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Volume 21, Number 1, Spring 2012
General Education and Special Education TeachersCollaborate to Support English Language Learners
with Learning Disabilities
Huong Tran NguyenCalifornia State University, Long Beach
Issues in Teacher Education, Spring 2012
Introduction
TheCensus2000Brief(U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,2004b)in-dicatesthatEnglishisnottheheritagelanguageofapproximatelyoneinfiveAmericans,andthenumberoflimitedEnglishproficient(LEP)students,alsoknownasEnglishlanguagelearners(ELLs),grewabout50percentinthelastdecade.Itisestimatedthatnearly400,000ELLstudentsingradesK-12wereidentifiedasneedingspecialeducationservicesintheschoolyear2001-2002(McCardle,McCarthy-Mele,Cut-ting,Leos,&D’Emilio(2005).Paradoxically,thereisanover-representa-tion,andalsoanunder-representation,ofstudentsinspecialeducationprograms(Artiles&Ortiz,2002;Klingneretal.,2006;IndividualsWithDisabilitiesEducationActAmendments,1997).MoreresearchneedstobeconductedtodecipherwhetherELLsstruggletodevelopliteracybecause of their limited English proficiency or because they have alearning disability (Klingner, et al., 2006). Not surprisingly, generaleducation(GE)teachershesitatetoreferstudentstospecialeducationbecausetheyareunsureifthechallengestheseELLsfacerelatetoasecond languageacquisitionora learningdisability (LD) issue (U.S.DepartmentofEducation,USDOE,&NationalInstituteofHealthand
Huong Tran Nguyen is an associate professor in the College of Educa-tion at California State University, Long Beach. Her email address is [email protected]
Innovative Practices
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HumanDevelopment,NICHD,2003).AccordingtoArtiles,Rueda,Salazar,andHigareda(2005),thepatternofover-representationofstudentsinspecialeducationprogramsoftenoccurindistrictswithasizableELLpopulation, especiallyamongolder studentswith limitedproficiencyinboththeirfirstlanguageandEnglish.Itisnotknownhowdistrictsdetermineplacementofstudentsintheseprograms;theirdecisionmaybebasedonstudents’lackofproficiencyinthefirstlanguage,familypov-erty,assessmentprocedures,orreferralbias(Artiles&Klingner,2006).Hence,thetaskofidentifyingELLsforeligibilityinspecialeducationbecomescomplexforeducatorswhomuststillcarryitoutthistaskintheirlocalcontexts.WhoareELLs?WhoareELLswithLD?WhoareGEteachersofthesestudents?Whattypeofprofessionaldevelopmentdoallteachersneedtoworkwithallstudents?
Methodology
ThisarticleisnotareviewofallempiricalresearchaboutELLsandELLswithLDwhoexperienceavarietyofreadingdifficultiesorasynthe-sisofallavailablestudiesbasedonthisbroadspectrum.Itisbeyondthescaleofthisarticletoaddresseverysinglerange,type,andseverity(mild,moderate,severe),andscope(intensity,duration,frequency)oflearningdisabilitiesacrossthedisciplines(e.g.,math,science,socialstudies,Englishcomposition).Rather,theauthoracknowledgesthat,whileresearchershaveyettoassertwithconfidencethatthedifficultiesELLsfaceinschoolareattributedtoalanguageacquisitionissue,alearningdisability,orboth,allteachersareexpectedtoaddressthecomplexneedsofstudentsundertheircare.ThisarticlesuggestscollaborationbetweenGEandspecialeducation(SE)teachers,otherspecialists (ESL/ELD,speech,reading),and/orstafftoworktogethertodesignappropriatelearningexperiencesforELLsandELLswithLD.Theauthoralsosuggestsresearch-basedmethodsandstrategiesthatallteacherscanuseintheleastrestrictiveenvironment(LRE)toprovideshelteredinstructionwithinthecontextofculturallyresponsivepedagogy. InorderforteacherstoprovideshelteredinstructiontoELLstudents,theymusthaveknowledgeofthesestudents’Englishproficiencylevels,asdeterminedbytheCaliforniaEnglishLanguageDevelopmentTestorCEDLT(beginning,earlyintermediate,intermediate,earlyadvanced,ad-vanced),toplanrelevantactivitiesandposelanguageappropriatequestions.ResultsfromtheCELDTtestalsoinformaschoolastotheappropriateclassinwhichthestudentmustbeplaced.TheclassesrangefromELDI(beginning),ELDII(earlyintermediate),ELDIII(intermediate),toacontent-specificSheltered Instruction orSpecially Designed Academic
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Instruction in English or SDAIE class (see California Department ofEducation,EnglishLanguageDevelopmentStandards,K-12,2002). Withregardtoculturallyrelevantpedagogy,teachersmayconsiderenrichingtheircurriculumbyselectingliteraturewrittenbyauthorswhosediversebackgroundsandlivedexperiencesmaymirrorthoseoftheirstudents,inadditiontotheschool-adoptedmaterialthatteach-ersareexpectedtoteach.Inselectingauthorswhorepresentmultipleperspectivesandliteraturefromdifferentgenres,teachersacknowledgethattheculturalheritagesofethnicgroupsarelegitimateandworthycontenttointegrateintheschool’sofficialcurriculum(Gay,2000).Whenteachersaffirmstudents’identityandknowledge,theybuildhome-schoolbridgeslinking“academicabstractions”tostudents’“livedsocio-culturalrealities”(Gay,p.29). Intermsofmethodology,theauthorconductedcomputersearchesofdatabasesbytopic(Education)using“AcademicSearchComplete”and“PsycInfo”todetermineappropriatedescriptorsforELLs.Manytermshavebeenusedtorefertothispopulation.Forexample,U.S.governmentfederalandstateagenciescontinuetousethetermlimited English pro-ficient(LEP)orlanguage minority studentsintheirofficialdocumentswhileEnglish language learners (ELLs)orEnglish learners (ELs)aregenerallyadoptedinthecurrentresearchliteratureandbypractitioners.Theauthorusedsetsofdescriptorsforsearches,whichincluded:“Englishlanguagelearnersandlearningdisabilities,”“learningdisabilitiesandEnglishlearner,”“limitedEnglishproficientandlearningdisability,”and“Englishlearnerandlearningdisabilities.”Theauthoralsoexaminedlistsofcitationsfromrelevantstudiestoconsiderarticlesorbookchapterscitedforinclusioninthereviewofliterature.Finally,theauthorconsultedwithresearcherswhohavepublishedarticlesorbooksonELLs,ELLswithLD,andwithteachereducatorsinSEfortheirindividualandcollectiveinsights.WhoareELLs?WhoareELLswithLD?WhataresomeofthechallengesthesestudentsfaceintheGEclasses?
