SOLAR OPERATED RAILWAY CRACK DETECTOR(REPORT).doc

7/27/2019 SOLAR OPERATED RAILWAY CRACK DETECTOR(REPORT).doc

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SOLAR OPERATED RAILWAY TRACK

CRACK DETECTOR

PROJECT REPORT 2008-2009

Submitted by:

(team name)

Guided by:

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirement for the

Award of Diploma in

-----------------------------------------

By the State Board of Technical Education

Government of

Tamilnadu, Chennai.

COLLEGE LOGO


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Department :College name:Place:

COLLEGE NAME

COIMBATORE

DEPARTMENT

PROJECT REPORT-2008-2009

This Report is certified to be the Bonafide work done by

Selvan/Selvi ---------------- Reg.No.------------ of VI

Semester class of this college.

Guide Head of the Department

Submitter for the Practical Examinations of the board of

Examinations,State Board of Technical Education,Chennai,

TamilNadu.On --------------(date) held at the ------------

(college name),Coimbatore


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Internal Examiner External Examiner

DEDICATED TO OUR BELOVED

PARENTS


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At this pleasing movement of having successfully

completed our project, we wish to convey our sincere thanks

and gratitude to the management of our college and our

beloved chairman------------------------.who provided all the

facilities to us.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to our

principal ------------------for forwarding us to do our project and

offering adequate duration in completing our project.

We are also grateful to the Head of Department

prof., for her/him constructive suggestions

&encouragement during our project.

With deep sense of gratitude, we extend our earnest

&sincere thanks to our guide --------------------, Department of

Mechanical for her/him kind guidance and encouragement

during this project we also express our indebt thanks to our


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TEACHING staff of MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,

---------- (college Name).

SOLAR OPERATED RAILWAY

TRACK CRACK DETECTOR


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CONTENTS


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CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TITLE

SYNOPSIS

LIST OF FIGURES

NOMENCLATURE

1 Introduction2 Literature review

3 Description of equipments

3.1 Battery

3.2 IR sensor

3.3 DC Motor

3.4 Gears3.5 Railway track

3.6 Control unit

4 Design and drawing

4.1 General machine Specifications

5 fabrication

6 Working principle

7 Merits

8 applications

9 List of materials10 Cost Estimation

11 Conclusion

Bibliography

photography


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LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Number Title


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1 Stand

2 Track

3 Motor

5 Gear 6 Wheel

7 Wheel rod

8 Battery

9 I. r. sensor

10 Overall Diagram


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NOMENCLATURE

NOMENCLATURE


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D=Diameter of shaft(mm)

w=width of the track (mm)

L=Length of the track(mm)

N=speed of the motor (rpm)

P=power of the motor(w)


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SYNOPSIS

SYNOPSIS:


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The project relates to the detection of cracks in the railway

tracks using IR sensor and solar panel. According to a possible

embodiment, the railway carriage carrying the control equipments is

provided with sensor orientated to detect the crack.

This project pertains to a process for monitoring the condition of

rail on train tracks and more specifically has the object of the

identification of defects detected by monitoring equipment on the

tracks to be checked to allow maintenance crews to subsequently

find these defects.

Two medal sensors are fixed in the wheels of the train is used

to find out the crack on the rail. Each sensor will produce the signal

related position with the rail. If the track is said to be normal on its

position when both the sensor gives the constant sensed output. If

any one misses their output condition to fail then there is defect on

that side. It will inform this by giving alarm. Where sensors and alarm

should connected to the microcontroller I/O lines and microcontroller

is programmed to our needs.


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CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1


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INTRODUCTION

There are many reasons why rail tracks crack. In bygone days,

it was common for a rail crack to start near the joint between discreterail segments. Manufacturing defects in rail can cause fissures.

Wheel burns can also contribute to rail cracks by changing the

metallurgy of a rail. Rails are also more likely to crack when the

weather is cold, when the ballast and ties/sleepers aren't providing as

much support as they should, and when ground or drainage condition

is such that 'pumping' occurs under heavy load. All of these

conditions can contribute to a broken rail, and in turn a possible

derailment.

MANUFACTURING DEFECTS IN RAIL:

The quality of rail steel has improved dramatically since the

early days of railroading. The trend toward using continuously welded

rail (CWR) requires a higher quality rail, due to the cyclic thermal

expansion and contraction stresses that a CWR would be required to

endure. In addition, rail operations in general have been trending

toward higher speed and higher axle-load operation. Under these

operating conditions, rail pieces rolled in the 19th century would likely

break at an unacceptable rate. Despite the improved rail quality and


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rail metallurgy, if impurities find their way into rail steel and are not

detected by the quality assurance process, they can cause rail breaks

under certain conditions.

