source

Tirupati                                                              

        

                   

       

                   

Dhasavatharam

Statues at

Dhasavathara

Mandapam

 

 

 

 

 

 

source

The Metaphysical Architecture of the Temple                                                                            The basic plan of a Hindu temple is an expression of sacred geometry where the temple is visualized as a grand mandala. By sacred geometry we mean a science which has as its purpose the accurate laying out of the temple ground plan in relation to the cardinal directions and the heavens. Characteristically, a mandala is a sacred shape consisting of the intersection of a circle and a square.The square shape is symbolic of earth, signifying the four directions which bind and define it. Indeed, in Hindu thought whatever concerns terrestrial life is governed by the number four (four castes; the four Vedas etc.). Similarly, the circle is logically the perfect metaphor for heaven since it is a perfect shape, without beginning or end, signifying timelessness and eternity, a characteristically divine attribute. Thus a mandala (and by extension the temple) is the meeting ground of heaven and earth.

Rajaraja Cholan, The Great Chola King

RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE ON ARCHITECTURE:

The Hindu religion played a vital part in the development of the Khmer temple. This religion became established in Cambodia by the second or

third century and temples were built to honor Hindu gods.

It was Jayavarman II (c. AD800 to AD850) who introduced the cult of devaraja into Cambodia, establishing the king as a representative of the

Hindu god Siva. From this time temples were being built to honor both the god and the king. During the next two reigns, the practice of each new king

building his own temple which became his tomb on his death, was firmly established.

It was also Jayavarman II who made the first attempt at a [Map / pyramid temple], imitating the cosmic mountain of Hindu mythology, Mount Meru. This form would gradually evolve over the next 350 years to its most

complex and brilliant creation, the Temple of [Map / Angkor Wat].

Intricately Carved Sculpture of a Dancer, Belurhttp://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/hoysala/3344.htm

The Hoysala dynasty: 1000 A.D. to 1346 A.D. Founded by a tribal chief Nripa Kama, the dynasty is well remembered for the beautifully carved temples of Belur, Halebidu, Somanathapur, Shravanabelagola and others. Sandwiched between the Cholas to the

south and the Badami Chalukyas in the north, Hoysala kings had a difficult time to keep their

kingdom intact. But this did not affect their prosperity and administrative stability. Like most kings from Karnataka, Hoysalas were famous for

their religious tolerance. They were also great patrons of art and culture.

KHAJURAHO

Shakti - Power and Femininity in Indian Art

Long ago, there reigned a mighty king named Ila. Once while hunting, he came upon a grove where Shiva was making love with Parvati, and surprise of surprises, Shiva had taken the form of a woman to please her. Everything in the woods, even the trees had become female, and as he approached even King Ila himself was transformed into a

woman! Shiva laughed out aloud and told him to ask for any boon except that of masculinity.

Thus says the Shaktisangama Tantra:Woman is the creator of the universe,

the universe is her form;woman is the foundation of the world,

she is the true form of the body.In woman is the form of all things,

of all that lives and moves in the world.There is no jewel rarer than woman,

no condition superior to that of a woman.

No wonder even the most powerful of gods, like Shiva above, crave to enter the feminine form, hoping to acquire at least some of her glorious power.

According to the Devi-Mahatmya:By you this universe is borne,By you this world is created,

O Devi, by you it is protected.source

The Alvars

The earliest saints who appeared after Buddhist era on the Indian scene were Alvars (a.k.a. Alwars). They came from present day Tamilnadu. 

According to modern scholars the Alvars flourished between seventh and ninth centuries A.D. They were worshippers of Vishnu and are known as Bhagavata (followers of  Lord Vishnu; also known as Vaishnavas). Vishnu's incarnation is Krishna, who for is popular in Western India. The Guptas in North and Pallavas

in South were followers of Vishnu and Bhagavata teachings. The Alvars who are twelve in number were great mystics and sang their mystic experiences in simple poems known as Pashuras composed in ecstatic love towards the Lord

which depict different bhavas (attitudes). The greatest Alvar was Nammalvar, also known as Satakopan  and belonged to

lowly Vellala caste. He composed four Tamil Vedas-- Thiruvaimoli,  his famous hymn speaks of God as all pervading spiritual principle who assumes different

human forms for the upliftment of devotees. 