Background
English Language Learners IntheirreporttotheNationalClearinghouseforEnglishLanguageAcquisition,Ballantyne,Sanderman,andLevy(2008)notedthatthereareoverfivemillionstudentslimitedinEnglishintheU.S.,a57%increaseoverthepast10years.Nearlysixin10oftheseELLsarerecipientsoffreeorreducedpricelunch,whichindicatesthattheirfamiliesarefromloweconomicstatusbackgrounds.Itissafetosaythatallteacherswill,atsomepointintheircareers,haveatleastoneELLundertheir
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tutelage. Do ELLs represent a homogeneous group? Not so. In fact,ELLsareheterogeneousinrace,ethnicity,nationality,socio-economicbackground,immigrationstatus,generationintheU.S.,proficiencyintheirnativelanguage(orL1)andinEnglish(orL2),andtheirparents’levelofeducation(August&Shanahan,2006;Wright,2010).
English Language Learners with Learning Disabilities Inthere-authorizationoftheIndividualswithDisabilitiesEduca-tionAct(2004),alearningdisabilityisdefinedas:
Adisorderinoneormoreofthebasicpsychologicalprocessesinvolvedin under-standing or in using language, spoken or written, whichdisordermaymanifestitselfintheimperfectabilitytolisten,speak,read,write,spell,ordomathematicalcalculations.(ascitedinGarcia&Tyler,2010,p.115)
Approximately50%ofallstudents,rangingfrom16to21inage,receive SE services under the LD category; half of them have dis-abilitiesrelatedtospeech-languageimpairment(U.S.DOE&NICHD,2003). Nearly 80% of this heterogeneous group experience readingdifficulties(Artiles&Klingner,2006;Garcia&Tyler,2010).However,exactnumbersofELLswithLDareunknownbecausemanydistrictsacrosstheU.S.donotclassifythesestudentsasadistinctsubgroup.Educators have difficulty distinguishing language differences fromdisabilitywhenexplainingtheacademicstrugglesthesestudentsen-counter,andschoolofficialsreportlackingtools,procedures,orquali-fiedstafftoadequatelyidentifythesestudentsandtheirneeds(U.S.DOE,OfficeofEnglishLanguageAcquisition,2003;Zehler,etal.,2003).Echevarria,Vogt,andShort(2008),forexample,offeredanexplana-tionfordistinguishinglanguagedifferencesfromlanguagelearningdisabilities.Forstudentswithlanguagedifferences(e.g.,ELLs),theirlanguageperformancemaynotbecomparabletothatoftheirpeers;theymaylackculturalandlinguisticexperiences,limitedvocabularyfromlittleexposuretohearingandusingEnglish,andfewEnglishrolemodels(Olsen,2010).Whencommunicating,theseELLsshiftfromonelanguagetoanotherwithinanutterance;anaccentordialectmaybetheimpediment.Theirnon-verbalskills(gestures,facialexpressions,physicalproximity),however,areageappropriate.Studentswithlan-guagelearningdisabilities(ELLswithLD),however,haveauniquelanguagepatternwhichisunlikeothersintheirculturalcommunity.Theyhavelimitedvocabulary(evenintheirnativetongue),strugglewithfindingwordsandusesubstituteonesinanotherlanguage.Theyexhibitdeficitsinexpressiveandreceptivelanguage,anddemonstrate
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difficultywithinterpretingnon-verballanguage,whichcanoftenleadtosocialproblems(Echevarriaetal.,2008,p.195). DatafromtheNationalClearinghouseforEnglishLanguageAc-quisition(2008)indicatethatteacherswhoworkwithELLsarethose“…whospecializeinteachingstudentswhoarenotyetfullyproficientinEnglish…teacherswithcertificationsinEnglishforSpeakersofOtherLanguages(ESOL),EnglishasaSecondLanguage(ESL),orbilingualeducation(p.3).ThisdefinitionencompassesahostofteachersresponsiblefortheeducationofELLs(someofwhomhaveadiagnosed/undiagnosedLD),butpersonnelassignmentsmayvaryfromdistricttodistrict,statetostate.Intermsofqualifications,only29.5%ofU.S.teacherswithELLsintheirclassesarepreparedtoworkwiththesestudents.Only20states(e.g.,Arizona,California,Florida,NewYork) require thatall teachershavetrainingtoworkwithELLs;only26%ofteachershavebenefitedfromELL-relatedprofessionaldevelopment(PD)programs,57%believetheyneedadditionaltrainingtoteachELLseffectively.ThistypeofPDrequiresthatteachersreceivespecializedtraininginordertobeeffectivewithstrugglinglearnerswhotendtohavelessqualifiedteachers,limitedresources,fewopportunitiesforintellectuallychallengingcurricula,andplacedincrowdedclassrooms(Darling-Hammond,2004,2006).Whatdoteachersneedtoknowandbeabletodotoprovidetheirstudentswithlanguageanddevelopmentallyappropriatelearningexperiences?Trainingforallpre-serviceandin-serviceteachershaslaggedbehindtherealitiesoftheclassroomintheU.S.giventherapidincreaseofELLswithLD.
Teacher Preparation TheNo Child Left Behind(NCLB)legislationhasplacedgreaterfocusonallteacherstoaddresstheneedsofallstudentsintheirclassrooms.Schooldistrictsacross theU.S.mustensure that in-service teachersareableandreadytoworkwithallstudents.Schoolsofeducationmustalsoshoulderpartoftheresponsibilityforpreparingtheirpre-serviceteachersfortherealitiesoftoday’surbanclassroomsto:
…understanddeeplyawidearrayofthingsaboutlearning,socialandculturalcontexts,andteachingandbeabletoenacttheseunderstand-ingsincomplexclassroomsservingincreasinglydiversestudents;inaddition,ifprospectiveteachersaretosucceedatthistask,schoolsofeducationmustdesignprogramsthattransformthekindsofsettingsinwhichnoviceslearnandlaterbecometeachers.(Darling-Hammond,2006,p.302)
Totransformthetypesofsettingsinwhichpre-serviceteacherslearn,teachereducatorsneedtoprovidecandidateswithopportunitiestocol-laboratewithpeers(e.g.,intra-andinter-disciplinaryprojects,multi-
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mediapresentations,leadingdiscussionsoftextbookchaptersorarticles,communityserviceprojects).Additionally,courseworkmustbelinkedtofield-basedexperiencestohelpcandidatesconnecttheoreticalknowledgetheyhadlearnedintheircollegecoursestopracticalapplicationstheywouldbeobservingin“real”classrooms,implementedby“real”teacherswith“real”students,includingthosewithdisabilities. Classroommanagementisoneofthedomainsthatcandidatesandbeginningteachersoftenreportfeelingunder-prepared.AneffectivetooltoaddressthistopicisaPBS-producedworkshopforparentsandteach-ersofstudentswithLDcalled“HowDifficultCanItbe?TheFAT(Fear,Anxiety,Tension)CityWorskhop.”ThisproductionwaspresentedbyRich-ardLavoie,anationally-knownexpertonLDwhohasworkedinspecialeducationsince1972asateacher,administrator,author,consultant,andownerofEagleHillSchool (aresidentialschool foryoungadolescentswithLD).OneofthestrategiesLavoiesuggestedisforteacherstoadoptpreventiveratherthancorrectivediscipline,andbepro-activeinsteadofreactive inaddressingbehavioral issueswiththisstudentpopulation.Another technique Lavoie recommended is for teachers to follow thesameroutines,usefamiliarprocedures,andlisttheagendaforthedayontheboardtoprovideELLswithLDwithexternalpredictabilityandreducetheanxietyfactorbecausethesestudentsare“environmentallydependent”andpossess little internal structure. Incidentally,Lavoie’srecommendationhasalsobeenfoundtobeaneffectiveapproachforusewithstudentswhoareintheprocessofacquiringEnglish(Echevarria&Graves,2007;Echevarria,Vogt,&Short,2008). When candidates have a chance to observe teachers implementstrategiessuchastheabove,theyarebetterabletoconnecttheoreticalknowledgeofmanagementtheoriestheyhadbeenexposedtointheircol-legecoursestopracticalapplicationsintheclassroom.Finally,toinspireprospectiveteacherstosustainthepursuitofprofessionalgrowthandbecomefuturecollaborators,theyneedtobeobservingtheirownprofes-sorsincollaborativerolessuchas,conductingaresearchprojectwithcol-leaguesorwithothers,teamteachingaco-plannedcourse,participatinginagrant,co-presentingasessionataconference,orfulfillingserviceattheuniversity,college,department,community,orschoolsitelevels.
