Special Needs Teachers Pack Unesco

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Graphic design and layout: Susanne Almeida-KleinCover design: Jean-Francis ChkriezIllustrations: Salvador Pefia NevaPublished by United Nations Organizationfor Educational, Scientific and Cultural Development7 Place de Fontenoy75352 Paris 07 SPPrinted in the workshops of UNESCO0 UNESCO 1993Printed in France

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Acknowledgements

This pack was developed by an international resource team.The members of the team are:Anupam Ahuja IndiaMel Ainscow United KingdomCynthia Duk ChileGerard0 Echeita SpainHala Ibrahim JordanN. K. Jangira IndiaMennas Machawira ZimbabweChipo Marira ZimbabweCharles Mifsud MaltaJoseph Mifsud MaltaSophia Ngaywa KenyaWinston Rampaul CanadaChris Rose CanadaLena Saleh UNESCO, ParisNina Sotorrio SpainDanielle Van Steenlandt ChileGrace Wangombe KenyaZuhair Zakaria JordanThe team acknowledges the contributions of teachers and teacher educators frommany countries throughout the world. These materials are a tribute to a remarkableexample of international collaboration in which colleagues from different cultureshave worked together in the interests of all children.

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Contents

Module 1An Introduction to Special needs in the classroomStudy materialUnits: 1.1 What do you expect?

1.2 A policy for evaluation1.3 Learning lessons1.4 Looking at classrooms1.5 Childrens learning1.6 School-based inquiry

Module 2Special needs: Definitions and responsesStudy materialUnits: 2.1 Defining special needs

2.2 What can schools do about special needs?2.3 Inclusive schools2.4 Dealing with disabilities2.5 Attitudes to disability2.6 Perspectives on disability2.7 Integration in action2.8 Looking at integration2.9 The needs of teachers

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Module 3Towards effective schools for allStudy materialUnits: 3.1 Assessing and recording progress

3.2 Making learning more meaningful3.3 Changing practice3.4 Classroom factors3.5 Analysing classroom practice3.6 Co-operative learning3.7 Structuring group activities3.8 Reading for learning3.9 Problem solving

3.10 Putting it together

Module 4Help and supportStudy materialUnits: 4.1 Social climate of the classroom

4.2 Problem behaviour4.3 Child-to-child4.4 Peer tutoring4.5 Partnership teaching4.6 Sharing classrooms4.7 Parents as partners4.8 Meeting parents4.9 Community involvement

4.10 External agencies4.11 Practice and feedback

For further reading

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Introductionto the resource pack

These student materials are part of a UNESCO project to help schools and teach-ers respond to pupils with special needs. The materials are intended to be usedflexibly to fit in with different situations. They may, for example, be used as:1 Part of an initial training course for teachers2 An in-service workshop for experienced teachers3 The basis of a school-based staff development programme.The materials consist of four modules as follows:Module 1 An introduction to Special Needs in the ClassroomModule 2 Special needs: Definitions and responsesModule 3 Towards effective schools for all

- Module 4 Help and supportEach module commences with Study Material which should be read by all the par-ticipants in a course or workshop. This is then followed by Units that form thebasis of particular sessions.

Module 1 provides students with an overview of the project, including anexplanation of the principles around which it has been developed. It also includesan explanation of how the sessions are to be conducted, including strategies forcontinuous evaluation by participants.

The material used in all four modules requires some form of active learning,usually involving group work. Where written materials are studied these are usuallyread by participants before the course session and then used as a basis of someform of group activity. Little use is made of formal lecture inputs although courseleaders or participants may add their own inputs to course sessions as appropriate.It is assumed that those co-ordinating a course or workshop will have participatedin a training experience related to this resource pack. They must also have access to

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a copy of the notes for course leaders available from UNESCO.Finally those using the pack should be sensitive to the constraints faced by teach-ers. Whilst the aim is to help all teachers to be more successful in responding topupil diversity, it is important to remember that this is not always so easy in situa-tions where there are large classes, limited resources, or policies that limit the ca-pacity to work flexibly.

Mel Ainscow

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Module 1

An introduction toSpecial needs in the classroom

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Module 1 An introduction toSpecial needs in the classroomStudy material

Contents of this ModuleStudy Material . 3Discussion Material.Unit 1.1 What do you expect? ........................................................................... 17Unit 1.2 A policy for evaluation ......................................................................... 18Unit 1.3 Learning lessons ................................................................................... 20Unit 1.4 Looking at classrooms .......................................................................... 22Unit 1.5 Childrens learning ............................................................................... 23Unit 1.6 School based inquiry ............................................................................ 25

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GuideThis study material provides an introduction to the Special Needs in the Class-room project. It explains a little about how the project materials were developedand how they are intended to be used. The project is based upon a number ofstrategies that have been found to be successful in helping teachers to develop theirthinking and practice. These strategies can be used in all classrooms whether thestudents are adults or children. Also included in this study material is an outline ofall the modules and units in this resource pack. This can be used in order to decidewhich sections of the pack are relevant to particular groups of participants.

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IntroductionThis resource pack is part of a project de-veloped by UNESCO to help schools andteachers in different parts of the world torespond to children who experience difti-culties in school. It is expected that the ma-terials will be used in many different waysto make them suitable fo r different nationalcontexts. Consequently the emphasis is onflexibility. Use the materials in whateverways seem sensible to you and your col-leagues.

The project materials were developedwith the help of teachers and teacher edu-cators in many different countries. So,whilst they were co-ordinated by one au-thor, the ideas and experiences of manypeople are reflected in the text.

In this study material we will look at thebackground to the project including theaims and features of the materials, and thenmake some suggestions as to their use.

The development of the projectThe project Special Needs in the Class-room was initiated by UNESCO in 1988.The aim was to develop a resource pack ofideas and materials that could be used byteachers and teacher educators in differentparts of the world. The concern was withhelping ordinary schools to respond posi-tively to pupil diversity.

The initiative for the project grew out ofUNESCOs continuing work in encourag-ing member states to develop strategies forresponding to childrens special needs inordinary schools. A survey of fourteencountries, commissioned by UNESCO andcarried out by a research team from theUniversity of London, identified three ma-jor priorities for policy development. Thesewere:1 The provision of compulsory educationfor all children in the population;2 The integration of pupils with disabili-ties into ordinary schools; and3 The upgrading of teacher training as ameans of achieving the first two priori-

ties.The findings of this survey were used asthe basis of a series of regional workshops.

An outcome of these events was thatUNESCO was urged to assist in the dis-semination of teacher training materialsthat could be used to facilitate improve-ments with respect to meeting special needsin ordinary schools. The regional work-shops also generated more specific recom-mendations a9 to the content and emphasisto be placed within any materials that mightbe produced.Clearly the design of suitable teachereducation materials represented an enor-mous challenge. In particular there was thecentral issue of how to produce a pack thatwould be relevant to and take account ofsuch a wide range of national contexts, es-pecially those in developing countries. Thisbeing the case a number of measures weretaken during the formulation of the materi-als in order to achieve a level of flexibilitythat could take account of diverse settings.These were as follows:n A pilot workshop for teachers andteacher educators from various Africancountries was held in Nairobi, Kenya inApril 1989. This allowed various mate-rials and approaches to be evaluated.n Further trials were carried out in Tur-

key during September 1989.