The Path of Bhakti 

source

               

King- sage Basaveshwara who founded the Veerashaivism in the 12th centuryBasaveshwara showed common people a new path to reach God -- one through their vocation.                Sage Basaveshwara who founded the Lingayat cult in 12th century.

http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/kar/literature/history4.htm

King- sage Basavanna (a.k.a. Basaveshwara)stood for equality for all and dreamt of a castelesssociety. He criticized all forms of social injustice,condemned vehemently several superstitions and

animal sacrifice, and taught that the path ofdevotion was the best way for self-realization. Headvocated equal opportunity for women with menin all fields: social, religious, and economic. Thesereforms attracted devotees from the lower strata of society along with highly placed and educated

people as well. Thus there were shoemakers(Madara Dhulayya), cowherds ( Ramanna ),

tailors ( Sujikayakada Ramitande), basketmakers( Medara Ketayya ), and a carpenter ( bachi

Kayakada Basappa). All of them turned greatdevotees and Vachanakaras. Kayakave Kailasa

--work is worship -- becamethe mantra. Their Vachanas born out of theirrespective vocations are full of imagery and

liveliness.Cripple me, father,

that I may not go here and there,Blind me, father,

that I may not look at this and that,Deafen me, father,

that I may not hear anything else.Keep me

at your men's feetlooking for nothing else,

O lord of the meeting rivers.by Basavanna

Translated by A. K. Ramanujan

The Bhakti Movement800 A.D - 1700 A.D. 

Bhakti movement is responsible for the many rites and rituals associated with the worship of God by Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs.

Consider music: Kirtan at a Hindu Temple, Qawalli at a Dargah (by Muslims), and Gurbani at a Gurdwara derive from the Bhakti movement. (800-1700). "The word bhakti is derived from Bhakta meaning to serve, honour, revere, love and adore. In the religious idiom, it is attachment or fervent devotion to God and is defined as "that particular affection which

is generated by the knowledge of the attributes of the Adorable One." The concept is traceable to the Vedas where its intimations are audible in

the hymns addressed to deities such as Varuna, Savitra and Usha. However, the word bhakti does not occur there. The word occurs for the

first time in the Upanisads where it appears with the co-doctrines of grace and self surrender." ( Heritage of the Sikhs, Harbans Singh) 

source

Bhakti movement spawned several different movments all across North and South India. In North India, Bhakti movement merged with Sufi movement. People of Muslim faith adopted it as a Sufis while Hindus as Vaisanava Bhakti.

In the north the cult was essentially Vaisnava-based, but instead of being focussed on Vishnu, it chose to focus itself on Vishnu's human incarnations, Rama and Krishna, the respective avatars or deities central to the two epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. For bhakti now Visnu's incarnations ( Rama and Krisna) were the direct objects of devotion. Adoration of the devotees was focussed on them in association with their respective consorts: Sita with Rama; and Rukmini, his wedded wife, or Radha, his Gopika companion, with Krisna.

Singing of Bhajans and dancing formed an important part of this worship. The dancers were deva-dasis (female slaves of the deity) inside the temple, but nagar-badhus (public wives) outside. Apart frorn being overwhelmingly ritualistic, the worship tended to be intensely emotional. (Heritage of the Sikhs, Sardar Harbans Singh)  source

Sultan to Shah en Shah: The Padshahnama

Total Acres in All Grant Categories Acres in Madad-I-Maash Sanads

Total % Total Total % of

All in Acres Total

Categories each period   Sanad% of Madad-I-Maash

total

      Acres in each period

1658-1707 2246 4% 2009 89% 6%

1707-1712 114 0% 75 66% 0%

1713-1719 43 0% 43 100% 0%

1719-1748 19694 36% 9858 50% 31%

1748-1754 17375 32% 13127 76% 41%

1754-1759 14531 27% 8588 59% 27%

54003 100% 32120 59% 100%

Mughal Land Grants in East Bengal

Total Number of Mughal Grants

Brahmottar

Devottar

Hindu Madad-i-Mash

Muslim Madad-i-Mash

Chiraghi

Sivottar

Visnottar

Acres Per Sanad Grant

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

1658-1707 1707-1712 1713-1719 1719-1748 1748-1754 1754-1759

periods

Acr

es p

er S

anad

Avg Hindu Muslim

Imperial Spaces in Southern Asia, 1770-1840: Economic Globalization and Military Investments

Imperial core territories from ancient to modern

times extend across Ganga River basin

• … and spread like the Gupta empire (4-5C) to embrace north, west, east, and south, along routes of trade, conquest, and cultural expansion

Dispersion of imperial technologies produced many imperial domains, expansive yet compact, each with its own core territory,

spread across southern Asia in the wake of the Mongols.

… forming the political scene when Vasco da Gama arrived, in 1498