58
Spark – half life equations
Amount left = Initial amount x (0.5)(number of half lives)
(number of half-lives = total time/time of one half-life)
The half life of plutonium-238 is 27.1 years. If the original sample contains 12 grams of Pu, then how much will remain after 145 years?
Handouts
Einstein’s letter to President Roosevelt
Song lyrics by ex-attorney, folk singer Fred Small about the laughable solution the government had to a nuclear castastrophe.
CHARACTERISTICS & MEDICAL EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS
Spark
• What are the dangers of radiation and radioactive fallout?
• How/where should an atomic bomb be detonated to maximize blast intensity? Radio-fallout exposure?
• What are the symptoms of radiation exposure?
Objectives
• Match the type of nuclear weapons burst with its description.
• Recognize the medical effects of thermal, blast, radiation and combined injuries.
• List the environmental consequences of thermal, blast and radiation.
Overview
• Types of Ionizing Radiation• Terms• Types of Bursts• Medical and Environmental Effects of Thermal
Radiation• Medical and Environmental Effects of the Blast
Wave
• Medical and Environmental Effects of Radiation:
• Medical effects of Combined injuries• Detection, Protection & Patient
Decontamination
REFERENCE:
• Air Force Handbook 32-4014, USAF Ability to Survive and Operate Procedures in a Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (NBC) Environment
• Ionization– The separation of an electrically neutral atom
or molecule into electrically charged components termed an ion pair.
– This is accomplished by removal of one or more electrons from an atom or molecule, which then becomes a positively charged ion.
TERMS
TERMS
• Ionizing Radiation – A radioactive source which has gone through the ion process.
• Alpha Radiation: A particulate with a very short range (2 to 3 inches). Has low penetration power and will not penetrate skin. Primarily an inhalation or internal hazard. This is the most ionizing form of radiation.
TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION
• Beta: Particulate with a medium range approximately 26 ft. Medium penetration power. Will penetrate the skin and cause beta burns.
TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION
I-131 use in medicine
• A pheochromocytoma tumor is seen as a dark sphere in the center of the body (it is in the left adrenal gland). The image is by MIBG scintigraphy, showing the tumor by radiation from radioiodine in the MIBG.
• Gamma/x-ray: Electromagnetic Radiation has no charge. Very penetrating and absorbed by dense material i.e. lead. Primarily a hazard to living tissue. Gamma and xray are identical.
TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION
• Neutron: A particulate that is very penetrating. Neutrons are required to initiate the fission process. Large quantities produced in a nuclear explosion. May cause some things to become radioactive.
TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION
• Nuclear Detonation - Occurs as a result of the unstable isotopes of uranium or plutonium interaction with itself, thus causing a chain reaction at the subatomic level. To achieve this reaction the uranium or plutonium must have critical mass.
TERMS
• Air Burst: Detonation at such a height that the expanding fireball does not touch the earth’s surface. Blast, Thermal, and Prompt radiation are maximized.
TYPES OF BURSTS
Surface Burst: • Detonation at the surface of the land or
water or at the height above the surface less than the radius of the fireball.
• Fireball must make contact with the surface.
• Maximizes fallout, and blast and thermal effects are reduced.
TYPES OF BURSTS
• Subsurface Burst: – Detonation where the center of the weapon is located below the
earth or water surface. – No Thermal or Prompt radiation, but may be some local fallout if
weapon vents to the surface. • High Altitude Detonation
– Detonation at an altitude of above 100,000 feet. – Specifically designed to cause an electromagnetic pulse (EMP).
TYPES OF BURSTS
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
• Blast - 50% of the energy• Thermal - 35 % of the energy• Radiation - 15% of the energy
– 10% - fallout or residual radiation– 5% - prompt radiation which is gamma/neutron
and occurs during the first 60 seconds
• Characteristics: HOT!...millions of degrees– Travels at the speed of light: 186,000 mps – Travels in a straight line– Has little penetration and is easily absorbed– Emission time will increase with yield (larger the
bomb the longer the emission)
Medical and Environmental Effects of Thermal Radiation:
• Pulses:– Light - First Thermal Pulse - Short range, little
power, basically UV & X-ray radiation – Heat - Second Thermal Pulse - Longer lasting,
more energy, and longer range.
Medical and Environmental Effects of Thermal Radiation:
• Medical Effects:– First Thermal Pulse - Flash blindness and retinal
burns– Second Thermal Pulse - Skin Burns– Factors that Effect Burns:
• Length of exposure• Percent of body exposed• Amount of energy per unit area of body
Medical and Environmental Effects of Thermal Radiation:
Medical and Environmental Effects of Thermal Radiation:
• Boy exposed to thermal rays about 1.5 miles from the hypocenter. February 1946.