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n

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Advisory teams consisting of teachereducators and teachers were created indifferent parts of the world. Theseteams provided comment on draft ma-terials and contributed materials andideas of their own for inclusion in thepack.Special educators and others involvedin teacher development around theworld read and commented upon draftmaterials.An international resource team was cre-ated to field-test and evaluate pilot ma-terials. This team is also involved in thefurther development of the materials.

In April 1990 two co-ordinators from eachof eight countries (i.e. Canada, Chile, In-dia, Jordan, Kenya, Malta, Spain and Zim-babwe) took part in a two-week workshop/seminar at the University of Zimbabwe.The group included university lecturers,educational administrators, teachers andone headteacher. The first week took theform of a demonstration workshop duringwhich materials from the resource packwere used to conduct a series of course ses-sions for the co-ordinators and a furthergroup of local teachers and student teach-ers. In the second week, the demonstratedworkshop was evaluated during a seminarin which the international co-ordinators

planned together the ways in which theywould field-test the resource pack in theirown countries.

This field-testing was completed byMarch, 1991 and each team of co-ordi-nators prepared an evaluation report abouttheir work. The main aim of the field-test-ing was to gather information that could beused to inform the further development ofthe resource pack and to plan its future dis-semination.

In this way, it was possible to developthe 16 co-ordinators into an internationalresource team who are now collaboratingwith colleagues in many countries in thepromotion of the project.

The evaluation reports indicate that in allof the field-testing sites the materials wereused as intended and that course leadersworked in ways that were consistent with thethinking of the project. The reports reflect asense of acceptance and optimism about theapproaches that were used. Overall, the evi-dence supports the view that the content ofthe materials in the resource pack was appro-priate for teachers in each of these nationalcontexts, focusing on issues that they foundmeaningful and relevant. Furthermore itseems that the activities and processes usedare successful in helping teacher educatorsand, in turn, teachers to develop their think-ing and practice.

The design of the project materialsIn the light of the account of the develop-ment of the resource pack you will recog-nize that designing suitable teachereducation material for the project has pre-sented many difficulties. How can suchmaterials be relevant to such a wide rangeof countries?As you will see this issue is addressed inthe materials by adopting a series of ap-proaches that are emphasised throughout

the project. Indeed the assumption is madethat these approaches apply in all teachingand learning situations, whether this is thelecture room in a college, an in-serviceworkshop for experienced teachers, or theclassrooms of your school.

Consequently these approaches willguide your participation in this project. W ehope that you will also adopt them inteaching the pupils in your classes.

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Learning is more likely to occur where there is:

Active learning Negotiation of objectives

Continuous evaluation Demonstration, practice and feedback

I-. =)Salppo~t

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Module 1 An introduction toSpecial needs in the classroom

Put simply the approaches are as follows:Learning is more likely to occur inclassrooms where there is:

Active learning Ii.e. Approaches that encourage partici-pants to engage with opportunities forlearning.Negotiation of objectivesi.e. Approaches that enable activities totake account of the concerns and inter-ests of individual participants.Demonstration, practice and feedbacki.e. Approaches that model examples ofpractice, encourage their use and pro-vide opportunities for feedback.Continuous evaluationi.e. Approaches that encourage enquiryand reflection as ways of reviewinglearning.Supporti.e. Approaches that help individuals totake risks.

- Let us look at each of these five points inturn, particularly with respect to teachereducation. As we do so, keep in mind pos-sible implications for your own classroom.1 Active involvementActive approaches to learning, in whichcourse participants work collaboratively todevelop their skills and understanding, andsolve common problems, have many advan-tages over traditional approaches to teachereducation. In particular they encourage in-volvement and help individuals overcomesome of the fears associated with change.Throughout your involvement in this project,therefore, you will find yourself asked towork with other people. We believe that thiswill help you to learn by sharing with others.

Study material

We also think it will make learning an enjoy-able experience.2 Negotiation of objectivesEach participant has their own ideas, experi-ences and concerns. Consequently it is nec-essary to allow individuals to work out theirown priorities, their own learning objectives.It may well be, that these objectives changeas a result of reading the various study mate-rials and participating in the related activities.3 Demonstration, practice and feedbackResearch evidence suggests that the intro-duction of new ways of working into schoolsis more likely if these three elements, dem-onstration, practice and feedback, are usedcollectively. Throughout this project, there-fore, you will have opportunities to seeteaching approaches demonstrated, to prac-tice them yourself and to receive helpfulcomment on your attempts. To help withthis you will be encouraged to work in col-laboration with your colleagues.4 Continuous evaluationSince we will be wanting you to determineyour own learning objectives within thisproject, it also makes sense for you to take re-sponsibility for monitoring progress. We be-lieve that this will encourage you to makegreater effort to improve your practice. Ouraim is to get you to see yourself as a learner,learning alongside the pupils in your class-room. We also want the process of continu-ous evaluation to be used as a means ofinfluencing the course activities and priori-ties. In this way the course should be helpfulto individual participants.5 SupportFinally, throughout this project, whetherwithin the context of pre-service or in-serviceteacher education, emphasis will be placedon the importance of support within theclassroom. Learning can be a stressful busi-ness for students and teachers. If this stress

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becomes too great, learning will be less likely.Classrooms that are characterized by supporthelp all participants, teachers and students, tolearn more effectively.

The implication of these five approaches isthat you as a participant in this project willhave a lot to do. Indeed the main purpose isto help you to take responsibility for yourown learning. This is a useful motto thatyou should keep in mind.

Points to considern What do you feel about these five approaches?n Do you use any of these approaches with the classes you teach?

ContentThe design of the project materials was in-fluenced by the evidence of the survey offourteen countries summarized above, theviews expressed at the various1 regionalworkshops and experience of other teachereducation initiatives. They were then re-written as a result of the field-testing andresearch in eight countries. The overall aimis as follows:To help teachers to develop theirthinking and practice with respect tothe ways in which they respond toeducational difficulties.As was said on erlier, the materials shouldbe used flexibly to take account of differentnational contexts and to meet the individualneeds of course participants.In general terms it is assumed that theyare likely to be used in one of the followingcontexts:1 Initial teacher training courses held incolleges or universities.2 In-service courses or workshops forgroups of experienced teachers.

-3 As part of school-based staff develop-

ment programmes for all members ofstaff within a particular school.Throughout the project material emphasisis placed on seeing special needs as a cur-riculum issue. In other words, whilst it isassumed that educational difficulties occurbecause of the interaction of a range of fac-tors, our responsibility as teachers must beto provide the conditions that will help allchildren to learn. Recognition of this leadsto a more optimistic frame of mind. Itmeans that what teachers do, the decisionsthey make, the experiences they provide,and the relationships they have with theirpupils, all have a majo r influence on chil-drens progress in schools.