From Pre-Service to In-service Teaching Generally,candidatesenrolled intraditionalprogramsmustsuc-cessfully fulfill their student teachingpracticumormini-apprentice-ship(Lortie,1975)towardtheendoftheirprogrambeforetheymaybeconsideredforemployment.Thetransitionsfromcollegestudenttostudentteachertoin-serviceteacherrequiresomeadjustmentformost
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prospectiveteachers;collaborativesupportfrommoreexperiencedcol-leaguesthroughoutthelearningprocessensuressuccessfuladvancementinto theworkplace (Nguyen,2009).All teachers (GE,SE, specialistssuchasspeech,reading,ESL/ELD)—noviceorseasoned—canbenefitfromongoingprofessionaldevelopmenttrainingtocontinuallyreassesswhetherornottheirskillsarethemosteffectivemethodstomaximizetheirstudents’success.GEteachersneedtobeableto:(1)identifytheabilitiesofstudentswithdisabilities;(2)understandhowthesestudentsqualify(ornot)forSEservices;(3)appropriatelyfacilitatethestudentsmeetingthelearningobjectivesbasedontheirIndividualizedEducationProgram(IEP);and(4)knowwhattypeofsupporttheycanreasonablyexpectfromSEteachers(andotherspecialists,ifavailable).Conversely,SEteachers(andotherspecialists)mustalsobecognizantofthedailyworkofGEteachers to instructallstudentswhile jugglingmultipleequallydemandingduties.SuchknowledgehelpsSEteachersbetterassist theirGEcolleagues inprovidingappropriateaccommodationsforstudentswithdisabilities intheLRE.Throughcarefully-plannedprofessionaldevelopment(PD),GE,SE,andotherstaffcanexchangeideas,andsupportoneanother.Acollaborationmodelcanbeadoptedasastructureforthinkingabouttheprocessofdesigningindividualizedadaptationsormodificationsthatareappropriateforindividualstudentsandfeasiblewithinagivenclassroomsituation.
A Collaboration Model Intheirco-authoredbook,Teachers’ Guides to Inclusive Practices: Modifying Schoolwork,JanneyandSnell(2000)suggestthatallteachersandsupportstaffdrawontheirrespectiveareasofexpertisetocollaboratewhilebeingmindfulthatthestructureandfundingofprograms/schoolsmayvaryfromsitetosite.Theseauthorsarguethat“[n]olongerisoneteacherresponsibleforplanning,teaching,andevaluatinginstructionfortheentireclass”(p.16).Theyrecommendamodelforallteachersandstafftoconsiderasaframeworkforcollaborationby:(1)workingtogethertoproperlyidentifyELLsforeligibilityinspecialeducation;(2)recommendingplacementoptionsintheLREforELLstudentswithLD;(3)participatinginPDworkshops/seminarstogainunderstandingofinterventiontechniquesforcurricular,instructional,andassessmentpurposes;(4)co-planninglessonsandactivitiestocarryoutineachother’sclassrooms;(5)observingeachotherintheclassroom;and(6)critiquingandprovidingconstructivefeedbacktooneanotherforimprovementinsubsequentteachingepisodes. Tomeettheaboveobjectives,JanneyandSnell(2000)cautionthatopencommunicationamongmembersiscritical.Thatis,theteammust
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agreeonstepstocarryouttheirwork,responsibilitiestobedivided,arisingchallengestobeproblemsolved,andhowdecisionsaretobemade.Teammemberswillneedthesupportoftheirschooladministra-torstoensurethattimeisbuiltintotheirrespectiveschedulestomeetandthinkcriticallyabouttangiblewaystoworktogetherinthegeneraleducationclassroomtosupportthispopulation.
What Does the Research Tell Usabout Approaches for Educating ELLs? KeyfindingsfromtworesearchreviewsconductedbytheNationalLiteracyPanel(NLP)andtheCenterforResearchonEducation,Di-versityandExcellence(CREDE)ontheeducationofELLscametothefollowing conclusions: First, teaching students to read in their firstlanguagepromotesincreasedlevelsofreadingachievementinEnglish.Bilingualstudentswhohavesomeproficiencyintheirheritagelanguagemustbeencouragedtouseit,especiallywhenithelpstoclarifyabstractconceptsinEnglishandsupportstheirsenseofselfasbilinguallearn-ers.Furthermore,educatorscanbebiasedaboutthesocietalstatusofalanguageotherthanEnglishsince,“[l]anguagesindifferentsociocul-turalcontextsareaffordeddifferentvalues.Thisdifferentialevaluationaltersmotivationtospeakandusethelanguage,whichwillimpactitsdevelopment”(Wagner,Francis,&Morris,2005,p.13).Inotherwords,speakersofSpanish,forinstance,maybelessinclinedtodeveloptheirheritagelanguagehavingbeenmadeaware,throughouttheireduca-tionalexperience,thatEnglishisthelanguageofschoolandbecomingproficientinEnglishiswhatcounts. AnexampleofsuccessinservingadiversestudentpopulationisthatofStoneCreekElementary(K-6),locatedinanuppermiddleclasscom-munityintheIrvineUnifiedSchoolDistrict,Irvine,California.Itscampusopenedin1978andwasnamedaCaliforniaDistinguishedSchoolin1998.Accordingtotheschool’swebsiteforthe2009-10academicyear,StoneCreekenrolled:1.68%BlackorAfricanAmerican,46.64%White;0.19%AmericanIndianorAlaskaNative;13.64%TwoorMoreRaces;29.85%Asia; 2.43% Filipino; 6.54% socioeconomically disadvantaged; 14.21%EnglishLearners;8.02%HispanicorLatino8.02;6.92%studentswithdisabilities;and.56%NativeHawaiian/PacificIslander.InNovember,2011,theschoolwasfeaturedintheRegister(anOrangeCountynewspaper)forhavingsignificantlyraisedtestscoresofELLstudents.WriterScottMartindalecharacterizedtheschoolas“fullspirit”whereeveryoneworks“smarternotharder.”Inprincipal’sMichaelShackelford’swords,
Wehadkidswhowereatthesamelevelforthreeorfouryears;the
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staffwasn’tsurewhattodowiththem…Thentheyrealizedthattheydidn’treallyknowwhatthechild’slevelwas.Westudiedthedataandsawthateventhoughtheyareproficientorallyandauditorily,theywerenotproficientinreadingandwriting.
