free, long
lasting and environmental friendly, we come to a conclusion that we have to change the approach of energy
making as this is our only way for a better safer future.
Solar air-conditioning is envisioned as a sustainable mean to provide space conditioning for buildings,
as solar energy is considered to be the primary energy source. Solar air-conditioning is broadly categorized
into solar-electric air-conditioning and solar-thermal air-conditioning. The former mainly covers the solar-
electric compression refrigeration, which uses photovoltaic panels to power up a conventional refrigeration
machine. The latter makes use of the solar thermal gain to drive the corresponding heat-driven cycle. The
solar absorption refrigeration, the solar adsorption refrigeration and the desiccant cooling belong to solar-
thermal air-conditioning. Through dynamic plant and building simulation for typical office in subtropical
climate, the solar-electric compression refrigeration and the solar absorption refrigeration can have the year-
round primary energy saving compared to the conventional electric-driven compression refrigeration. On
the other hand, the solid desiccant cooling, which is commonly designed for full air provision, can also
have the energy saving potential comparatively. To further advance the energy performance of the solar
air-conditioning systems, different design strategies can be considered, such as the hybrid design between
absorption/adsorption refrigeration and desiccant cooling, the high temperature cooling approach using
radiant ceilings, and the articulation to the new indoor ventilation mean like displacement/stratum
ventilation. These strategies can enhance better use of solar thermal gain and reduce auxiliary heating. As
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
22/37
20
such, the solar air-conditioning systems would become more and more competitive in terms of year-round
energy performance.
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
23/37
21
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
24/37
22
A simple figure can illustrate how a solar panel is prepared
The energy flows in and out of each layer are calculated. This can be used to determine the temperature of
each layer of the solar panel. The temperature of the solar cell layer dictates the electrical efficiency of the panel; for each C increase efficiency decreases by 0.45%. Electrical output is then calculated by
Power output = Efficiency Sunlight intensity
and this is summed over one year of performance using sunlight intensity, air temperature and wind speed
data available from climate models. The same calculation is performed for a solar panel with no phase
change material attached to determine the percentage output improvement.
Technologies for solar-driven cooling and air conditioning, a dialogue of solar cooling technologies is given
in. The article by Grossman presents an overview of solar cooling, including thermodynamic
considerations. The manual by Henning also includes practical design aspects. The systems under
consideration are generally divided into two main categories closed and open cycles.
Closed-cycle systems these types of systems are based mainly on the absorption cycle, which constitutes,
thermodynamically, of a heat engine driving a heat pump. In its simplest, single- effect conguration, an
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
25/37
23
absorption system employs a refrigerant expanding from a condenser to an evaporator through a throttle, in
much the same way as in the conventional vapor compression system. A second working uid the
absorbent is employed, which absorbs refrigerant vapor from the evaporator at low pressure, and desorbs
into the condenser at high pressure, when heat is supplied to the desorbed. The absorption system is hence
a heat-driven heat pump; the heat may come from a variety of sources, including solar, waste heat and the
like. The system operates between two pressure levels, and interacts with heat sources/sinks at three
temperature levels: The low temperature cooling in the evaporator the intermediate temperature heat
rejection in the absorber and condenser; and the high temperature (solar) heat supply in the desorbed. A
variety of working uids have been proposed; the two most common absor bent refrigerant pairs are LiBr
water and water ammonia. A key gure to describe the performance of a thermally driven chiller is the
thermal Coefcient of Performance (COP), dened as the produced cold per unit of driving heat.
Single-effect absorption systems are limited in COP to about 0.7 for LiBr water and to 0.6 for ammonia
water, and hence require a rather large solar collector area to supply the heat needed for their operation.
This collector area can be reduced by employing systems with improved COP, which may be achieved
using a higher temperature heat source. I n this case, the absorption systems must be congur ed in stages.