This approach also takes account ofpossible dangers associated with the idea oflabelling. Instead of grouping some chil-dren together because they are seen as be-ing in some* way special, we shouldrecognize that all children are special. Con-sequently our aim must be to respond to allpupils as individuals, recognizing individu-ality as something to be respected. It wouldsurely be a sad world if everybody were thesame

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Module 1 An introduction ,toSpecial needs in the classroomStudy material

Summary of the contents -Module 1An introduction to Speciqlneeds in the classroomStudy material 1This material provides an introduction tothe project , including an account of its de-velopment through a process of interna-tional collaboration and research. This ledto the development of five approaches thatmake the materials associated with theproject relevant to teachers in differentcountries. Courses and workshops basedupon the materials have to be conducted ina flexible way in order to take account ofthe interests of individual participants. Theaim is to encourage participants to take re-sponsibility for their own learning.

Units in Module 11.1 W hat do you expect?Participants are expected to determine theirown learning objectives within the generalaim of the course. This activity helps indi-viduals to review their expectations.1.2 A policy for evaluationContinuous evaluation is seen as being acrucial part in the use of these materials.This unit provides some suggestions as tohow this evaluation should be undertaken.1.3 LRarning lessonsThis course is all about learning-chil-drens learning and adult learning. Thepurpose of this unit is to help participantsto think about themselves as learners.

1.4 Looking at classroomsThis unit begins the process of encouragingparticipants to review their own practice asteachers. It also helps in the refinement oflearning objectives fo r the course.1.5 Childry s learningIn this unit participants continue thinkingabout learning. Here the concern is withthe learning of children.1.6 School based inquiryParticipants are expected to review areas oftheir own classroom practice. This unitprovides advice on how to carry out suchinquiries.

Mobule 2Special needs:definitions and responsesStudy material 2This material provides an account ofchanges in thinking that are influencing de-velopments in many countries. Thesechanges redefine special needs in terms ofthe curriculum. They require teachers todevelop their practice in order to help allpupils to learn. Pupils experiencing difli-culty can be seen more.positively as provid-ing feedback on existing classroomarrangements. Improvements made in re-sponse to this feedback will be to the ben-efit of all pupils. Responding positively tospecial needs is a way of improving schoolsfor all.

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Units in Module 22.1 Defining special needsSpecial needs are seen as arising from aninteraction of a range of factors, somewithin the child, some in the communityand, critically, others rela ted to . the re-sponses of schools. This activity helpsteachers to recognize these factors.2.2 What can schools do about special m&i?

- This exercise is intended to pinpoint thosefactors in schools that influence pupillearning and which, therefore, can be ma-nipulated to overcome difficulties.2.3 Inclusive schools iThroughout the world there are examplesof schools that are successful in respondingpositively to pupil diversity. Studying theseschools can help us to develop our under-standing.2.4 Dealing with disabilitiesInevitably special needs occur when schoolsare unable to deal with childrens disabili-ties. Child studies are used as a basis forconsidering strategies for dealing with dis-ability in schools.2.5 Attitudes to disabilityThis unit provides an opportunity to con-sider different attitudes to disability. It alsohelps individuals to review their own think-ing.2.6 Perspectives on disabilityAn exercise in which teachers have the op-portunity to meet disabled adults and dis-cuss their experiences in school. Visual aidsmay also be used to help participants to be-come familiar with people who have dis-abilities.

2.7 Integration in actionUsing a series of stories written by teachersin different parts of the world, this unit be-gins to identify the important features ofpractice that are important for dealing withspecial needs in ordinary schools.2.8 Looking at integrationBased on school visits, this unit continuesthe investigation into good practice in deal-ing with special needs.2.9 The needs of teachersAssuming a curriculum view of specialneed there has to be consideration of theprofessional needs of teachers. Teacherswho feel confident in themselves are betterplaced to respond to difficulties experi-enced by their pupils. This unit looks atways in which teachers should deal withpersonal stress.

Module 3Towards effective schoolsfor allStudy material 3This material explores the practical impli-cations of adopting a curriculum view ofeducational difficulties. The concern is onrespondiqg to individual pupils within acommon ;curriculum rather than devisingseparate programmes. Given this argumentthe question is: How can teachers improvetheir p ractice with respect to ways of re-sponding to individuals within a class? Theemphasis is on learning from experience,using colleagues to provide support andstimulation in establishing a reflective atti-tude. This being the case there is also aneed to establish strategies for evaluatingclassroom practice and responding on thebasis of information collected. It is also veryimportant to adopt a whole school policy thatprovides support to individual teachers.

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Module 1 An iptroductlon toSpecial needs in the classroomStudy material

Unlts in Module 33.1 Assessing and recording progressWhat is recorded in a classroom tends tohave a major impact on the curriculumprovided. This unit looks at orientations toassessment and recording, and includes aconsideration of some examples.3.2 Making learning more meaningfulDifficulties in learning occur when pupilsperceive the curriculum as being irrelevantor lacking in meaning. Principles of goodcurriculum practice are presented and usedas a means o f evaluating the appropriate-ness of provision made in the classrooms ofcourse participants.3.3 Changing practiceIn this unit the issue of change in educationis considered. If teachers are to developtheir own practice, they neql to recognizethe difficulties they face and the conditionsthat facilitate change.3.4 Classroom factorsThis unit examines some of the methodsteachers use to respond to individual pupilsin their classes. These fac tors provide anagenda within which course participantscan consider their own current practice.3.5 Analysing Classroom practiceUsing systematic observations of classroompractice this unit seeks to examine in moredetail the factors that facilitate the progressof individual pupils.3.6 Co-operative learningThere is increasing evidence to suggest thatco-operative learning strategies are effec-tive in helping pupils to achieve their aca-demic goals. They can also facilitate theintegration of exceptional pupils and en-courage personal and social development.

3.7 Structuring group activitiesCo-operative learning is only successfulwhen group activities are planned to en-courage positive interdependence betweengroup members. This unit looks at practi-cal strategies for using group learning inthe classroom.3.8 Reading for learningClassroom reading material can cause par-ticular difficulties for some children. Thisunit examines strategies for helping all pu-pils to read more effectively.3.9 Problem solvingWhilst the main emphasis is on improvingthe curriculum there is still the occasionalneed to devise additional responses to helppupils overcome particular difficulties.This unit provides a framework for the de-velopment of such responses.3.10 Putting it togetherThis unit provides an opportunity for partici-pants to use ideas from the other units to de-vise, implement and evaluate a lesson plan.

Module 4Help and supporthudy material 4Whilst the importance of self-help isstressed throughout this project, the valueof support should not be underestimated.Effective teachers recognize the importanceof developing a support network. In par-ticular they are skilful in gaining help fromtheir pupils, their colleagues, parents andothers in the community, and, where avail-able, external support agencies. Successfulschools have a commitment to collabora-tion as a means of creating positive learningconditions for pupils and teachers.