Basedontheabovedataanalysis,StoneCreekteachersreceivedintensivetrainingintechniquesandstrategiesforworkingwithELLs,includingculturalsensitivity.Theschoolusesahighlyfluid,multi-tieredinter-ventionsystemtoensurethatstudentsreceiveappropriateacademicassistance,andoffersdailyafterschooltutorialsessions. Successfulschools(e.g.,StoneCreek)recognizethatELLswithLDfaceamulti-dimensionalsetofchallengesinlearningcontentandskillswhiledevelopingproficiencyinEnglish.Second,suchschoolsacknowledgethatgoodinstructionandcurriculum,ingeneral,holdstrueforELLs,butteacherscansupportstudents’acquisitionofEnglishbyintroduc-ingvocabularywithinaspecificcontext,modeloralspeechandwrittenlanguage(e.g.,sentenceframes),andpromoteanaturalprogressionoflanguagedevelopmentovertime.ThisprocessisalsoknownastheNatural Approach(Krashen&Terrell,1983)ratherthanfocusingprimarilyon“drill-and-kill”exercisesanderrorcorrecting.Moreover,teachersmustusecomprehensibleinput(Krashen,1995)tohelpstudentsgainaccesstovocabularyandconceptsembeddedineachlessonandactivity.Thiscomprehensibleinputconsistsof,butisnotlimitedto:gestures,bodylanguage,andfacialexpressionsthroughtheTotal Physical Responsestrategy(Asher,1966),highfrequencyvocabulary,wordwalls,simplersyntax,fewerpronounsandidioms,lessslangandincreasedrepetition,clearenunciation,longernaturalpauses,andqualityvisuals(Krashen,1995).Factorssuchasawelcomingenvironment,alowaffectivefilter,positivereinforcement,andteachermodelingofexpectedlearningout-comesarealsokeyelementstothisprocess,particularlyforELLsatthebeginningstagesofEnglishacquisition(Krashen,1995).Schooladmin-istratorsandteachersoftenreportfeelingpressuredtopushtheirELLstogainspeedyEnglishacquisition.Theseeducatorsmustberemindedthatitisexpectedtotakethreetofiveyearstodeveloporalproficiencyandfourtosevenyearsforacademicproficiency(Cummins,2000). Furthermore,studentsdobetteracademicallyininstructionalsettingsgearedspecificallytowardtheirneeds(ESL/ELD,bilingual,etc.)thaninmainstreamEnglish-onlysettings(Genesee,Lindholm-Leary,Saunders,&Christian,2005).Secondlanguageacquisitionhasbeenfoundtobecomparable,butnotidentical,tofirstlanguage(L1)acquisition(Cum-mins,2008;Goldenberg,2008).Itis,therefore,potentiallyharmfulforteacherstoassumethat“goodteaching”isgoodforallstudentsbecauseofthetendencytooverlooktheuniquelinguisticandculturalneedsof
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theselearners,whichmaycontributetotheirdelayinL2andacademiccontentinL2(deJong&Harper,2008).Thispositionpresumesthatthepriorknowledge,culturalexperiences,andeducationalneedsofnativeEnglishspeakersarenodifferentthanthoseoftheirnon-nativepeers.Secondly,thispresumptionleadstoclassroompracticesthatarelessoptimalforhelpingstudentsachievetheirpersonalgoals.ELLswithLDhaveaneurologicaldisorderthatmakesprocessingandrecallinginformation and performing school tasks challenging (Santamaria,Fletcher,&Bos,2002).Howcanteachersfacilitatethislearningprocessandsupportstudents? Teacherscanassistthesestudents’learninginEnglish-onlysettingsthrough:predictableandconsistent classroommanagement routines(diagrams,lists,easy-to-readschedules,etc.);graphicorganizers;addi-tionaltimeandopportunitiesforpractice;repetitionofmajorconceptsusingvisualcues,pictures,physicalgestures;identifying,highlighting,and clarifying difficultwordsandpassageswithin texts to facilitatecomprehension; emphasizing key vocabulary; and helping studentsconsolidatetextknowledgebyhavingtheteacher,theirpeers,andELsthemselvessummarizeandparaphrase(Goldenberg,2008,p.20).Forexample,somestudentsfindmathematicshighlychallengingbecausetheyhavetroubleunderstandingatraditionalpresentationoftendevoidofvisualsandrelevancetoreal-lifeexamples.Instead,whenteachingratios,mathteacherscoulduseproblems(suchastheonesbelow)torelatetostudents’priorknowledgebysystematicallyshowingstepbystep,guidingstudentstodrawshapes(orotherobjectsoranimals)todocomparisons,andhavingthemworkinpairstosolvewordproblems.Thefollowingisanexampleofamathlessononratios.Theteacherinstructstheclass,“Let’scompareshapes.Therearethreerectanglesontheleftandfourtrianglestotheright.”Theteacherproceedstoshowvisualsofthestatedobjects,andstates:
So,therearemoretrianglesthanrectangles.WatchasIcountonebyone.Allright,onerectangle,two…NowIcountonetriangle,two…Onyourpaper,Iwantyoutofollowmeandcountwithme.Startontheleftwiththerectanglesandlet’scount.Onerectangle,two…Now,let’sgototheright,andcount.Onetriangle,two…
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Theteacherposesaquestion,“What istheratioofrectanglestotri-angles?”
Theteacherwaitsforresponses,thensays:
Allright,therearemoretrianglesthanrectangles.Theratioofrect-anglestotrianglescanbewritteninthreedifferentways.SinceIamaskingtheratioofrectangles(whichIsaidfirst)totriangles(whichIsaidsecond),herearethreewaysIcanrepresenttheratio.Watchme.NoticethatIwritenumber3first,thennumber4second.
3to4 3/4 3:4
Theteacherthenprovidesampleopportunitiesforstudentstouseratiosduringguidedpracticeandcheckforunderstandingthroughouttheles-son.Theteachercontinueswith“Now,let’stryanotherproblem.Therearethreesharksontheleftandfivelionstotheright.Aretheremoresharksormorelions?”Theteacherwaitsforaresponse,andconfirms,“Yes,therearemorelionsthansharks.”
Withapartner,discusshowtowritearatiooflionstosharks.Remem-ber,youhearmesay lionsfirst,andsharkssecond.Whatare threedifferentwaystorepresentthisratio?Iwillgiveyou_____minutes.WhenIsay“ready?”youwillholdupyourwhiteboardandshowmeyourresponse.Allright,go!