Recent rail-making processes have also been trending toward a

harder rail, requiring less frequent replacements under heavy loads.

This has the side-effect of making the rail more brittle, and thus more

susceptible to brittle fracture rather than plastic deformation. It is

therefore imperative that unintentional impurities in rail be minimized.

WHEEL BURN-RELATED RAIL CRACKS:

When a locomotive wheel spins without moving the train

forward (also known as slipping), the small section of rail directly

under the wheel is heated by the forces of friction between the wheel

and itself. The wheel rests on an area of rail no larger than a dime in

size, so the heating effect is very localized and occurs very quickly.

While wheel burn typically does not cause the entire rail section to

melt, it does heat the steel to red-hot temperatures. As the locomotive

stops slipping and starts moving--or worse still, slips forward by a

matter of inches and heats a different piece of rail--the heated spot

cools down very quickly to normal temperature, especially when the

weather is cold.


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This heat-quench process results in annealing of the rail steel

and causes substantial changes to its physical property. It can also

cause internal stresses to form within the steel structure. As the rail

surface cools, it may also become oxidized, or undergo other

chemical changes by reacting with impurities that are on the surface

of the rail. The net result of this process is that an area of the rail that

is more susceptible to crackage is created.

WHEEL FLAT-RELATED RAIL CRACKS:

If the brakes are dragging or the axle ceases to move on a rail

vehicle while the train is in motion, the wheel will be dragged along

the head of the rail, causing a 'flat spot' to develop on the wheel

surface where it contacts the rail. When the brakes are subsequently

released, the wheel will continue to roll around with the flat spot,

causing a banging noise with each rotation. This condition is known

as wheel out of round.

The banging of flat wheels on the rail causes a hammering

action that produces higher dynamic forces than a simple passage of

a round wheel. These dynamic forces can exacerbate a weak rail

condition and cause a rail crack.


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CHAPTER-2


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LITERATURE REVIEW

LITERATURE SURVEY

Railway track:


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Track-caused derailments are often caused by wide gauge. Proper

gauge, the distance between rails, is 56.5 inches (four feet, eight-

and-a-half inches) on standard gauge track. As tracks wear from train

traffic, the rails can develop a wear pattern that is somewhat uneven.

Uneven wear in the tracks can result in periodic oscillations in the

truck, called 'truck hunting.' Truck hunting can be a contributing

cause of derailments.

A rail breaks cleanly, it is relatively easy to detect. A track

occupancy light will light up in the signal tower indicating that a track

circuit has been interrupted. If there is no train in the section, the

signaler must investigate. One possible reason is a clean rail break.

For detecting the rail break this way, one has to use signal bonds that

are welded or pin brazed on the head of the rail. If one uses signal

bonds that are on the web of the rail, one will have a continued track

circuit.

If a rail is merely cracked or has an internal fissure, the track

circuit will not detect it, because a partially-broken rail will continue to

conduct electricity. Partial breaks are particularly dangerous because

they create the worst kind of weak point in the rail. The rail may then


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easily break under load--while a train is passing over it--at the point of

prior fissure.

RENEWABLE ENERGY:

Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources

such as sunlight wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat which are

renewable (naturally replenished). In 2006, about 18% of global final

energy consumption came from renewable, with 13% coming from

traditional biomass, such as wood-burning. Hydroelectricity was the

next largest renewable source, providing 3%, followed by solar hot

water/heating, which contributed 1.3%. Modern technologies, such as

geothermal energy, wind power, solar power, and ocean energy

together provided some 0.8% of final energy consumption.

Climate change concerns coupled with high oil prices, peak oil and

increasing government support are driving increasing renewable

energy legislation, incentives and commercialization. European Union

leaders reached an agreement in principle in March 2007 that 20

percent of their nations' energy should be produced from renewable

fuels by 2020, as part of its drive to cut emissions of carbon dioxide,

blamed in part for global warming. Investment capital flowing into


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renewable energy climbed from $80 billion in 2005 to a record $100

billion in 2006.

BENEFITS OF NATURAL ENERGY

It is cheap

Readily available in abundance

Pollution free

Less maintenance

Doesnt cause global warming

SOLAR ENERGY:

Solar electricity is generated directly from sunlight using solar or

photo-voltaic cells.the word photo voltaic refers to an electric voltage

caused by light. The solar cell is made up of semiconductor, in that

most solar cells are made of form of silicon semiconductor materials,

in that most solar cells are made of a form of silicon semiconductor.