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The Special Needs in the Classroom materials are meant tohelp you to respond to educational difficulties. The content ofthe materials is based upon the following ideas:Learning is more likely to occur in classrooms where there is:1 Active involvement of learners2 Negotiation of individual learning objectives

3 Opportunities for demonstration, practice and feedback

4 Continuous evaluation o f learning

5 Support for learners and teachers.

This course will be based upon these ideas. The main purposewill be to help you to take responsibility for your own learning.In this way you will learn how to become a better teacher.


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Module 1 An introduction toSpecial needs In the classroomStudy material

The six units that follow will help you to consider in more detail issues raised in thestudy material. Your course leader will explain how these units are to be dealt with.

Contents of the Units1.1 What do you expect? ................................................................................... 171.2 fj policy for evaluation ................................................................................. 181.3 Learning lessons ........................................................................................... 201.4 Looking at classrooms .................................................................................. 221.5 Childrens learning ...................................................................................... .231.6 School based inquiry .................................................................................... 2.5

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Unit 1.1What do you expect?

Unit aimTo review the expectations of individual participants.

Activities1 With a partner discuss what each of you would like to gain from this course.2 Join up with another pair of course participants and explain to the other pair

your expectations.3 Form up with the other groups and agree a general list of course expectations.

This list should be helpful in guiding the establishment of course priorities andactivities.

Evaluation issues1 What are your main priorities for the course?2 What strategies will you adopt to ensure that you achieve these priorities?

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Unit 1.2A policy for evaluation

Unit aimTo agree on procedures for evaluating the course.

Activities1 Read the discussion material, Evaluation and Learning.2 In small working groups formulate a possible policy for course evaluation. Such

a policy should:n help individuals monitor their own learningn inform the course leader of matters related to the course in generaln provide support to all participantsn not take up too much time.

3 Present your proposal to the other groups and then together agree the policythat you propose to use.

(N.B. These negotiations may take some time. Remember, however, that this is acrucial part of the course which should help to ensure its success. The process ofdiscussion may also help you to get to know more about the other participants.)

Evaluation issues1 In the light of the agreed policy what actions do you need to take to evaluate

your own learning?2 What problems, if any, do you anticipate?-

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Module 1 An introduction toSpecial needs in the classroomDiscussion

material

Evaluation and learningEvaluation should be an important part of any learning experience, whether foradults or children. The major aim of evaluation should be to improve the quality oflearning of all participants.

However, this aspect is often overlooked in teacher education programmes.Possible reasons for this are:1 It may create a negative reaction from some participants.2 There is sometimes confusion about the aims of evaluation.3 The terminology and techniques associated with evaluation seem to be com-

plex.4 It is time-consuming.

During .this course we wish to evaluate two interrelated aspects:1 Your progress towards achieving the objectives you set for yourself; and2 The ways in which the course is helping you to achieve these objectives.

Keeping these two issues in mind there is, therefore, a need to address the follow-ing questions in order to establish a policy for evaluation within the course:n What information is needed?n Who needs to know?n Who should take responsibility?

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Unit 1.3Learning ,lessons

Unit aimTo help participants to reflect upon themselves as learners.

Activities1 This course is about learning-childrens learning and adult learning. Thinking

about ourselves as learners can help in two ways:n we will get better at learning and at supporting the learning of our colleaguesn we will understand more about children as learners

2 Spend a few minutes thinking about yourself as an adult learner.(For example, how did you learn to ride a bicycle or drive a car?Can you remember learning to read?)

3 Working on your own complete the seven sentences on the attached paper.4 Share your responses with another participant.

n What do they tell you about yourself as a learner?l What implications are there for the way you teach your pupils?

5 Discuss your conclusion with the whole group.

Evaluation issues1 What measures should you take to help yourself to learn successfully during

this course?2 Could these same measures help children in your classes?

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Module 1 An introduction toSpecial needs in the classroomDiscussionmaterial

Myself as a learnerWorking on your own complete these sentences:

1 cI learn slowly when . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

- 2 I learn quickly when . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I find learning easy when ............................................................................................................................................................................................................

CLearning in groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

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P

Learning from books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

GI learn well from someone who .,......... .: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

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I enjoy learning when . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Module 1 An Introduction toSpecial needs In the classroom

Unit 1.4Looking at classrooms

Unit aimTo provide an opportunity for participants to review their own classroom practice.

Activities1

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On your own, draw a picture of your own classroom. Try to show by illustra-tion the things that you feel are important. This is not a test of your artisticability so feel free to draw in whatever way you like. Use cartoons, colours orwords to emphasize particular points i.f you wish. You may also like to talk toother course participants as you draw. The aim is to use drawing to help you tothink about your own classroom.With another participant talk about your picture. What are the problems thatyou face in your teaching? Try to agree a list of common issues and problems.Form into groups of four and compare your lists of common issues and problems.Finally discuss generally the points that have arisen from these activities with allthe other course members.

Evaluation activities1 What are the main problems about your classroom that have emerged from this

activity?2 What objectives are suggested that might be addressed during this course?

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Unit 1.5Childrens learning

Unit aimTo help participants to think about childrens learning.

Activities12

3-

4

5

Read the discussion material, What do we know about learning?Working on your own, look over the six statements about learning,and makesome notes of examples that illustrate- or contradict-each statement. Use ex-amples from your own experience as a learner, both now and in the past, andexamples of childrens learning in your workplace.Working in small groups of four or five, discuss each of the statements and theexamples you have noted with your colleagues. Think about the implications ofeach statement for your practice, and your workplace.Working in the same groups of four or five, select one of the six statements anddiscuss how its message might be incorporated into your workplace. Make aposter that will illustrate the group messagePresent your poster-to the rest of the course participants.

Evaluation issues1 What are the implications of these discussions for your classroom practice?2 Are there particular aspects of your teaching that you might want to develop in

the light of these discussions?

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material

Meetings in schools can have negative e ffects on teacher attitudes and morale ifparticipants feel uncomfortable or unenthusiastic about the ways in which they areconducted. For example, individuals may be embarrassed if they feel that they arelikely to appear foolish in front of colleagues. Others may lose interest when meet-ings are seen to be meandering or are dominated by one or two contributors. Theaim should be to make meetings as enjoyable and effective as possible.4 Using questionnairesOn the surface the use of questionnaires seems to provide a relatively simple andstraightforward means of gathering information quickly from large groups of peo-ple. Experience suggests, however, that it is an approach that can be loaded withdifficulties. Too often the questionnaires that are used have been poorly designedand, as a consequence, fail to provide the quality of information that is required. Itis worthwhile to invest time in finding out a little more about questionnaire design.

Questionnaires may include closed or open-ended questions. However it hasbeen said that open-ended questions often produce such unforeseen responses thatthe information collected may prove difficult or even impossible to analyse. Gener-ally the most effective questionnaires consist of questions for which the form ofresponse that is required is clearly defined.