5to3 5/3 5:3
Duringthisindependentpracticeexercise,theteacherneedstocircu-latearoundtheroomtomakecertainthatstudentsareontask,offerneededassistance,andidentifypartsofthelessontobere-taught.Theabovemathexamplescanbealsobetaughtusingrealia(realobjects)ormanipulatives(beans,beads,sticks,straws,shapes,etc.)aspartofshelteredinstruction,whichhasbeenfoundtosupporttheacademicsuc-cessofstudentswithdiverseabilitiesandneeds(Echevarria&Graves,
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2007;Echevarria,Vogt,&Short,2008;Geneseeetal.,2005;Goldenberg,2008).Byusingrealiaormanipulativesthatarefamiliartostudents,themathexercisecanbefunandrelevanttostudents’lives. GEteachers,SEteachers,andotherspecialistscanadoptashelteredinstructionmodeofteachinginco-planninglessonsandactivities,carry-ingthemoutinoneeachother’sclassrooms,andcritiquingandprovidingconstructivefeedbacktooneanotherforimprovementinsubsequentteaching episodes.This debriefing period is critical for practitionersbecauseitaffordsthemachancetostepbackandreflectupontheles-sonandaccompanyingactivitiesaswellashearingeachprofessional’srationaleandperspectiveaboutstudentaccessibilitytoandcomprehen-sibilityofcontentandlanguage(Nguyen,2009).Intheircollaboration,GEandSEteachersandotherspecialistscanadoptashelteredmodeofinstructiontoco-planlessonsandaccompanyingactivities,teamteach,andgiveoneanotherfeedbackaboutareasofimprovements.
Sheltered Instruction Sheltered instruction,alsoreferredtoasSpecially Designed Aca-demic Instruction in English(SDAIE),isanapproachthatemphasizesthedevelopmentofgrade-levelacademiccompetencies(Echevarria&Graves, 2007) in content area classrooms where secondary teachersusuallyhavemasteryoftheirownsubjectarea.Tosuccessfullyimple-mentSDAIE,teachersalsoneedtodemonstrateenthusiasminteach-ing,loveoflearning,andafundamentalbeliefthatallstudentshavethecapacity for learning (Echevarria,Vogt,&Short,2008).TomakethecontentcomprehensibleforELLsandELLswithLD,Echevarriaetal.suggesttheSheltered Instruction Observation Protocol(SIOP)tobeusedasatoolforoperationalizingshelteredinstructionbyofferingpre-andin-serviceteachersofallstudentsamodelforlessonplanningandimplementationthatprovidesthemwithaccesstograde-levelcontentstandards.Itseightcomponentsinclude:lessonpreparation,buildingbackground,comprehensibleinput,strategies,interaction,practiceandapplication,lessondelivery,reviewandassessment(seeEchevarriaetal. fordetails).Accordingtotheauthors,theSIOPmodelbeganasaresearchprojectthroughCREDE,hasbeenfieldtestedwithshelteredinstructionteachers,andiscurrentlyimplementedthroughoutall50statesintheU.S.andseveralothercountries. Aprerequisitetoplanningrelevantactivitiesandposinglanguageappropriatequestions,andengagingstudentsusingtheSIOPmodel(oranyothermodel),isforteacherstohaveknowledgeofself(whotheyareinfluenceshowtheyteach),ateachingphilosophy(howtheyperceivestudents’potentialandcapacityforlearning,ornot),andstudents’back-
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grounds(ethnic,cultural,andlinguistic)andneeds(academic,social,emotional). Another prerequisite of effective instruction is teachers’knowledgeofELLs’proficiency inL2(beginning,early intermediate,intermediate,earlyadvanced,advanced),asmeasuredbytheCaliforniaELDTest(CELDT),andwhatcanbeexpectedofthesestudentsintheirprocessofacquiringcontentandlanguage.Forane-copyoftheCaliforniaDepartmentofEducation,EnglishLanguageDevelopmentStandards,visit:http://www.cde.ca.gov/re/pn/fd/documents/englangdev-stnd.pdf. Whenteacherinputiscomprehensible,thelikelihoodofdesirablestudentoutputwillbeincreased(Geneseeetal,2005);studentsneedtounderstandthewordstheirteachersarespeaking.TeacherinputiscriticalinSDAIEbecauseteachersaremodelinghowacademiclanguageisused,grammar,syntax,correctpronunciation,andnaturalspeechflow.Somestructuresforinteractionthatpromotespeakinginclude:coopera-tivelearning,peertutoring,discoverylearning,usingwhiteboardstorecordresponses,think-pair-share,jigsaw,post-itnotes,gallerywalk,raisinghand,thumbs-upthumbs-down,partner/buddyreading,lineup,inside-outsidecircles,numberheads(Herrell&Jordan,2008;Echevar-ria,etal.,2008;Parkay,2006;Vogt&Echevarria,2008).Whenusinganumberedheadsactivity,forinstance,studentsnumberofffromonetofour(smallgroupsareeasiertomanage).Theteacherposesaquestionoratopicfordiscussion.Inturn,thestudentsputtheirheadstogether,discussthecorrectanswer,andmakesurethateveryoneknowsit.Theteacherthencallsanumber(byrollingadice)andthosestudentsraisetheirhandtorespond.Theabovestructuresareexamplesofactivepar-ticipationapproachestopromotestudenttalk.Afeaturethatshelteredinstructionshareswithculturallyresponsivepedagogyisitsfocusonlearner-centeredteaching.
Culturally Responsive Teaching Culturally responsive teaching (Gay, 2000) considers students’priorknowledge,helpsthemmakeconnectionsbetweenthe“known”and“unknown”;assiststheminorganizingnewknowledge(concepts)withinacognitivestructure;tiesincultural,geographical,emotionalexperiences to the new learning; and allows students to share theirheritagebackgroundandknowledgewithothers.Forinstance,El Día de los Muertos(DayoftheDead)isanationalholidayinMexico,annuallyobservedonNovember1(AllSaints’Day)andNovember2(AllSouls’Day).Familiestakethisopportunitytorememberlovedonesthathavepassedaway,honorthedeadinprivate,andsharefamilycelebrationsandreunions.StudentslearnthatDay of the DeadhasitsrootsinSpan-ishandindigenouscultures(Aztecs),isobservedinMexico,otherLatin
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Americancountries(thoughtoalesserextent),Asia,Mexican-AmericancommunitiesthroughouttheU.S.,andinthePhilippines.Incidentally,Mexico’sDayoftheDeadwasthethemeofa2008RoseParadefloatinPasadena,California,builtbyTimEstes,presidentofFiestaParadeFloats;hehascapturedthecovetedSweepstakesAwardforthepast17years(Los Angeles Times,Paradesection,December26,2010). Teacherscanusethisholidaytohelpstudentsmakeconnectionsbetweentheircommunity,national,andglobalidentities.Studentscanreadselectedbooksonthissubjectanddiscussacross-culturaltraditionofhonoringthedeparted.Otherscanreadpartsofthebook,dependingonthestudents’readabilitylevels,orhavetheoptionofreadinganeasiertextoralarge-printbook.Teacherscantakeadvantageofthediversityintheirstudents’backgroundsbyhavingstudentsfromMexico,LatinAmerica(e.g.,CubaandPuertoRico),andAsia(e.g.,Japan,Korea,andChina)collaborateonagroupprojectbyinterviewingtheirparents/rela-tivesabouttheirfamilyritualsandcelebrations,andpresentingtheirfindingstotheclass.ThefollowingphotographsdepicthowagroupofSpanish-speakingstudentsrepresentedanaltar(#1)withanofrenda(offering)tothedeceased,andtheirtraditionofpayingavisittothecemetery.Incontrast,theirgroupmembersmadeupofAsianAmericanstudentsoftheBuddhistfaith,preparedAltar#2asasymbolofhowfriendsandfamilyrememberandshowgratitudetothedeceasedandtalkabouttheirgooddeeds.Rice,fruits(mandarins,oranges),andsweetsaretypicalofferings.