This is a hard material that is either dark blue or red in

appearance .the blue cells are made as thin discs or squares, which

are quite fragile. the red type of silicon is coated on a glass as a thin

film, as sunlight shines on the surface of the silicon, electricity is


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generated by a process known as the photo voltaic effect, as in

physics.

Each silicon solar cell produces about 0.5V,so just several

batteries are needed to built the voltage up, solar cells are connected

together to produce a higher voltage that is more useful. Connected

in this way, they are often called solar panels but the name used by

the suppliers is solar cell modules. Photo-voltaic modules or just PV

modules.

SOLAR CELL:

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a wide area electronic device that

converts solar energy into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.

Photovoltaic is the field of technology and research related to the

application of solar cells as solar energy. Sometimes the term solar

cell is reserved for devices intended specifically to capture energy

from sunlight, while the term photovoltaic cell is used when the

source is unspecified. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar

modules, or photovoltaic arrays.


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APPLICATION OF SOLAR CELL:

Cells are used for powering small devices such as electronic

calculators.

Photovoltaic arrays generate a form of renewable electricity,

particularly useful in situations where electrical power from the

grid is unavailable such as in remote area power systems,

Earth-orbiting satellites and space probes, remote

radiotelephones and water pumping applications.

Photovoltaic electricity is also increasingly deployed in grid-tied

electrical systems. Similar devices intended to capture energy

from other sources include thermo photovoltaic cells,

betavoltaics cells, and optoelectric nuclear batteries.

ULTIMATE AIM

The aim of this project is to find out the cracks developed on

the railway tracks, due to continuous use or while manufacturing. This

is achieved by installing IR (Infra red) sensor and solar power to the

maintenance crews wagon.


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CHAPTER-3

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT


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CHAPTER-3

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENTS

3.1 BATTERY:

Battery is use for storing the energy produced from the solar

power. The battery used is a lead-acid type and has a capacity of

12v; 2.5A.the most inexpensive secondary cell is the lead acid cell

and is widely used for commercial purposes. A lead acid cell when

ready for use contains two plates immersed in a dilute sulphuric acid

(H2SO4) of specific gravity about 1.28.the positive plate (anode) is of

Lead peroxide (PbO2) which has chocolate brown colour and the

negative plate (cathode) is lead (Pb) which is of grey colour.

When the cell supplies current to a load (discharging), the chemical

action that takes place forms lead sulphate (PbSO4) on both the

plates with water being formed in the electrolyte. After a certain

amount of energy has been withdrawn from the cell, both plates are

transformed into the same material and the specific gravity of the

electrolyte (H2so4) is lowerd.the cell is then said to be discharged.

There are several methods to ascertain whether the cell is discharged

or not.


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To charge the cell, direct current is passed through the cell in

the reverse direction to that in which the cell provided current. This

reverses the chemical process and again forms a lead peroxide

(PbO2) positive plate and a pure lead (Pb) negative plate. At the

same time, (H2so4) is formed at the expense of water,restoring the

electrolyte (H2so4) to its original condition. The chemical changes that

Occur during discharging and recharging of a lead-acid cell

BATTERY CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:


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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM DETAILS:

In our project we are using secondary type battery. It is

rechargeable Type. A battery is one or more electrochemical cells,

which store chemical energy and make it available as electric current.

There are two types of batteries, primary (disposable) and secondary

(rechargeable), both of which convert chemical energy to electrical

energy. Primary batteries can only be used once because they use

up their chemicals in an irreversible reaction. Secondary batteries can

be recharged because the chemical reactions they use are reversible;

they are recharged by running a charging current through the battery,

but in the opposite direction of the discharge current. Secondary, also

called rechargeable batteries can be charged and discharged many

times before wearing out. After wearing out some batteries can be

recycled.

Batteries have gained popularity as they became portable and

useful for many purposes. The use of batteries has created many

environmental concerns, such as toxic metal pollution. A battery is a

device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy it


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consists of one or more voltaic cells. Each voltaic cell consists of two

half cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte.

One half-cell is the positive electrode, and the other is the

negative electrode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are

electrically connected by the electrolyte, which can be either solid or

liquid. A battery can be simply modeled as a perfect voltage source

which has its own resistance, the resulting voltage across the load

depends on the ratio of the battery's internal resistance to the

resistance of the load.

When the battery is fresh, its internal resistance is low, so the

voltage across the load is almost equal to that of the battery's internal

voltage source. As the battery runs down and its internal resistance

increases, the voltage drop across its internal resistance increases,

so the voltage at its terminals decreases, and the battery's ability to

deliver power to the load decreases.