The principle is to utilize the heat rejected from the condenser to power additional desorbers, thereby
approximately doubling or tripling the amount of refrigerant extracted out of solution with no need for
additional solar heat. These systems need, however, high temperature collectors, such as evacuated tube or
concentrating collectors. The higher cost of the cooling machine and the solar collector should hence be
considered, Most solar-powered absorption cooling projects to-date have utilized single-effect systems,
with low-temperature solar collectors. Developments in gas- red absorption systems in recent years, mainly
in the USA and Japan, for LiBr water chillers, have made available in the market double-effect systems
with COP in the range 1.0 1.2. Triple-effect systems are still under development but close to the market,
with COP of about 1.7. These systems may be adapted to and employed in a solar-powered installation with
high temperature solar collectors. Fig. 2 compares the performance of several multi-effect chillers, showing
the COP as a function of the solar heat supply temperature for typical single-, double-and triple-effect
chillers with the same component size and under the same operating conditions. The corresponding Carnot
performance curve is also shown for comparison. The single-effect system gives best results in the
temperature range 80 1001C; for a higher supply temperature, it is worth switching to a double effect
system, up to about 1601C, and then to a triple-effect. Absorption chillers are available from various
manufacturers, in large capacities up to several thousands kilowatts.
However, in the range of small capacities (of 100 kW) only very few systems are available in the market.
Adsorption chillers working with solid sorption materials are also available. The main difference compared
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
26/37
24
to the absorption systems is that two or more absorbers are necessary in order to provide continuous
operation. Adsorption systems allow for somewhat lower driving temperatures but have a somewhat lower
COP compared to absorption systems under the same conditions. Silica gel adsorption machines with
cooling capacities of about 75 kW to several hundreds kilowatt are produced in Japan. Small adsorption
machines are not commercially available yet, but are expected to enter the market in the near future. The
simplicity of the process, the wide range of heating temperatures and other advantages.
Noiseless operation could lead to a large number of small solar assisted air conditioning applications.
Further research and development work on small-size adsorption machines is necessary in order to reduce
their volume and increase the power density.
Open-cycle systems
Desiccant systems are essentially open sorption cycles, utilizing water as the refrigerant in direct contact
with air. The desiccant (sorbent) can be either solid or liquid and is used to facilitate the exchange of sensible
and latent heat of the conditioned air stream. The term open is used to indicate that the refrigerant is
discarded from the system after providing the cooling effect and new refrigerant is supplied in its place in
an open-ended loop. In this type of systems the process air is treated in a dehumidier and goes through
several additional stages before being supplied to the conditioned space. The sorbent is regenerated with
ambient or exhaust air heated to the required temperature by the solar heat source. Most desiccant systems
presently on the market use a solid sorption material such as silica gel. Since the solid desiccant cannot be
circulated by pumping, these systems usually employ a rotary bed carrying the sorbent material, referred to
as a desi ccant wheel, to allow continuous operation. Systems employing liquid sorption materials are less
widespread but also available on the market. They have several advantages such as the ability to contain,
pump an d lter the desiccant, co ol during absorption and heat during desorption, the possibility of energy
storage by means of concentrated hygroscopic solutions, as well as bacteriostatic qualities.
Overview of the SACE project
The SACE (Solar Air Conditioning in Europe) project was aimed to assess the state-ofthe-art and to provide
a clear picture of the potential, the future needs and the overall perspectives of this technology. The main
objectives of the project were: (1) To conduct a horizontal study on the state-of-the-art of environmentallyfriendly technologies for air conditioning of buildings in Europe with an emphasis on cooling and
dehumidication (summer air conditioning) and low temperature heat-driven technologies; (2) To assess
the potential of these technologies for using solar heat as the driving mechanism; (3) To achieve a broad
overview about the state-of-the-art of solar assisted air conditioning in Europe; (4) To identify the strong
and weak points of the reviewed technologies in relation to their energy performance, environmental impact
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
27/37
25
and nancial viability; (5) To identify future needs and necessary actions in order to better exploit the
potential of the identied technologies and to contribute to the advancement of promising technologies, that
will accelerate their introduction into the market.