Altar #1 Cemetery
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Asafollow-upactivity,theclasscancompleteaVenndiagram(seebelow)notingsimilarities(partC)anduniquefeaturesofeachculturalpractice(partsAandB)betweenthetraditionalpracticesofthetwogroups.StudentswhoarelimitedinL2butmoreproficientinL1canrecordresponsesintheirL1orboth.
Theabove Day of the Dead lessonandgroupactivity illustrateshowteacherscanbuildonthediversityoftheirstudentsbytappingonwhattheyknow,validatetheirindividualityandfamilialresources,andenrichtheircross-culturallearningexperiences.Thisassignment
Altar #2
Incense is used for purification. It is associated with cleanliness and fills the home or temple with a pleasant smell. The bell and rosary beads in photograph to the left are for prayer and chanting.
PhotographsarecourtesyofCindyMaedaandKristinaKoehler,usedwithpermission.
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exemplifiesaculturallyresponsivewayofteachingwherebythecur-riculumis“filteredthroughstudents’framesofreferencetomakethecontentmorepersonallymeaningfulandeasiertomaster”(Gay,2000,p.24)becauseitactivelyandinteractivelyengagesstudentswiththeirownculturalidentityandthatofothers.Moreover,thistypeofpedagogy“acknowledgesthelegitimacyofculturalheritagesofdifferentethnicgroupsasworthycontenttobetaughtintheformalcurriculum…[and]buildsbridgesbetweenhomeandschoolexperiences”(Gay,2000,p.29)bynotexpectingstudentstoshedtheirheritagelanguageandculturewhileacquiringEnglishandU.S.ways.StudentswithLDmayneedspecificadaptationsormodificationstofullygrasplessonconcepts.
Adaptations and Modifications Alongwithculturallyresponsivepedagogy,teachersmustensureaccessibilityandcomprehensibilitytocontentandlanguagebymakingspecificadaptationsormodificationsforindividualstudents.AdaptationsforELLswithaLD,are“…changestolearningtaskrequirements,suchaschangestotheinstructionalcontent,teachingmethodsandmateri-als,orphysicalenvironment”(Janney&Snell,2000,p.16).Teachingastudenttouseacalculatorratherthandomathematicalcalculationswithpaperandpencilordictatinganexperienceratherthanwritingtheessaythatotherstudentsmaybeexpectedtobewritingareexamplesofadaptations.Third,teachersmustmodifyinstructiontotakeintoaccountstudents’languagelimitationswheninstructingELLsinEnglish. Modifications forELLswithLDareconsidered“achange in thecourse,testpreparation,location,timing,scheduling,andsoon,whichprovidesaccessforstudentswithdisabilitiesbutdoesnotfundamentallyalterthestandardorexpectation”(Janney&Snell,2000,p.16).Givingastudenttheoptiontotakeaquizoratestintheprivacyoftheschoolcounselor’sofficeoranotherdesignatedareawithanextendedperiodoftimefortaskcompletionisanexampleofamodification.Teacherscanalsomodifyreadinggroupsbasedonstudents’readabilitylevelsbyselectinganeasierbook,usingalarge-printbook,havingfewerstudentsinagroup,assignshorterpassagestoread,orscheduleashorterreadingtimeperiod(Echevarria&Graves,2007;Echevarria,etal.,2008).
Scaffolding AnothermethodfoundtobeeffectivewithbothELLsandELLswithLDisscaffolding.Teachersneedtoidentifystudents’zone of proximal development (ZPD) todeterminehowmuchassistanceor scaffoldingthesestudentsneedfromthem,otheradults,orcapablepeerstoac-complish their school tasks successfully. The students’ ZPD will be
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“stretched”fromtheircurrentlevelofunderstandingtotheirpotentialstateofdevelopment.Oncethesestudentsarecapableofcarryingouttheirwork independently,help canbe removedgradually (Vygotsky,1978).Scaffoldsarefluid,dynamicandinteractiveinnatureofferingstudentsatemporarystructuretohelpthemmakecognitiveconnections(Santamaria,Fletcher,&Bos,2002). Intheleastrestrictivegeneraleducationclassroom,generaleduca-tion,specialeducationteachers,andotherspecialistscancollaborateonscaffoldingstrategies,suchasmediatedscaffolds(gradualremovalofadultorpeerassistanceand transferof learningresponsibility tostudent’sindependentpractice), taskscaffolds(systematicmodificationof task and work load reduction, as discussed earlier), andmaterialscaffolds(usageofstorymaps,paragraphframes,andsentencestart-ers),assuggestedbySantamariaetal.(2002).Belowisanexampleofagraphicorganizerstudentscancomplete,individuallyorinpairs,afterhavingreadapassageorpartofit.AnintermediatelevelELLcanfilloutwords/shortphrasesbutmayhavedifficultywiththewhyandhowquestionswhereashis/hercounterpartattheearlyadvancedlevelmaybewritinglongerandcomplexsentencesforallitems.AnELLwithLDmayneedaneasiertext,moretimetocompletethisassignmentormaybegivenfeweritemsatatime.
Who Name____________________________________________
What Information______________________________________
When Time,day,week,month,year______________________
Where Place____________________________________________
Why Explanation______________________________________
How Explanationorinformation________________________
Verbalscaffolding,forexample,whenconsistentlyusedduringlessondelivery and checking for understanding, helps to support studentunderstanding, which includes paraphrasing, using “think alouds,”providingcorrectpronunciationbyrepeatingstudents’responses,slow-ingspeech,increasingpauses,andspeakinginphrases(Echevarria,Vogt,&Short,2008).