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3.2 ir sensor:

Ir transmitter:

PLASTIC INFRARED LIGHT EMITTING DIODE:


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SCHEMATIC:


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DESCRIPTION:

The QED22X is an 880nm AIGAAS LED encapsulated in clear,

purple tinted, plastic T-1 package.

FEATURES:

=880nm

Chip material :AIGAAS

Package type:T-1 (5mm lens diameter)

Matched photo sensor: QSD 122/123/124

Medium wide emission angle: 40

High output power

Package material and colour: clear, purple tinted plastic.


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PLASTIC INFRARED LIGHT EMITTING DIODE:

Q221 Q222 Q223

ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS: (TA=250c unless otherwise

specified)

PARAMETER SYMBOL RATING UNITOperating

temperature

TOPR -40 to100 0C

Storage

temperature

TSTG -40 to100 0C

Solderingtemperature(iron)

TSOL-I 240 for 5 sec 0C

Soldering

temperature

(flow)

TSOL-F 260 for 10sec 0C

Continuous

forward current

IF 100 mA

Reverse voltage VR 5 VPower

dissipation

PD 200 mW

Peak forward

current

IF peak 1.5 A

Electrical /optical characteristics (TA =250C)

PARAMETERS TEST SYMBOL MIN TYP MAX UNITS


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CONDITIONSPeak emission

wavelength

IF=100mA PE - 880 - nm

Emission angle IF=100mA - +20 - deg

Forwardvoltage

IF=100mA,tp=20ms VF - - 1.7 V

Reverse

current

VR=5V IR - - 10 A

Radient

Intensity

QED221

IF=100mA,tp=20ms IE 10 - 20 mW/sr

RadientIntensity

QED222

IF=100mA,tp=20ms IE 16 - 32 mW/sr

Radient

Intensity

QED223

IF=100mA,tp=20ms IE 25 - - mW/sr

Rise time IF=100mA tr - 800 - nsFall time IF=100mA tf - 800 - ns

1. Derate power dissipation linearly 2.67 mW/C above 25C.

2. RMA flux is recommended.

3. Methanol or isopropyl alcohols are recommended as cleaning

agents.


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4. Soldering iron 1/16 (1.6mm) minimum from housing.

5. Pulse conditions; tp = 100 S, T = 10 ms.

IR RECEIVER:

PHOTO DIODE:

SPECTRALRANGE

TYPE TECHNOLOGY CASE

VISIBLE-RED EPD-660-5 AIGAAS/AIGAAS/GAAS

5mmPLASTICLENS

DESCRIPTION:

Narrow response range (660nm peak)

Single hetrostruture on the substrate

APPLICATIONS:

Optical communications

Safety equipment

DRAWING FOR IR RECEVER:


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MAXIMUM RATING:

PARAMETERS VALUE UNITStorage temperature -40 +90 0COperating

temperature

-40 +85 0C

Soldering

temperature

240 0C

OPTICAL AND ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

Temperature =25oC unless otherwise specified

PARAMETERS TEST

CONDITIONS

SYMBOLS MIN TYP MAX UNIT

Active area A 0.13 Mm2

Peak sensitivity smax 620 660 700 nmSpectral

bandwidth at

A 0.5 25 nm


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50%Acceptance

angle at 50% S

40 deg

Responsivity at

660 nm

Vr=0 V Se 0.42 A/W

Short-circuit

current

VR = 0,Ee=1mW/cm

ISC 0.85 A

Dark current VR = 5 V,

Ee=0

ID 40 200 pA

Reverse voltage IR = 10 A VR 10 VJunction

capacitance

VR = 0,

Ee=0

40 pF

Rise time

Fall time

RL = 50 ,

VR = 5 V

Tr

Tf

15

30

ns

Light source is an AIGaAs LED with a peak emission wavelength of

660 nm.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF IR TRANSIMITTER AND RECEIVER

CIRCUIT:


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Infrared transmitter is one type of LED which emits infrared rays

generally called as IR Transmitter. Similarly IR Receiver is used to

receive the IR rays transmitted by the IR transmitter. One important

point is both IR transmitter and receiver should be placed straight line

to each other.

The transmitted signal is given to IR transmitter whenever the

signal is high, the IR transmitter LED is conducting it passes the IR

rays to the receiver. The IR receiver is connected with comparator.

The comparator is constructed with LM 741 operational amplifier. In

the comparator circuit the reference voltage is given to inverting input

terminal. The non inverting input terminal is connected IR receiver.

When interrupt the IR rays between the IR transmitter and receiver,


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the IR receiver is not conducting. So the comparator non inverting

input terminal voltage is higher then inverting input. Now the

comparator output is in the range of +12V. This voltage is given to

base of the transistor Q1. Hence the transistor is conducting. Here

the transistor is act as switch so the collector and emitter will be

closed. The output is taken from collector terminal. Now the output is

zero.