In order to assess existing installations and research on components for solar assisted cooling systems, the
CORDIS database of the European Commission was screened for EC funded projects; projects from the
IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Program were also included in the survey. More detailed data on solar
cooling applications were also collected by the SACE partners on national level, in the participating
countries.
The above search has revealed many research and development projects on new components and systems,
as well as demonstrations of solar-assisted air conditioning, carried out in Europe under both national and
European programs. Several innovative concepts and component developments have evolved. A
standardized methodology was hence devised under the SACE project and used to collect and assess thedata from the various projects, in order to provide a comparative description and evaluation of technical
developments at component and system level, and to assess the performance of demonstration projects.
Using these data along with a method prepared for preliminary economic investigation, a techno-economic
study was performed for different heat-driven technologies (absorption, desiccant, adsorption, jet cycles)
combined with different types of solar thermal collectors, for different loads and climatic conditions.
Malaysia is located in Southeast Asia. Climate in Malaysia is categorized as equatorial
which is being hot and humid throughout the year. The average rainfall is 250 centimeters a year
and the average temperature is 27 C. The climates of the Peninsula and the East differ, as the
climate on the peninsula is directly affected by wind from the mainland, as opposed to the more
maritime weather of the East. Malaysia is exposed to the El Nio effect, which reduces rainfall in
the dry season.
Malaysia faces two monsoon winds seasons, the Southwest Monsoon from late May to
September, and the Northeast Monsoon from November to March. The Northeast Monsoon brings
in more rainfall compared to the Southwest Monsoon, originating in China and the north Pacific.
The southwest monsoon originates from the deserts of Australia. March and October form
transitions between the two monsoons.
Local climates are affected by the presence of mountain ranges throughout Malaysia, and
climate can be divided into that of the highlands, the lowlands, and coastal regions. The coasts
have a sunny climate, with temperatures ranging between 23 C (73.4 F) and 32 C (89.6 F), and
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
28/37
26
rainfall ranging from 10 centimeters (4 in) to 30 centimeters (12 in) a month. The lowlands have
a similar temperature, but follow a more distinctive rainfall pattern and show very high humidity
levels. The highlands are cooler and wetter, and display a greater temperature variation. A large
amount of cloud cover is present over the highlands, which have humidity levels that do not fall
below 75%.
4.0 Potential to society, economic, geographic conditions, and consideration for successful
commercial implementation in Malaysia.
Being a maritime country close to the equator, Malaysia naturally has abundant sunshine
and thus solar radiation. However, it is extremely rare to have a full day with completely clear sky
even in periods of severe drought. The cloud cover cuts off a substantial amount of sunshine and
thus solar radiation. On the average, Malaysia receives about 6 hours of sunshine per day. There
are, however, seasonal and spatial variations in the amount of sunshine received. Alor Setar and
Kota Bharu receive about 7 hours per day of sunshine while Kuching receives only 5 hours on the
average. On the extreme, Kuching receives only an average of 3.7 hours per day in the month of
January. On the other end of the scale, Alor Setar receives a maximum of 8.7 hours per day on the
average in the same month.
Solar radiation is closely related to the sunshine duration. Its seasonal and spatial variations
are thus very much the same as in the case of sunshine.
The climate of Malaysia was thoroughly studied as it will be the most important factor in
the implementation of the solar air- conditioning systems in Malaysia. Based on the study of
Malaysian climate there is approximately of 11hours of sunlight but receives peak sunshine
about only 6hours. Following is the solar radiation map of peninsular and also Borneo Malaysia.
The figure shows the solar fallout in Malaysia.
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
29/37
27
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
30/37
28
Energy has become a fundamental part of people's daily lives as well as being vital to the
social and economic progress of every country. In worldwide, energy in term of electricity, such
as electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal
resources, bio fuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources is a necessity in our daily life
as it provides power for lighting, electrical appliances, space conditioning, and water heating.