• Environmental Effects: Firestorms, burning buildings, and toxic gases
Medical and Environmental Effects of Thermal Radiation:
Medical and Environmental Effects of the Blast Wave:
• Blast Wave: a wave of compressed air traveling at the speed of sound.
• Components:– Static Overpressure: Crushing, squeezing force
that surround objects. This can be measured in PSI above atmospheric pressure.
– Dynamic winds - Gale force winds associated with blast wave. Causes damage by pushing, tumbling, or tearing apart.
• Medical Effects:– Primary/Direct: Static overpressure results form
overpressure compression or decompression. Ex Pneumothorax, air embolisms, ruptured organs.
– Secondary/indirect - Dynamic gale force winds and flying objects
• Crushing injuries - debris falling on you• Missile injuries - debris flying at you• Translational Injuries - (with winds in excess of 250 mph) -
You become airborne.
Medical and Environmental Effects of the Blast Wave:
• Environmental Effects: High winds and pressure knock things down.
Medical and Environmental Effects of the Blast Wave:
• Prompt Radiation: Occurs within the first minute of detonation and consists of Gamma
(Electromagnetic) and Neutron (Particulate)
Medical and Environmental Effects of Radiation:
• Residual Radiation (Fallout): – Early Fallout: the fallout that retuns to earth
during the first 24 hours after detonation. This is the MOST hazardous type of fallout.
– Delayed Fallout: Experienced after the first 24 hours. Long term medical hazard due to long lived radioisotopes which get dispersed over large area. Considered long term health hazard.
Medical and Environmental Effects of Radiation:
Comparison of Radiation Terms U.S. unit SI unit Description FormulasCurie (Ci) Becquerel (Bq) Amount of radioactivity produced by
a given amount of a substance. 1 Ci = 37 billion Bq
1 Bq = 1 particle emission per
second
rad Gray (Gy) Amount of radiation required to deposit a certain amount of energy in
some substance.
1 Gy = 100 rad1 rad = 100 erg/g
rem Sievert (Sv) Amount of radiation required to deposit a certain amount of energy in
human tissue.
rem = rad × Q1 Sv = 100 rem
Roentgen (R)
N/A Amount of radiation required to ionize a mass of air to a certain
degree.
1 R = 0.93 rad
• Acute Effects:– Early Fallout: Causes acute effects which are
beta burns and Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS) which is a condition caused by acute exposure to radiation
• 0-100 RAD Subcritical• 400-500 RAD = LD 50• > 1000 RAD = LD 99.
Medical and Environmental Effects of Radiation (Acute):
Effect DoseBlood count changes 50 remVomiting (threshold) 100 remMortality (threshold) 150 remLD50/60
* (with minimal supportive care) 320 – 360 remLD50/60 (with supportive medical treatment) 480 – 540 rem100% mortality (with best available treatment) 800 rem
(Adapted from NCRP Report No. 98 "Guidance on Radiation Received in Space Activities, NCRP, Bethesda, MD (1989))
* The LD50/60 is that dose at which 50%of the exposed population will die within 60 days.
• Stages of ARS:– Prodomal - People getting sick– Latent - A feeling of well being that lasts 14-21
days– Acute - The patient get sick again– Recovery - The patient gets better or dies
Medical and Environmental Effects of Radiation (Acute):
• Body Systems are Affected in sequential order:– Hemopoetic System - Blood forming cells and
bone marrow– Digestive System– Cardiovascular System– CNS
Medical and Environmental Effects of Radiation (Acute):
• Delayed Fallout causes chronic effects such as cancers, genetic mutations, and growth defects.
• Factors that Affect Severity: – What was the radiation dose?– How was the dose distributed (Whole body or
small area)– Length of time exposed
Medical and Environmental Effects of Radiation (Chronic):
• Environmental Effects: – fallout contamination of food & water– Biological uptake of radiological chemicals
Medical and Environmental Effects of Radiation
Medical effects of COMBINED injuries.
• Combined blast, thermal and radiation effects are greater than individual effects...a synergistic effect
• Prognosis worse if radiation is combined with thermal or blast or both
Detection, Protection & Patient Decontamination
• Detected & Measured: ADM 300• Remove fallout contamination by brushing,
clothing removal, shower• Vacuum with HEPA filter vacuum• Risk to Medical Personnel
– Fallout on clothing/skin/wounds– Inhalation (Alpha/Beta)– Ingestion (Alpha/Beta)
Summary
• Types of Ionizing Radiation• Terms• Types of Bursts• Medical and Environmental Effects of Thermal
Radiation• Medical and Environmental Effects of the Blast
Wave
• Medical and Environmental Effects of Radiation:
• Medical effects of Combined injuries• Detection, Protection & Patient
Decontamination
http://www.ki4u.com/survive/index.htm#light_and_heat
http://www.defconwarningsystem.com/documents/The%20Effects%20of%20Nuclear%20War.pdf
http://www.atomicarchive.com/index.shtml
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