When IR transmitter passes the rays to receiver, the IR receiver

is conducting due to that non inverting input voltage is lower than

inverting input. Now the comparator output is -12V so the transistor is

cutoff region. The 5v is given to 40106 IC which is the inverter with

buffer. The inverter output is given to microcontroller or PC. This

circuit is mainly used to for counting application, intruder detector etc.

3.3. MOTOR:

D.C.MOTOR PRINCIPLE:

A machine that converts direct current power into mechanical

power is known as D.C Motor. Its generation is based on the principle

that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field,


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the conductor experiences a mechanical force. The direction if this

force is given by Flemings left hand rule.

WORKING OF A DC MOTOR:

Consider a part of a multipolar dc motor as shown in fig. when the

terminals of the motor are connected to an external source of dc

supply;

(i) The field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S

poles.

(ii) The armature conductors carry currents. All conductors

under N-pole carry currents in one direction while all the

conductors under S-pole carry currents in the opposite

direction.

Suppose the conductors under N-pole carry currents into the plane

of paper and those under S-pole carry current out of the plane of

paper as shown in fig. Since each armature conductor is carrying

current and is placed in the magnetic field, mechanical force acts on

it. Applying Flemings left hand rule, it is clear that force on each

conductor is tending to rotate the armature in anticlockwise direction.

All these forces add together to produce a driving torque which sets


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the armature rotating. When the conductor moves from one side of

the brush to the other, current in the conductor is received and at the

same time it comes under the influence of next pole which is of

opposite polarity. Consequently the direction of force on the

conductor remains same.


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PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION:

In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism.

A current-carrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is

then placed in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force

proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the

external magnetic field. As you are well aware of from playing with

magnets as a kid, opposite (North and South) polarities attract, while

like polarities (North and North, South and South) repel. The internal

configuration of a DC motor is designed to harness the magnetic

interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an external

magnetic field to generate rotational motion.


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Let's start by looking at a simple 2-pole DC electric motor (here red

represents a magnet or winding with a "North" polarization, while

green represents a magnet or winding with a "South" polarization).

Every DC motor has six basic parts -- axle, rotor (armature), stator,

commutator, field magnet(s), and brushes. In most common DC

motors, the external magnetic field is produced by high-strength

permanent magnets. The stator is the stationary part of the motor --

this includes the motor casing, as well as two or more permanent

magnet pole pieces. The rotor (together with the axle and attached

commutator) rotate with respect to the stator. The rotor consists of

windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically

connected to the commutator. The above diagram shows a common

motor layout -- with the rotor inside the stator (field) magnets.


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The geometry of the brushes, commutator contacts, and rotor

windings are such that when power is applied, the polarities of the

energized winding and the stator magnet(s) are misaligned, and the

rotor will rotate until it is almost aligned with the stator's field

magnets. As the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move to the

next commutator contacts, and energize the next winding. Given our

example two-pole motor, the rotation reverses the direction of current

through the rotor winding, leading to a "flip" of the rotor's magnetic

field, driving it to continue rotating.

In real life, though, DC motors will always have more than two poles

(three is a very common number). In particular, this avoids "dead

spots" in the commutator. You can imagine how with our example

two-pole motor, if the rotor is exactly at the middle of its rotation

(perfectly aligned with the field magnets), it will get "stuck" there.

Meanwhile, with a two-pole motor, there is a moment where the

commutator shorts out the power supply. This would be bad for the

power supply, waste energy, and damage motor components as well.

Yet another disadvantage of such a simple motor is that it would

exhibit a high amount of torque "ripple" (the amount of torque it could

produce is cyclic with the position of the rotor).


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So since most small DC motors are of a three-pole design, let's tinker

with the workings of one via an interactive animation (JavaScript

required):


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A few things from this -- namely, one pole is fully energized at a time

(but two others are "partially" energized). As each brush transitions

from one commutator contact to the next, one coil's field will rapidly

collapse, as the next coil's field will rapidly charge up (this occurs

within a few microsecond). We'll see more about the effects of this

later, but in the meantime you can see that this is a direct result of the

coil windings' series wiring:

There's probably no better way to see how an average DC motor is

put together, than by just opening one up. Unfortunately this is


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tedious work, as well as requiring the destruction of a perfectly good

motor.

The guts of a disassembled Mabuchi FF-030-PN motor (the same

model that Solarbotics sells) are available for (on 10 lines / cm graph

paper). This is a basic 3-pole DC motor, with 2 brushes and three

commutator contacts.