Particularly in Malaysia, the residential energy use accounts for more than 14,365 GWh or 19%
of total electricity consumed in Peninsular Malaysia in year 2006. Malaysia is one of the country
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
31/37
29
that are still use fossil fuels as main source of energy today but also aware of the consequences of
relying on this energy source for our natural environment. The climate of Malaysia is tropical and
humid. So , its suitable to use safer alte rnative energy sources such as solar, wind, water and so
on. Since there is more concern on energy conservation and environmental protection, the global
priority has been increasingly addressed on the solar energy. Solar energy as a clean energy source
and safer alternative renewable energy is abundant in Malaysia. The weather condition in Malaysia
is very suitable for solar implementation. This is because the weather condition is almost
predictable and the availability of sunlight for more than 10 h daily. As it is possible to have about
6 h of directs sunlight with irradiation of between 800 W/m2 and 1000W/m2, it is already very
good to consider for the usage of solar energy. This country experiences relatively uniform
temperature throughout the year, with the mean temperature in the lowlands ranging between 26
C and 28C.
Solar energy innovations are likely to concern public and business policy makers in the
decade ahead as the common problem what the world is facing nowadays is the energy problem.
Sooner or later, the focus of concern is moving from the general to the specific, from the macro to
the microenvironment, from the national level to the regional and state levels. Therefore,
particularly in Malaysia, this is alarming that everyone needs to create awareness about solar
energy as the government is also planning to do a lot of awareness regarding the renewable energy
for the regard of benefits for people, for instance, in the l0th Malaysia Plan (2011-2015) it has alsoset a target of 5.5% renewable energy in the country's energy mix.
In term of creating public awareness on benefits of solar energy use and the environmental
effects, nowadays it can be seen that green campaign is one of the hot topics among the Malaysians.
There are many organizations organizing green campaign such as Environmental Protection
Society Malaysia (EPSM), Malaysia Environment NGOs (MENGO) and Treat Every
Environment Special Sdn. Bhd. (TRESS). As an example of the benefits of solar energy
technology instalment, price of solar energy, which is the most concern factors on this regard, is
still on the outer edge of affordability and vary depending upon the amount of energy needed and
the size of the panels required for instance, solar energy systems cost between RM 10,400 (2,400)
and RM21,500 (5,000) installed for domestic hot water. Furthermore, DIY hot water heating kits
are available which cost about RM6,500 (1,500) to compare with photo voltaic systems which
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
32/37
30
are more expensive costing from RM21,500 (5,000) to around RM40,000 (9,000) installed. In
term of solar energy production and consumption status in Malaysia, it can be seen that solar power
in Malaysia or also known as photovoltaic (PV) system is estimated to be four times the world
fossil fuel resources. For instance, the 5-year Malaysian Building Integrated Photovoltaic
Technology Application Project (MBIPV), jointly funded by the Government of Malaysia, the
Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the private sector, has been launched in 2005 where the
project has several demonstrations of PV projects in various sectors including residential houses
and commercial building.
Daily electricity use was surveyed in Malaysia Social viability of solar energy use can be
counted in form of daily electricity use in Malaysia as the household electricity consumption is
very much dependent on the family size, living habits, age and number of electrical appliances andusage time. According to the study, the average electricity consumption can be seen into three
different categories of household; the low cost house with average spending of approximately
RM65 per month, medium cost house spending about RM110 per month and for bungalow
spending up to RM350 per month. The cost of energy used by various appliances in Malaysia is
shown in Figure below.
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
33/37
31
Furthermore, it also can be seen that water heating is the second largest cost day after air
conditioning according to Table 3 indicating the survey data for the average monthly electricity
consumption and water usage for a typical household in Kuala Lumpur where the usage of water
heater is 14% of total energy consumption per month in a typical urban house.
According to the above-mentioned surveyed data, it can be seen clearly that consumption
of energy, particularly electricity, is relatively high with the time line of the season. In other words,
it is showing that use of solar energy technology is better to increase along with creating more
awareness of the long term sustainable benefits of this technology to the society and environmentas well as by emphasizing more on incentives of new business entry for this particular energy
sector.