The main issues that need to be considered in questionnaire construction are:question content, question wording, forms of response and the sequencing ofitems. On all these matters it makes sense to carry out some form of piloting beforeusing the questionnaires fully.5 Analysing documents

- Documents may provide a further source of useful information. These may includenational or local authority policy documents, school documents or examples ofchildrens written work. The following is an agenda for analysing documents:1 What kind of document is it?2 What does it actually say?3 Who provided it?4 How did it come into existence?5 Is it typical or exceptional of its type?0 Is it complete? Has it been altered or edited?There is a wealth of data in most schools which has not been formally docu-mented, but which can contribute significantly to a process of inquiry. For exam-ple, patterns of subject choice by pupils, attendance records, or examinationresults, especially viewed over time, can reveal interesting trends.

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6 Using outsidersA further strategy for gathering information may be to use someone external to theschool. Inspectors, advisory teachers, or representatives from higher educationcould be particularly helpful in this respect. Inevitably they would draw upon oneor other of the approaches described above to collect their information. Perhapstheir most valuable asset, however, is that they have the ability to look at the school,or some aspect of its practice, from a different perspective. They may also bring totheir work experiences of practice in other schools that can help sta ff to see thingsin a different way.

If it is the intention to use an outsider it is important that they are well briefedas to the background and purpose of the inquiry. Care must be taken to addressdiplomatic and ethical issues that arise as a result of somebody visiting the school ina manner that seems to be judgmental. However, the potential benefits of an out-side view are such that it may be worth exploring possibilities.

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Module 2 Special needs:definitions and responsesStudy material

Contents of this ModuleStudy Material . 33Discussion MaterialUnit 2.1 Defining special needs.. ........................................................................ 46Unit 2.2 What can schools-do about special needs? ......................................... .52Unit 2.3 Inclusive schools ................................................................................... 55Unit 2.4 Dealing with disabilities ........................................................................ 56Unit 2.5 Attitudes to disability ........................................................................... 60Unit 2.6 Perspectives on disability .................................................................... .62Unit 2.7 Integration in action ............................................................................. 63Unit 2.8 Looking at integration .......................................................................... 69Unit 2.9 The needs of teachers.. ......................................................................... 70

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IntroductionThe overall aim of these materials is to helpyou review your thinking and practice as ateacher with respect to the ways in whichyou respond to pupils experiencing diffi-culties in your classroom. As you read thisstudy material we want you to consideryour own experience and compare it withthe ideas we discuss. This should help youto focus on aspects of your work that maybe worthy of further development.

At one time a workshop such as thiswould have been seen as a specialist eventintended solely for teachers who had aparticular interest in remedial and specialeducation. As we present our arguments itwill become obvious that our audience is allteachers and, indeed, ,our concern is withthe learning of all children. This change ofapproach, from a concern with a small per-centage of children thought to have learn-ing difficulties towards a fo.cus on allchildren, is central to the ideas presented inSpecial Needs in the Classroom. The aimis to help all children experience success inthe classroom, including those who haveparticular disabilities or difficulties to over-come.In this study material we describe somecurrent trends in thinking and explain whythese are so important for all teachers. Inparticular, we explain how the ways in

which the education service responds topupils experiencing difficulties are develop-ing so radically in many countries. We wantyou to consider these arguments and re-view your own point of view about the is-sues we raise.

Our consideration of these changes willbe presented in terms of two different waysof defining the difficulties experienced bypupils in classrooms. These are:1 The individual pupil viewHere educational difficulties are defined interms of the characteristics of individualpupils, e.g. disabilities, social backgroundor psychological attributes.2 The curriculum viewHere educational difficulties are defined interms of the tasks and activities providedfor pupils, and the conditions created in theclassroom. Currently approaches used inmany countries are based upon the indi-vidual pupil view. However it is now be-coming recognized that this way of definingeducational difficulties has a number of sig-nificant disadvantages. As a result there isincreasing interest in the curriculum view.Let us consider these two ways of definingeducational difficulties in more detail.


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The individual pupil viewApproaches to children experiencing diffi-culties in schools in many countries are in-fluenced by this view point. They are basedupon the following four assumptions:Assumption 1A group of children can be identified whoare specialDifficulties experienced by certain pupilsare explained in terms of certain of theircharacteristics that appear to inhibit theirprogress (e.g. disabilities, home back-ground, intellectual ability). As a result theschool population is divided into twogroups, one of which consists of pupils whoare seen as being special. In many coun-tries, legally and administratively, this is themeans used to identify those pupils who re-quire special education. This provision isgenerally made in a special school or unit.With the development of remedial educa-tion in some countries, another group wascreated separating those pupils in primaryand secondary schools who are thought toneed remedial teaching. Such pupils arethen withdrawn for extra teaching or placedin a separate remedial class.Assumption 2These children need special teachingin response to their problemSpecial education tends to be all or noth-ing; that is, children are either identified asbeing special, and placed in a specialgroup, or they are not, in which case theyremain in the ordinary class with no specialconsideration. The identification processtherefore becomes crucial, and a whole in-dustry has grown up, which frequently ex-cludes the class teacher, to facilitate thisprocess of identification and allocation. Of-ten it is also the case that pupils can only beregarded as special if additional resourcesare available.

-Assumption 3It is best to teach childrenwith similar problems togetherIn an attempt to provide positive help to-wards pupils who are identified as beingspecial they are sometimes placed togetherin special schools, units, classes or groups.This decision is made on the basis of whatis seen as the common cause of their prob-lems. Thus in special schools all the chil-dren said to be educationally retarded areplaced together, all those with physical dis-abilities, and so on. Similarly, remedialclasses or groups contain children thoughtto have similar learning problems. Byputting them together the aim is to providethe best possible treatment by specialistteachers who had particular interests andskills in dealing with their difficulties. Itshould be added that in some countrieschildren with certain types of disability areexcluded from schools since they are re-garded as being ineducable.Assumption 4Other children are normal and benefitfrom existing forms of schoolingHaving geared special resources to makearrangements for groups of special chil-dren, the system may take it for grantedthat other pupils in school will learn suc-cessfully as a result of their participation inthe curriculum provided. There is thereforeno encouragement for teachers in ordinaryclasses to give consideration to pupils expe-riencing difficulty.Indeed, sometimes teachers may bediscouraged from doing so because teach-ing children with special needs is seen as ajob for the experts found in special schools,units or classes. The ordinary class teacherwho attempts to make provision for spe-cial pupils might be accused of doing thema disservice by denying them access to this

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expertise and additional resources.On the basis of these four assumptions,provision for children experiencing difficul-ties in school in many parts of the worldcame to be characterized by an emphasison categories, care and segregation. Let usconsider some of the implications of thesethree concepts.In many countries children have to beallocated to a formal category of handicap(e.g. mentally handicapped, learning disa-bled) in order to receive some form ofspecial education.It is hardly surprising that educationservices rely so much on this approach ofdescribing a sub-group of children by theuse of a category title. People need someform of words in order to refer to one an-other in conversation. Also, it seems to helpour thinking if we can make general state-ments about people that appear to explaintheir situation in a meaningful way.