The use of an iron core armature (as in the Mabuchi, above) is quite

common, and has a number of advantages. First off, the iron core

provides a strong, rigid support for the windings -- a particularly

important consideration for high-torque motors. The core also

conducts heat away from the rotor windings, allowing the motor to be

driven harder than might otherwise be the case. Iron core

construction is also relatively inexpensive compared with other

construction types.

But iron core construction also has several disadvantages. The iron

armature has a relatively high inertia which limits motor acceleration.

This construction also results in high winding inductances which limit

brush and commutator life.

In small motors, an alternative design is often used which features a

'coreless' armature winding. This design depends upon the coil wire


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itself for structural integrity. As a result, the armature is hollow, and

the permanent magnet can be mounted inside the rotor coil.

Coreless DC motors have much lower armature inductance than iron-

core motors of comparable size, extending brush and commutator

life.

The coreless design also allows manufacturers to build smaller

motors; meanwhile, due to the lack of iron in their rotors, coreless

motors are somewhat prone to overheating. As a result, this design is

generally used just in small, low-power motors. Beamers will most

often see coreless DC motors in the form of pager motors.

Again, disassembling a coreless motor can be instructive -- in this

case, my hapless victim was a cheap pager vibrator motor. The guts


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of this disassembled motor are available (on 10 lines / cm graph

paper). This is (or more accurately, was) a 3-pole coreless DC motor.

3.4. GEAR:

The gear is made out of nylon. The gears used in this project are spur

gears. Spur gears are the simplest and most common type of gear.

Their general form is a cylinder or disk. The teeth project radially, and

with these "straight-cut gears", the leading edges of the teeth are

aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can only mesh

correctly if they are fitted to parallel axles

WHEEL AND PINION:

Whenever two toothed wheels are in mesh. The large wheel is

called as the gear and the smaller one as the pinion, regardless of

which one is the driver.

GEAR MATERIAL:

Numerous nonferrous alloys, cast irons, powder-metallurgy and

even plastics are used in the manufacture of gears. However steels

are most commonly used because of their high strength to weight

ratio and low cost. Plastic is commonly used where cost or weight is a


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concern. A properly designed plastic gear can replace steel in many

cases; It often has desirable properties. They can tolerate dirt, low

speed meshing, and "skipping" quite well. Manufacturers have

employed plastic to make consumer items affordable. This includes

copy machines, optical storage devices, VCRs, cheap dynamos,

consumer audio equipment, servo motors, and printers.

3.5 RAILWAY TRACK:

Rail tracks are used on railways (or railroads), which, together

with railroad switches (or points), guide trains without the need for

steering. Tracks consist of two parallel steel rails, which are laid upon

sleepers (or cross ties) that are embedded in ballast to form the

railroad track. The rail is fastened to the ties with rail spikes, lag

screws or clips such as Pandrol clips.

The type of fastener depends partly on the type of sleeper, with

spikes being used on wooden sleepers, and clips being used more on

concrete sleepers.

Usually, a base plate tie plate is used between the rail andwooden sleepers, to spread the load of the rail over a larger area of

the sleeper. Sometimes spikes are driven through a hole in the base


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plate to hold the rail, while at other times the base plates are spiked

or screwed to the sleeper and the rails clipped to the base plate.

Steel rails can carry heavier loads than any other material.

Railroad ties spread the load from the rails over the ground and also

serve to hold the rails a fixed distance apart (called the gauge.)

Rail tracks are normally laid on a bed of coarse stone chippings

known as ballast, which combines resilience, some amount of

flexibility, and good drainage. Steel rails can also be laid onto a

concrete slab (a slab track). Across bridges, track is often laid on ties

across longitudinal timbers

3.6CONTROL UNIT:

In our project the main device is micro controller. It is help to

control the whole unit of this project. In this we are using the motor to

run the rear wheel to move on the track. In the front of the front wheel

they are placed the sensor, which is connected through the control

unit. The unit is connected with the battery.

Microcontrollers are destined to play an increasingly important

role in revolutionizing various industries and influencing our day to

day life more strongly than one can imagine. Since its emergence in

the early 1980's the microcontroller has been recognized as a


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general purpose building block for intelligent digital systems. It is

finding using diverse area, starting from simple children's toys to

highly complex spacecraft. Because of its versatility and many

advantages, the application domain has spread in all conceivable

directions, making it ubiquitous. As a consequence, it has generate a

great deal of interest and enthusiasm among students, teachers and

practicing engineers, creating an acute education need for imparting

the knowledge of microcontroller based system design and

development. It identifies the vital features responsible for their

tremendous impact; the acute educational need created by them and

provides a glimpse of the major application area.