Wait and Think Time Additional“waitandthinktime”lowersstudents’anxietyandoffers
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themanotheropportunitytoprocessinformationandmakesenseofit(Echevarriaetal.,2008;Rowe,1996).Sometimesthebestgiftateachercangiveanystudentisthegiftoftime.ForELLswithLD,processingin-formationisadualcognitivetask:(1)processingthequestiontheteacherposesinEnglishandmentallytranslateitintotheirfirstlanguage;and(2)processingtheanswertothatquestionintheirfirst languageandtranslatingitintoEnglish.Atechniquethatteacherscanuseistoquietlycounttofiveafterposingaquestion(Nguyen,2007;Rowe,1996);fivesec-ondsormoreof“waitandthinktime”canmakeaworldofdifferencetostrugglinglearners.Teacherscanalso“buy”timeforstrugglinglearnersbydevelopingasecretsignalwiththem(e.g.,directeyecontact,teacherstandingnexttoorbehindthestudents,orteachergentlyplacinghandthestudents’desk)togivethemadvancenoticethattheywillbecalleduponnext.Thissimpletechniquecanhelptominimizestudentdiscomfortandnervousnessaswellastoslowthepaceofinstruction,whichispar-ticularlyhelpfultostudentswhoareintheprocessofacquiringEnglishandcontentpresentedinEnglish(Nguyen,2007).
Pace of Instruction Non-nativelearnersofEnglishandELLswithLDoftencharacterizethepaceoftheirteachers’instructionas“a-mile-a-minuterace,”leavingtheminundatedwithinformationandoverwhelmedwithEnglish“noise.”Howaboutverballycommunicatingkeyconceptsandterminologyandwritetheseideasontheboard?Whataboutguidingstudentsintakingnotesofessentialconceptsandimportantideas,stoppingatfrequentintervalsto“scan”theroomforanysignsofneededhelp(Nguyen,2007)?Forinstance,contentstandardsarewritteninsuchawaythateventeachersfindthemconfoundingandambiguous.Therefore,breakcontentstandardsintosmallerchunks,step-by-step,anddelineatewhatteachersareexpectedtoteachandwhatstudentsareexpectedtolearn.
Reviewing Note Taking and Organization Skills Teachers often assume that by the time students reach middleschool,theymusthaveknownhowtotakepropernotesfromclasslec-turesandorganizethemintofolders/bindersfromoneclassperiodtothenext(Nguyen,2007).However,somemaynothavemasteredtheseskills,especiallywhenEnglishandLDarepartoftheirdailychallenge.Whenteachersreviewnote-takingskills,studentslearntofocustheirattentiononspecifickeyconceptsandideasfromwhichtostudy,andtodemonstratetheirunderstandingofthematerialincourseassignments,discussions, and examinations. For ELLs with LD, this process maytakesometimeandpractice.Teacherscanencouragethesestudents
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totakenotesinthelarge,righthandcolumn,inanyformattheydesire(outline,narrative,bullets),andnotescanbetakenfromanyresource(lecture,textbooks,video).Teacherscanalsoremindstudentsto leavespacesbetweenmajortopics,leavespaceswhentheymissinformationduringthesession,highlightmainideasandcritical information,anduseabbreviationsandsymbols.Anotherwaytobuildclassroomcommu-nityandtohelpthesestudentswithnotetakingistopartnerthemwithotherstocomparenotes,talkaboutwhattheywroteandwhy,andlookforgapsandmissedinformation.Bothpartnersshouldfeelfreetomakeadjustments(add,change,delete)totheirnotes.Teachersmayconsiderrewardingstudents’effortsbyassigningapercentageofthetotalcoursegrade to note taking and organization skills. By examining students’notes,teacherslearnmoreabouttheirstudentsbythewayinnotesareorganized(e.g.,sequenceorder,textonly,orwithillustrations,orwithgraphicorganizers),andanyhelptheymayneed(Nguyen,2007).
Constructivist Approaches Constructivistapproaches to learningblendartandscience intoactive teaching and help to stimulate students’ minds and awakentheircreativity.Dewey’s(1938)notionofembeddinglearninginreal-lifeexperiencechallengesteacherstoprovidetheirstudentswithrelevantlessonsandhands-onactivities(e.g.,civicprojects,communityservice,simulations,fieldtrips)thatgobeyondtheclassroomwalls.Piaget’s(1970)discoverylearningisaneffectivemethodforengagingallparticipantsandpromotingcriticalthinkingbecauseofthecollectiveroleteachersandstudentsplayinmakingsenseoflearningcontentandconcepts.Forexample,usingCuisenairerods(orothertypesofmanipulatives)canhelpstudentslearnmathematicalconceptssuchasaddition,subtrac-tion,multiplication,division,andfractions. Anotherexampleofdiscoverylearningoccurswhenstudentshypoth-esizewhethervariousobjectswillfloatorsink,followedbyanactualexperimentofplacingeachobject,onebyone,intoawatercontainer.Thisexercisecanhelpstudentsconstructmeaningbasedontheirobserva-tion,interpretation,andrecordingofthedatatheycollect.Moreover,thishands-onapproachmakesiteasierforELLsandELLswithLDtograspabstractconcepts.Otherteachingstrategiesare:guidedreading,processwriting,cooperativelearningwiththesupportofgraphicorganizersasatoolforvisuallyrecordingandrepresentingconcepts(seenextpage,andvisithttp://www.readingquest.org/formoreideas).
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Sequence My identity Flow Chart
Evaluation Charts Categorize/Organize Relationships (PyramidLevels) (CauseandEffect)
KWL
TreeMap PieChart(Parts)SinkFloat
Inadditiontoreal-lifeexperiencesanddiscoverylearning,text-richinstructionalenvironmentsareveryimportant.Teachersmustbeex-amplesofgoodreadersbydemonstratingwhatgoodreadersdo.Studentsbenefitfrombeingreadtoandtoreadbooksattheirlevelofdifficultyandcontenttowhichtheycanrelate.Kinsella(2002)suggestedthatteachersteachstudentsacognitivestrategyforpre-readinganexposi-torytext.Thatis,teacherscanguidestudentsinreadingthetitleofthe
aa
a
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article,theauthor’snameandbackgroundinformationprovidedaboutthe author, and the publication source of the article. Next, studentsreadthefirsttwoparagraphs,eachboldfacesubheading,andthefirstsentenceofeachparagraph.Also,teacherscanguidestudentstolookoveranytypographicalaidssuchasunderliningandboldfaceoritalicprint,anyothervisualaidssuchasphotographs,graphs,ormaps.Finally,studentsreadtheconclusionorlasttwoparagraphs,andreadquicklyanyend-of-articlematerialsuchasfootnotes,vocabularyorquestions. Toreinforcereadingskills,parentscanalsosupporttheirchildren’seducationathomebyreadingtotheirchildren,havingtheirchildrenreadtothem,checkingtheirchildren’shomework,projects,andremindingthemofassignmentdeadlines.Withtheassistanceofteachers,parentscan provide scaffolds for their children by using any of the graphicorganizersdiscussedabovewhenhelpingstudentsconceptualizeideasandorganizetheirthoughtsinavisualmanner.SuchassistancecanbeconductedinL1,ifnecessary,whichcontributestothefamilypre-serving theirhome languageandculture.Parentscanalsoreinforcetheirchildren’sL1byhavinginformalconversationsathome,readingtochildreninL1,orcheckingbooksoutfromthepubliclibrary.Whenteachersandparentsprovidescaffolds(mediated,task,ormaterial)forstudentsbasedontheirZPD,itreducestheelementoffear,anxiety,andfrustration,enhancesstudents’confidencelevel,encouragesrisktaking,andreinforcestheirlanguagecompetenceinL1and/orL2.