There is, in addition, a historical per-spective that helps to explain the use ofcategories in describing children who arecausing concern in school. An examinationof the way in which special provision devel-oped in different parts of the world indi-cates what we mean. The tactic ofestablishing a label that the general publiccan understand is an effective means ofwinning support for extra resources forneedy groups.Increasingly, however, the negative ef-fects of using categories and labels to de-scribe children have come to be recognized.An English writer, Paul Widlake, goes sofar as to argue: The processes by which welabel pupils may turn out to be more influ-ential in causing learning difficulties thanany other activity teachers engage in.What, then, is the nature o f the negativeeffects that this process of labelling childrencan have? How might it be influential incausing learning difficulties?

First of all, the use of labels that em-phasize possible causes of a childs diffi-culties in learning tends to distract attentionfrom factors that might be important in

helping pupils to succeed. Furthermore, thecauses described are often vague, highlyspeculative and based on simplistic expla-nations of how educational difficulties oc-cur. A major influence on the thinking ofteachers in this respect has been the con-cept of general ability. In particular, theemphasis that has been placed on intelli-gence testing has tended to encourageteachers to believe that many childrenspoor achievements can be explained bytheir low potential. The problem then be-comes the childs, and the teacher may feelthat there is little point in trying to over-come the childs educational difficulties.

A second problem with the use of labelsis that children simply do not tit neatly intothe categories we have used in the past.This situation has become more and moreevident as improvements in medical sciencehave meant that minor impairments ofyoung children are more readily identified,and that more children with multiple dis-abilities survive. So, for example, what cat-egory might we use to describe a youngsterwho has poor sight, a minor hearing loss,cant read and has poor social relationshipswith other members of the class?Because children do not fit neatly intocategories, it becomes a problem decidingwhich label to attach to them. When pro-viding a label is a crucial part of the processleading to decisions about resources thentensions can arise between different pro-fessional groups. For example, situationsarise where a. eacher may feel that a child isjust not coping with the work in the class,and, after consultation with the parents, out-side experts are called in to provide advice.

The advice offered may be conflictingand centred on whether or not the child fitsa particular category. It is difficult to seehow such debates benefit the child. Oftensuch discussions are inclined to consumethe energies of the different people con-cerned without necessarily having a pro-ductive outcome in terms of deciding howbest the child could be helped there andthen. It may also leave the teacher and

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Module 2 Special needs:definithns and responsesStudy material

parents confused about what they shoulddo for the child. Even if a label could beeasily agreed, this is frequently used to ar-gue for a specialist placement, and the childis then placed on the waiting list of the ap-propriate school or unit. It can sometimesthen be years before such a place becameavailable. What does the class teacher do inthe meantime? Because the label confirmsthat there is a problem with the child thatrequires the intervention of experts, theclass teacher is discouraged from consider-ing what responses might be made withinthe ordinary class.The third and arguably most worryingfeature of the process of labelling is to dowith its effects on peoples attitudes. Refer-ring to children by a word or a phrase thatis supposed to sum up what they are like,what they can do (or not do), and whatshould happen to them in the future, isnothing more than stereotyping. Tellingyou that a child is disabled in some way,disturbed, or of low ability simply encour-ages you to focus on one feature of thatindividual in a generalized way that maydistract attention from their many otherunique features. W hat tends to happen as aresult o f this form of stereotyping is a low-ering of expectations of what the person

*_ can achieve. A common example of thishappening in some schools is the use of theterm remedial. To be referred to as a re-medial child usually means that somebodyin school, often on the basis of the childsperformance in reading and writing, hasdecided that he or she is dull. What followsis a continuing and persisting expectationthat the child will not be able to achievevery much in school.In some countries legislation has meantthat formal special education categorieshave been abolished. The arguments pre-sented above also make a strong case forteachers being much more sensitive aboutthe use of labels.The use of labelling leads many teach-ers to overprotect certain of their children.Certainly a caring approach should char-

-

acterize all teaching, but we need to beaware of the dangers of underestimatingwhat children can achieve.Too often a desire to care and protectleads to some youngsters taking part in asignificantly reduced educational pro-gramme characterized by lack of challengeand stimulation. For example, some teach-ers feel that they are helping some of theirchildren by giving them colouring anddrawing to do instead of the work beingdone by the rest of the class. These teach-ers feel that to do otherwise places thechildren under pressure; causing them dis-tress and anxiety.Generally, however, the practice inmany schools is to provide children identi-fied as having special problems with addi-tional help in the areas in which they areexperiencing difficulties. So, for example,children seen as having problems in learn-ing to read are given some form of extrawork related to reading. This might involvespecially assigned tasks within the class-room or, more usually, periods of with-drawal from the room to work intensivelyon special programmes or materials.Sometimes these activities involve the useof carefully structured materials, matchedto the attainment level of the child, with theintention of providing a high degree ofsuccess. This can be an effective way ofproviding extra help. Too often, however,this approach leads to them working inisolation on tasks that do not have obviousrelevance to other work, or that the childmight find boring or repetitive.Children may experience other disad-vantages as a result of their involvement inworking on tasks intended to help themovercome their learning difficulties. Theymight, for example, be excluded fromstimulating activities carried out by otherclass members. Because of this they maynot understand important topics or themesbeing developed over a period of time,leaving them feeling confused or distressedby their own lack of understanding. It mayalso mean that they miss out on those ac-

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The issue of segregation is not justabout special schools. Separate arrange-ments within ordinary schools can also bedisadvantageous to pupils.

For example, a unit was established inone school for children presenting behav-iour problems. Taught by an enthusiasticand creative young teacher, who workshard to provide an interesting range of op-portunities for her class, the children havelittle contact with the rest of the school.Pupils might stay in the unit for three orfour years, they rarely go into other class-rooms, other teachers rarely visit theirclassroom, and, to make things even worse,their lunches are sent in for them to eat to-gether as a group.Often forms of segregation are moredifficult to detect although still likely tofoster negative outcomes. For example, ateacher described the groupings in herclassroom as follows: around one table

were the children who work fast; aroundothers were children in the middle; at an-other table were the children who were try-ing As part of this explanation she saidthat she felt sure that members of the classwere unaware of the significance of thesearrangements. It would be comforting tothink this was so.

The main point that we wish to make isthat, if we do choose to separate pupils inorder to provide extra attention, we mustbe aware of possible negative effects upontheir self-esteem and, indeed, upon the at-titudes of those around them.

To sum up, the dominant approach topupils experiencing difficulties in schools isto seek to identify particular sub-groupsthought to have similar problems that havecommon causes. This individual pupil viewleads to forms of provision that can becharacterized as emphasizing categories,care and segregation.

Points to considern Is the individual pupil view of educational difficulty still dominant in your area?n Do you agree with the criticisms made of this way of thinking?