A microcontroller is a complete microprocessor system built on

a single IC. Microcontrollers were developed to meet a need for

microprocessors to be put into low cost products. Building a complete

microprocessor system on a single chip substantially reduces the

cost of building simple products, which use the microprocessor's

power to implement their function, because the microprocessor is a

natural way to implement many products. This means the idea of

using a microprocessor for low cost products comes up often. But the

typical 8-bit microprocessor based system, such as one using a Z80


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and 8085 is expensive. Both 8085 and Z80 system need some

additional circuits to make a microprocessor system. Each part

carries costs of money. Even though a product design may require

only very simple system, the parts needed to make this system as a

low cost product.

To solve this problem microprocessor system is implemented

with a single chip microcontroller. This could be called

microcomputer, as all the major parts are in the IC. Most frequently

they are called microcontroller because they are used they are used

to perform control functions.

The microcontroller contains full implementation of a standard

MICROPROCESSOR, ROM, RAM, I/0, CLOCK, TIMERS, and also

SERIAL PORTS. Microcontroller also called "system on a chip" or

"single chip microprocessor system" or "computer on a chip".

A microcontroller is a Computer-On-A-Chip, or, if you prefer, a

single-chip computer. Micro suggests that the device is small, and

controller tells you that the device' might be used to control objects,

processes, or events. Another term to describe a microcontroller is

embedded controller, because the microcontroller and its support

circuits are often built into, or embedded in, the devices they control.


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Today microcontrollers are very commonly used in wide variety

of intelligent products. For example most personal computers

keyboards and implemented with a microcontroller. It replaces

Scanning, Debounce, Matrix Decoding, and Serial transmission

circuits. Many low cost products, such as Toys, Electric Drills,

Microwave Ovens, VCR and a host of other consumer and industrial

products are based on microcontrollers.


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CHAPTER-4

DESIGN AND DRAWING


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CHAPTER-IV

DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT AND DRAWING

4.1 COMPONENTS AND ITS SPECIFICATION

The railway track crack detector consists of the following

components to full fill the requirements of complete operation of the

machine.

1. Track2. Battery

3. Control unit

4. Motor

5. Gears

4.1 GENERAL MACHINE SPECIFICATIONS:

TRACK:

Length of the track = 1770mm

Height of the track = 45mm

Width of the track = 230mm

Material of the track: mild steel

STAND:

Height of the stand = 280mm


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Width of the stand: 230mm

Length of the stand = 325mm

Material of the stand: mild steel

Quantity =1

WHEEL:

Inner diameter of the wheel = 60mm

Outer diameter of the wheel = 70mm

Inner thickness of the wheel = 5mm

Outer thickness of the wheel = 2mm

Material of the wheel: mild steel

Quantity =4

WHEEL ROD:

Length of the rod = 225mm

Diameter of the rod =8mm

Material of the rod = mild steel

Quantity = 2

DRIVE GEAR:

Diameter of the gear =30mm

Thickness of the gear =10mm

No of teeth = 24


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Material of the gear: nylon

Quantity = 1

SPUR GEAR:

Diameter of the gear = 55mm

Thickness of the gear = 10mm

No of teeth =50

Material of the gear: nylon

Quantity = 1

MOTOR:

Length of the motor = 170mm

Height of the motor = 60mm

Dia of the motor = 60mm

Quantity =1

General unit

Size of machine (L x H x W) :325mm x280mm x 230mm


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DRAWING


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SOLAR OPERATED RAILWAY TRACK CRACK

DETECTOR


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Chapter-5


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FABRICATION

CHAPTER-V

FABRICATION

METHOD OF FABRICATION:

Here we are finding the cracks in the railway track with the help

of sensors. In our project the sensor is placed in the front of the front

wheel. When the model is moving in the track with the help of motor

with gear arrangement to the rear wheel. The motor is runs with

power supply it gets from the battery. The model is move on the track

the sensor is send the signal where the crack is occur are not ,on the

time of crack is find out it will send the signal to the control unit. The


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control unit is also is controlled by the battery.the lead acid battery

charging by solar power.this solar panel fixed horizontal another

rectangle plate.

Chapter -6

WORKING PRINCIPLE


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CHAPTER-VI

WORKING PRINCIPLE

In this project we are using the sensor to find out the crack in

the track; this will be useful for the production of track and Track

maintenance. Track needs regular maintenance to remain in good

order, especially when high-speed trains are involved. Inadequate

maintenance may lead to a "slow order" being imposed to avoid

accidents Track maintenance was at one time hard manual labour,

requiring teams of labourers who used levers to force rails back into

place on steep turns, correcting the gradual shifting caused by the

centripetal force of passing trains. Currently, maintenance is

facilitated by a variety of specialized machines.