It is evident to say that solar energy systems can be considered either as the power supply
or applied directly to a process. Furthermore, large scale solar thermal systems with large collector
fields are economically viable due to the usage of stationary collectors as solar PV systems are
reliable substitutes to be considered as an innovative power source in building, processes industries
and water desalination systems. Besides that, the economic outlook for these systems is more
viable when the system is operating in remote regions where there is no access to a public grid. In
addition, other technical and economic variables such as wear and tear, initial and running costs,
economic incentives, PV module diminishing price rate and oil price raises should not be
neglected. In term of world solar energy use, the various existing solar technologies can be seen
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
34/37
32
in order to enhance the understanding of each technology and its associated challenges; the price
for installation. Moreover, these outlooks provide a suitable basis to recognize advantages and
drawbacks in its current usage of energy and further implementation in Malaysia on this regard
specifically with the availability of the resources for the full scale development as there is a great
potential for Malaysia to move from fossil based generation towards the renewable energy.
Therefore, implementation solar air-conditioning in Malaysia is possible but will require more
time and not be possible in the next coming year (5-10 years) due to the cost of the collector panels,
installation and maintenance of is still beyond reach of most average income Malaysian which
make up 60-75% of Malaysia population. Furthermore, for many families that reside in
condominiums and flats, solar energy may not be reachable for them as their location may not
permit the installation of the solar equipments and the roof space of c ondominiums may not
accommodate the total solar needs of all the residents in a particular complex. As a conclusion,solar implementation for the current economic and social awareness requires more development
and requires more time.
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
35/37
33
References:
1. City university of hong kong , Fong, K.F., Chow, T.T., Lin, Z., Chan, L.S., Simulation-
optimization of solar-assisted desiccant cooling system for subtropical Hong Kong.Applied
Thermal Engineering, 30(2-3), 2010, 220-228.
2. Fong, K.F., Chow, T.T., Lee, C.K., Lin, Z., Chan, L.S., Comparative study of different
solar cooling systems for buildings in subtropical city.Solar Energy, 84(2), 2010, 227-244.
3. Fong, K.F., Lee, C.K., Chow, T.T., Lin, Z., Chan, L.S., Solar hybrid air-conditioning
system for high temperature cooling in subtropical city.Renewable Energy, 35(11), 2010,
2439-2451.
4. Mahlia, T.M.I. and P.L. Chan, Life cycle cost analysis of fuel cell based cogenerationsystem for residential application in Malaysia. Renewable and Sustainable EnergyReviews, 2011. 15(1): 416-426.
5. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 16, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages386-396
6. S. Mekhilef, A. Safari, W.E.S. Mustaffa, R. Saidur, R. Omar, M.A.A. Younis Critoph,R.E., 1988. Limitations of adsorption cycles for solar cooling. Sol. Energy 41, 23 31
7. Henning, H.-M., 2007. Solar assisted air conditioning for buildings an overview. Appl.Therm. Eng. 27, 1734 1749.
8. Pons, M., Poyelle, F., 1999. Adsorptive machines with advanced cycles for heat pumpingor cooling applications. Int. J. Refrig. 22, 27 37.
9. Osman M. Performance analysis and load matching for tracking cylindrical paraboliccollectors for solar cooling in arid zones. Energy Conversion and Management 1985;25(3): 295-302.
10. Gee RC. Solar powering of high efficiency absorption chiller. 2004. Available at:http://www.osti.gov/bridge/product.biblio.jsp?query_id=0&page=0&osti_id=840264&Row=0 [Accessed July 13, 2011].