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Module 2 Special needs:definitions and responses

The curriculum view

Study material

Teachers in many countries recognize thelimitations and possible dangers of the in-dividual pupil view of educational difficul-ties. Consequently they are exploring amore flexible and optimistic approach. Wecall this approach a curriculum view. Inother words we are seeking to understandchildrens difficulties as they participate inthe experience of schooling.Taking a curriculum view can help usto cater for a wider range of pupils, includ-ing some who are currently excluded fromordinary schools. This view is based uponthe following four assumptions:Assumption 1Any child may experience difficultiesin schoolIt has to be recognized that experiencingdifficulty in learning is a normal part ofschooling rather than an indication thatthere is something wrong with a child. It isonly when difficulties in learning causeanxiety to the child, the childs parents orteachers that particular attention needs tobe paid. Furthermore, this can apply to anyyoungster whatever his or her overall at-tainments in comparison with others in thesame class. So, for example, a child who isgenerally successful in learning may go

.through a period of boredom with the workpresented by the class teacher. If thismeans that he or she is not applying effortto the task then it becomes a cause for con-cern. On the other hand, a child whoseprogress is generally slower than that ofclassmates may be getting on well andfeeling generally positive about his or herwork. The point is clear, therefore: ourconcern is with all children.Assumption 2Such di#iculties can point to ways in whichteaching can be improved

In moving towards this new way of workingit is important to recognize its theoreticalbasis. You will recall that in the individualpupil view the concern was with finding outwhat was wrong with the child. This ap-preach, often characterized as a medicalmodel, assumes that pinpointing the causeof a childs problem (i.e. diagnosis) helpsus to determine an appropriate response(i.e. treatment or prescription). The newthinking, on the other hand, recognizesthat, whilst the individual differences ofchildren must influence their progress,what we as teachers do is also very impor-tant. Difficulties in learning occur as a re-sult of the decisions teachers make, thetasks teachers present, the resources teach-ers provide and the ways in which teacherschoose to organize the classroom. Conse-quently difficulties in learning can, be cre-ated by teachers but, by the same token,can be avoided. This viewpoint is essen-tially an optimistic one since it points to ar-eas of decision-making, over which we asteachers have reasonable control, that canhelp children to experience success in theclassroom and overcome whatever d isad-vantages or impairments they bring withthem into school.Assumption 3These improvements lead to better learningconditions for all pupilsThe curriculum view of educational diffi-culties encourages teachers to becomemuch more skilled in interpreting eventsand circumstances in their classrooms. Itsmain concern is with the improvement ofoverall learning conditions as a result of aconsideration of difficulties experienced bypupils in their classes. In this way pupilsexperiencing difficulties can be seen morepositively as a source of feedback on exist-ing classroom arrangements, providinginsights as to how these can be improved.

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Furthermore since these arrangements areexperienced by all members of the class itseems reasonable to assume that they willall have the advantages of the changes thatare made. In this way the adoption of thecurriculum view point can be seen as ameans of improving schooling for all.Assumption 4Support should be available as teachersattempt to develop their practice.The message of the past was that educa-tional difficulties were dealt with by ex-perts. When children were seen as being insome way exceptional or special, teacherswere encouraged to look for outside expertswho could solve the problem. Conse-quently teachers tended to assume thatthere were certain members of the classthat they could not be expected to teach.Furthermore, the work of some of the spe-cial education experts often encouragedthis viewpoint by giving the impression thatthey had methods of working that were ex-clusive to them. This attitude had the effectof further undermining the confidence ofteachers and implying that they need nottake responsibility for certain pupils. Thecurriculum view encourages each of us to_ retain responsibility for all members of theclass. However, taking responsibility for allpupils does not mean that teachers shouldfeel that they cannot look for help and ad-

vice. All of us are limited by our own previ-ous experience and existing skills; all of usmust expect to meet situations and chal-lenges that we find difficult; and, indeed, allof us must be prepared to recognize ourprofessional limitations.There is nothing to be gained by pre-tending to cope with something that is be-yond our competence. So, in wishing todiscourage the idea of special education ex-perts who appear to take away certain ofour responsibilities, we wish to argue thatwhat is needed instead are approaches toteaching and learning that emphasize thesharing of expertise, energy and resources.Furthermore, as emphasized throughoutSpecial Needs in the Classroom, sharingand collaboration are noticeable features ofall successful schools.In the light of these four assumptionsassociated with the curriculum view of edu-cational difficulties we can now begin toconsider ways in which schools should re-spond. In doing so we will move away fromthe concern with categories, care and seg-regation towards ways of working thatemphasize inquiry, collaboration and im-provement. Using these approaches we willbe seeking ways of teaching that take ac-count of the individuality of all of our pu-pils. Furthermore we will be seeking tounderstand the difficulties experienced bycertain children in order to bring about im-provements in our teaching.

Points to considern Do you agree that any pupil may experience difficulties in the classroom?n How far does your own way of thinking about educational difficulties fit in withwhat has been suggested so far?

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A way forwardWhilst inevitably teaching is partly aboutorganizing large numbers of learners (par-ticularly given the class sizes in manyschools), the task of the teacher must be tofind ways of managing the learning envi-ronment to take reasonable account of indi-vidual class members. First and foremostthis requires a certain outlook. There is aneed for a commitment to recognize the in-dividuality of each child and see this as apositive quality that can be used to enrichthe classroom encounters that are planned.It is also necessary to find ways of makingsure that the tasks presented to childrenhave meaning for them at a personal level.All o f this means that teachers need toknow their children as well as possible interms of:

Previous experiencei.e. What sorts of experiences have thechildren had inside and out of school?Skills and knowledgei.e. What do the children understand?What can reasonably be expected giventhe childrens current level of skills andknowledge?Interestsi.e. What a re the childrens interests andpreferences?Attitudesi.e. Do the children have any feelingsthat may influence learning?

As part of knowing children, the teacheralso has to be sensitive to any physical, sen-sory or other health factors that may needto be taken into account in planning thecurriculum. Indeed, as teachers we need tobe aware of the fact that sometimes we maybe in the best position to detect such areasof difficulty, particularly if they are of atemporary or intermittent nature.

For example, teachers often pick upmild hearing difficulties in children thathave been overlooked in the close socialcontext of the home.In considering how schools can becomemore responsive to pupils as individuals itis important to take account of the indi-viduality of teachers. Clearly we vary inmuch the same ways as do our pupils.Once again, this variety needs to be recog-nized, respected and utilized to enrich thework of a school. Consequently throughoutthese materials there is a strong emphasison teachers as learners, working to becomemore effective practitioners. In encouragingthis view we will be arguing that there arethree main sources of improvement toteacher performance. These are:1 Previous experienceEach of us needs to recognize that our ownprofessional experience provides a richsource of information that can help us tobecome more effective teachers. Too oftenin the past the improvement of teaching hasbeen seen as something that occurs as aresult of outside experts explaining toteachers what they should do. Apart fromthe fact that this is based on a rather naiveview of how people learn, it also has the ef-fect of undermining the confidence ofteachers to see their own practice as asource of ideas that can be used to facilitatedevelopment. In these materials, therefore,we encourage you to reflect upon your ownways of working, recognizing your own ar-eas of strength and seeking ways of improv-ing those aspects that you wish to develop.2 ColleaguesAs explained throughout these materials,successful schools are characterized by astrong emphasis on collaboration and shar-ing. A major strength in these schools isthat the process of professional improve-