Parent Participation Parentsaretheirchild’sfirstteacher.Itisinconceivableforthemnottobeintegralpartoftheteaching-learningequation.Itisequallycriticalforeducatorstoforgeahealthypartnershipwithparentstomaximizestudentacademicsuccessandsocial-emotionaladjustmentinschool.These collectiveeffortswillhelp close theachievementgapbetweenhavesandhave-nots,English-onlyandEnglish-learnerstudents,generaleducationandspecialeducationneedsyoungsters.Culturallyresponsivepedagoguesvaluethecrucialroleparentsplayintheirchild’seduca-tionandfuturesuccess.Ideally,parentsreinforceskillsandprovideanenvironmentwithconsistentexpectationsandstandards;theyinstillavaluesystem,orientationtowardlearning,andviewoftheworld(Banks,2010)inraisingtheirchild. Teacherscanestablishatwo-waycommunicationbetweentheschoolandhomebyhavinganopen-doorpolicythatletsparentsknowthattheyarewelcome.Someparentsmayfeelintimidatedtoapproachtheirchild’steacherbecausetheydonotbelievetheypossesstheeducationalbackgroundorcredentialstobeinvolvedintheirchild’sschool.Others
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mayhesitatetoentertheschoolcampusortalktotheofficestaffbe-causetheylackcommunicationskillsinEnglishandareunabletoseekthehelptheyneed.Thisreluctanceonbehalfofparentsisespeciallytrueinmiddleandhighschoolswherestudentshavemovefromclasstoclassandwhererulesandexpectationsvarygreatlyfromteacherto teacher, period to period.Another source of parent ambivalencemayrelatetoanegativeexperiencesomemayhavehadintheirownschooling(Banks,2010). Tohelpbridgethishome-schoolgap,teacherscanencourageparentstocallorsendnotesiftheyhavequestionsorconcerns,keepparentsabreastof theirchild’sprogress,andoffersuggestionsastohowthechildcanimprove.SomeparentsmaybelimitedinEnglishandwillneedassistancefromabilingualinterpreter.Schoolsneedtodotheirbesttoaccommodatesuchparentswhetheritbewiththeofficestaff,atanIEPmeeting,orduringaparent-teacherconference.Whenworkingwithculturallydiversefamilies,teachersneedtoacknowledgediffer-entcharacteristicsinculturallydiversefamilies(e.g.,structure,child-rearingpractices,modesofdiscipline,behavioralexpectationsfortheirchildren,verbalandnon-verbalcommunication)inordertobuildtrustandforgepositiverelationshipswiththeparents(Taylor&Whittaker,2009).Culturallycompetentteachersmakeconnectionsbetweentheirclassroompracticestotheirinteractionswithfamilies/parents. Second, parents appreciate teachers who demonstrate a genuineinterestintheirchild,community,andculture.Thereareotherwaysforteacherstosupportparentparticipationintheirownchildren’seducation.Simplytellingparentsthattheyneedtoworkwiththeirchildrenmaynotbeadequate;parentsappreciatespecificrecommendations.Ifteach-ersexpecttheirstudentstocompleteprojectsathome,provideparentswithresourcesormaterialstouse.Itisimportanttokeepinmindthatnotallhomeshaveinternetaccess(digitaldivide).Somefamiliesmaynotfinanciallybeabletopurchasematerialsforhomeprojectsorhavethetimetodevelopthem.Additionally,teacherscanaskparentstosigntheirchild’shomeworkpapers,andrewardstudentswithextrapointswhentheirparentssigntheirreportcards,readtothem,attendschool-sponsored events (Back-to-School Night, Open House, parent-teacherconferences).Readingisacrucialpartoflearningandisthefocusofmanyschools’initiatives.Toemphasizetheimportanceofreading,teacherscansendhomeinformationandasuggestedreadinglist.Readingaloud(inL1and/orL2)isagreatwayforparentsandchildrentobond,discussthestories,meaningofwords,relatetotextandconnecttotheirownexperi-ences.Finally,someparentsmaybewillingtoplayamoreactiveroleatschool:solicitvolunteerstopresentalesson;shareaschool-relatedlived
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experience;participateinacauseorphilanthropicproject;helpintheplayground,lunchroom,classroom,office;andleadparentmeetingsorcontactparentsforconferences(Taylor&Whittaker,2009).
Conclusion
Giventhatnearly400,000ELLstudentsingradesK-12wereidenti-fiedasneedingspecialeducationservices(2001-2002),andanincreaseof72percentofthispopulation(1992to2002)inU.S.schools,educatorsmustlendoneanotherahandtoworkonbehalfofthesestudents.Withincreasingdemandsplacedontheteachingprofessionbyfederal,state,andlocalagenciesinaneraofschoolreformandaccountability,educatorscannolongeraffordtocarryouttheirworkinisolation.Collaborationbetweenallteachersresponsiblefortheeducationofallstudentsseemsinevitablesincethereis“apressingneed…forteachersatallstagesintheircareers…toprepareorupgrade[their]knowledgeandskillsinordertoclosetheachievementgapbetweenlinguisticminoritystudentsandtheirnativeEnglishspeakingpeers”(Ballantyne,Sanderman,&Levy,2008,p.10),especiallythosewithaLD. Collaboratorsneedtobemindfuloftheimportanceofopencommu-nicationamongmembers,agreeonstepstocarryouttheirwork,divideresponsibilities,problemsolvearisingchallengestobeproblemsolved,andbeawareofhowdecisionsaretobemade(Janney&Snell,2000).Additionally,thesuccessofsuchcollaborationiscontingentuponthesup-portofadministratorstoensurethattimeisbuiltintotheseeducators’respectiveschedulesthroughouttheschoolyeartoco-planandteamteach.Educatorsmustalsobeencouragedtotakeadvantageofdistrict-sponsoredorschool-designedPDopportunities (attendingconferences,seminars,presentingworkshops,accessingprofessionalliteratureandtechnology)forthemtoenhancetheirtheoreticalandpedagogicalknowledgeofcurrentresearchontheeducationofstudentswithdiverseabilitiesandneedsonasustainedbasisaslifelongadultlearners.TofullyincludeEnglishlan-guagelearnerswithadisabilityintheleastrestrictivegeneraleducationclassroom,allteachersmustuseespeciallyemergingresearchspecifictoELLsandELLswithLDasdiscussedabove,toproperlyidentify,place,andensurequalityinstructionforthesestudents.Finally,educatorsmustnotforgettoforgepartnershipswithparentswhoplayapivotalroleintheirchild’slife,success,andfutureofournation.
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