11. E. Boelman, B.B. Saha and T. Kashiwagi, 1995. Experimental investigation of a silicagel water adsorption refrigeration cycle the influence of operating conditions oncooling output and COP, ASHRAE Trans., vol. 101, 358 366,
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
36/37
34
12. Patnaik, S., Lenz, T.G., and Lof, G.O.G., 1990, Performance Studies for anExperimental Solar Open Cycle Liquid Desicc ant Air Dehumidification System, SolarEnergy, Vol. 44, No.3,123-135
13. Sharma, J.K., 1985, Solar Desiccant Cooling, Reviews of Renewable Energy Resources,Vol. 2, Wiley Eastern Ltd., New Delhi, India.
14. Shelpuk B.C. and Hooker D.W., 1979 , Developm ent program in solar desiccant coolingfor residential buildings, International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol.2, 173 179.
15. Hirunlabh J.,Charoenwat R., Khedari J. and Teekasap S.,2007, Feasibility study ofdesiccant air conditioning system in Thailan d, Building and Environment Vol.42, 572-577.
16. Sand R., Fischer J.C., 2005. Active desiccant integration with packaged rooftop HVACequipment. Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 25, 3138-3148.
17. Belding W.A., Delmas M.P.F. and Holeman W.D., 1996, Desiccant aging and its effectson desiccant cooling system performance, Applied thermal energy, Vol. 16, 447-459.
18. Gershon Grossman and Alec Johannsen, 1981Solar cooling and air conditioning,Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, Vol.7, Issue 3, 1981, 185-228.
19. Sheridan J.C., Mitchell J.W.,1985, A hybrid solar desiccant cooling system, SolarEnergy,Vol.34,. 187-193.
20. Web site of Sunpetra Solar Energy., A green Energy Initiative., 2010., Types of SolarCollectors., http://www.sunpetra.com/fag_001.html., Accessed: Accessed July 13, 2013
21. Ali, C., Bacha, H.B., Baccar, M., Maalej, A.Y., 2007. Dynamic modeling and simulationof a new air conditioning prototype by solar energy. Renewable Energy 32, 200 215.
22. Bruno, F., Saman, W., 2002. Testing of a PCM energy storage system for a spaceheating, World Renewable Energy Congress 2002.
23. Duffie, J.A., Beckman, W.A., 2006. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, third ed.John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
24. Kelly, N.A., Gibson, T.L., 2009. Improved photovoltaic energy output for cloudyconditions with a solar tracking system. Solar Energy 83, 2092 2102.
8/13/2019 Solar Air Conditioning Research Paper (Final)
37/37
25. Chen, H.Y., Hou, J.H., Zhang, S.Q., Liang, Y.Y., Yang, G.W., Yang, Y.,Yu, L.P., Wu,Y., Li, G., 2009. Polymer solar cells with enhanced open-circuit voltage and efficiency.
Nature Photonics 3, 649 653.
26. Prado, R.T.A., Gonsalvez, O.M., 1998. Water heating through electric shower and energy
demand. Energy and Buildings 29 (1), 77 82.
27. Hellmann, H.M., Schweigler, C., Ziegler, F., 1999. The characteristic equations ofabsorption chillers. In: Proceedings of the International Sorption Heat Pump conference.Munich. 169 172.
28. Yadav, Y.K., 1995. Vapour compression and liquid desiccant hybrid solar spaceconditioning system for energy conversation. Renew. Energy 6(7), 719 723
29. 302 C.A. Balaras et al. (2007) Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 11. 299 314
30. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 11, Issue 2, February 2007 , Pages299-314
31. Basurto-Pensado, M.A., Romero, R.J., Cuevas, A.C., Zaragoza-Ortega, J.L., Jimnez-Heredia,A.H., Snchez-Mondragn, J.J., 2004. Device for the measurement of temperature in situ forsolar refrigeration systems for optics method, Proc. XIII Int. Mater. Res. Congress; Cancun,Mexico, August 22 26, S4 p. 14.
32. Halliday et al., 2002 S.P. Halliday, C.B. Beggs, P.A. Sleigh, The use of solar desiccant cooling inthe UK: a feasibility study, Applied Thermal Engineering, 22 (2002), pp. 1327 1338.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0038092X11003227#b0035http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0038092X11003227#b0035http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0038092X11003227#b0035