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In our project we are using the machine with the help of sensor

used to find the crack in the track. The sensor is placed in the front of

the front wheel and the controlled by the control unit. When the

moving of the rear wheel with the help of motor with the gear

arrangement the total model is move on that time the sensor send the

signal to the control unit where the crack is in the track are not.

CHAPTER -7

MERITS AND DEMERITS


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CHAPTER-VII

MERITS

Low cost

Reliable

Compact in size


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Chapter-8

APPLICATIONS


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CHAPTER-VIII

APPLICATIONS

It is applicable in the production industries and the

track maintenance


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CHAPTER-9

LIST OF MATERIALS


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CHAPTER-IX

LIST OF MATERIALS

FACTORS DETERMINING THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS

The various factors which determine the choice of material are

discussed below.

1. Properties:

The material selected must posses the necessary properties for

the proposed application. The various requirements to be satisfied

Can be weight, surface finish, rigidity, ability to withstand

environmental attack from chemicals, service life, reliability etc.

The following four types of principle properties of materials

decisively affect their selection


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a. Physical

b. Mechanical

c. From manufacturing point of view

d. Chemical

The various physical properties concerned are melting point, thermal

Conductivity, specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific

gravity, electrical conductivity, magnetic purposes etc.

The various Mechanical properties Concerned are strength in tensile,

Compressive shear, bending, torsional and buckling load, fatigue

resistance, impact resistance, eleastic limit, endurance limit, and

modulus of elasticity, hardness, wear resistance and sliding

properties.

The various properties concerned from the manufacturing point

of view are,

Cast ability

Weld ability

Surface properties

Shrinkage

Deep drawing etc.


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2. Manufacturing case:

Sometimes the demand for lowest possible manufacturing cost or

surface qualities obtainable by the application of suitable coating

substances may demand the use of special materials.

3. Quality Required:

This generally affects the manufacturing process and ultimately

the material. For example, it would never be desirable to go casting of

a less number of components which can be fabricated much more

economically by welding or hand forging the steel.

4. Availability of Material:

Some materials may be scarce or in short supply. It then

becomes obligatory for the designer to use some other material which

though may not be a perfect substitute for the material designed. the

delivery of materials and the delivery date of product should also be

kept in mind.

5. Space consideration:

Sometimes high strength materials have to be selected because the

forces involved are high and space limitations are there.

6. Cost:


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As in any other problem, in selection of material the cost of

material plays an important part and should not be ignored.

Some times factors like scrap utilization, appearance, and non-

maintenance of the designed part are involved in the selection of

proper materials.

S.No DESCIRPTION QTY Material

1 Stand 1 M.S2 Wheels 4 M.S3 Wheel rod 2 M.S4 Motor 1 Cast iron

5 I.R sensor 1 Electronic6 Control unit 1 Electronic7 Spur Gear 1 nylon8 Drive gear 1 nylon


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Chapter-10

COST ESTIMATION


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Chapter-x

COST ESTIMATION

1. MATERIAL COST.

S.No DESCRIPTION QTY MATERIAL AMOUNT

(Rs)

1 Stand 1 M.S2 Wheels 4 M.S3 Wheel rod 2 M.S4 Motor 1 Cast iron5 I.R sensor 1 Electronic

6 Control unit 1 Electronic7 Spur Gear 1 nylon8 Drive gear 1 nylon

2. LABOUR COST:

Lathe, drilling, welding, grinding, power hacksaw, gas cutting cost

3. OVERGHEAD CHARGES:

The overhead charges are arrived by manufacturing cost

Manufacturing Cost =Material Cost +Labour Cost


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=

=

Overhead Charges =20%of the manufacturing cost

=

4.TOTAL COST:

Total cost = Material Cost +Labour Cost +Overhead Charges

=

=

Total cost for this project =


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Chapter-11

CONCLUSION


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CHAPTER-XI

CONCLUSION

The project carried out by us made an impressing task in the

field of railway department. It is very useful for the workers work in

the production of track.

This project will reduce the cost involved in the concern. Project

has been designed to perform the entire requirement task at the

shortest time available.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Design data book -P.S.G.Tech.

2. Machine tool design handbook Central machine tool

Institute, Bangalore.

3. Strength of Materials -R.S.Kurmi

4. Manufaturing Technology -M.Haslehurst.

5. Design of machine elements- R.s.Kurumi


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PHOTOGRAPHY


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