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ment is carried out in an atmosphere ofsupport and security. It also means that in-dividuals have an audience to talk to abouttheir practice, and trusted colleagues whocan provide comment and suggestions.Where possible this process can be fur-ther encouraged by enabling teachers toteach in teams for periods of time in orderto enable them to support one another asthey attempt to introduce new strategies ormaterials into their classrooms. This ap-proach, sometimes referred to as peercoaching, is along the lines of techniquesfor improvements that are used in craftworkshops and in the training of athletes.3 Research evidenceWhilst emphasizing the idea of teachers aslearners, working wherever possible withcolleagues to develop their practice, wewould not wish to rule out the benefits thatcan be gained from investigations carriedout about teaching in other contexts. Evi-dence from formal research projects re-ported in the literature, and the knowledgeand experience of others in the educationservice, can and should be used to enrichand stimulate the process of professionaldevelopment. What is important, however,is that research evidence is seen as a sup-plement to self-improvement and not a re-placement for it.In seeking ways of responding to pupilsas individuals and bearing in mind the indi-viduality.of teachers, we must not lose sightof the wider context in which schools op-erate. It would be naive for us as teachers toignore the interests, concerns and, indeed,demands of society at large. Certainlywhere a school operates in ways that are

Study material

not fully understood or, even worse, mis-trusted by members of its community, thiscreates a possible source of tension thatmay be to the disadvantage of the childreninvolved. In particular, where parents areuneasy about what is happening to theirchildren this can be damaging to teachermorale and the childrens progress. An-other theme that pervades these materials,therefore, is to do with finding ways ofbuilding a closer partnership betweenschool and community with a view to cre-ating a shared understanding of the pur-pose of schooling.Finally, as we seek ways of improvingour teaching, we have to be realistic aboutthe constraints within which we operate asteachers. Resources, in terms of materialsand people, are limiting factors. There isonly so much that can be done given thetime, energy and materials that are avail-able. Having said that, it is not an argumentfor despondency. Despite relatively largeclass sizes, limited resources and too muchpressure, many teachers remain positive,optimistic and enthusiastic. This remains afundamental strength and, indeed, providesanother theme that we wish to emphasize.We believe that the care of teachers-theiremotional support and professional en-couragement-is essential to quality in edu-cation.Summing up, the approach taken in theSpecial Needs in the Classroom materials isbased on the belief that a curriculum viewof educational difficulties can lead to over-all improvements in schooling. Specialneeds are special, therefore, in that theyprovide insights into possibilities for im-provement that might otherwise pass unno-ticed.

Points to considern How do you feel about this new approach?n Do you feel that it is relevant to your work as a teacher?

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Two ways of looking at educational difficulties:

The Individual Pupil View(i.e. difficulties defined in terms of pupil characteristics)Based upon the following ideas:w A group of children can be identified who are specialn These children need special teaching in response to their problemsn It is best to teach children with similar problems togetherH Other children are normal and benefit from existing teaching

The Curriculum View(i.e. difficulties defined in terms of tasks, activities and classroom conditions)Based upon the following ideas:w Any child may experience difficulties in schooln Such difficulties can point to ways in which teaching can be improvedn These improvements lead to better learning conditions for all pupilsw Support should be available as teachers attempt to develop their practice

This course aims to help you to become a better teacher.It is about finding ways of helping all children to learn.

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The units that follow will help you to consider in more detail issues raised in thestudy material. Your course leader will explain how these units are to be dealt with.

Contents of the Units2.12.22.32.42.52.62.7

- 2.82.9

Defining special needs.. ............................................................................... .46What can schools do about special needs? ................................................. .52Inclusive schools .......................................................................................... .55Dealing with disabilities.. ............................................................................. .56Attitudes to disability.. ................................................................................. .60Perspectives on disability.. ........................................................................... .62Integration in action .................................................................................... .63Looking at integration ................................................................................. .69The needs of teachers.. ................................................................................ .7O

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Unit 2.1Defining special needs

Unit aimTo help participants to appreciate the range of factors that may influencechildrens learning.

Activities1 Read the discussion material, The Story of Peter2 Discuss the story with a partner. Consider your reactions to what happened.3 In larger groups (fours or sixes), discuss the following issues:

H What is the nature of Peters difficulties?n What do you feel about the contributions of the various professional people

involved?n What factors influenced Peters lack of progress?n As a whole group make a composite list of factors influencing Peters

progress. See if these factors can be grouped and categorized.4 Present your findings to the other groups.

Evaluation issues1 What have you learned from this activity?2 What implications are there for your own work as a teacher?3 What is your view about the curriculum view of educational difficulties?-

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Module 2 definitions and responsesDiscussion

material

The story of PeterThis is the story of Peter Blakeys first year in the junior department of a primary,school. Most teachers will probably know a child like Peter-some may knowmany.

Peter moved into Mrs Jones class in September when he was 8 years old.Fairly quickly she realized that Peter was some way behind the others and raisedthe subject in conversation with Miss Nolan, Peters previous classteacher. MissNolan confirmed that this had always been the case, but said that Peter seemedhappy enough and had made some progress during his year with her, albeit ratherslow. Mrs Jones decided to keep a careful eye on the situation.

As time went on the problem seemed to grow steadily worse. It was true thatPeter was making some progress, but it was painfully slow and the gap betweenhim and the rest of the class seemed to be growing day by day. Perhaps even moreworrying was that Peters behaviour seemed to be deteriorating. He had been veryrude once or twice when told to get on with his work, and was frequently findingexcuses not to work. Books and pens had been lost, requests to go to the toilet hadbecome more frequent, and Peter was always the first to volunteer for any job thatwould take him out of the classroom.

Mrs Jones decided to ask the headteachers advice. She described the problemsshe was having with Peter to Mr Walker, the headteacher, who decided first to talkto Miss Nolan. Later he asked Mrs Jones to prepare a full written report so thatconsideration could be given to Peters needs. Mrs Jones presented the followingreport to the headteacher in January.

Report on Peter BlakeyPeter is a pleasant and likeable little lad, despite the fact that it is almost impossible tokeep him working for more than a few minutes at a time. He needs constant one-to-onesupervision. Otherwise his mind seems to wander and eventually he begins interruptingthe other children. I feel as though I have tried absolutely everything-I have shouted athim and tried kindness, but it doesnt seem to make much difference to his attitude.

As far as work is concerned Peter can only read six or seven words on the WordRecognition Test. He can recognize his own name and is currently reading one of theLevel 2 books, although he doesnt always seem to understand what the book is about. Inarithmetic it is much the same story

He is a long way behind the rest of the class, he can count reasonably well and dosimple sums (on a good day and provided he can use counters), but again he doesnt seemto really understand the process involved. In group and language lessons Peter rarelycontributes.

I have thought a lot about Peter in an attempt to get to the bottom of his problem by

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Afterwards, Mrs Jones and Mr Walker discussed the interview, which they bothfelt had been helpful. A number of points had been raised which might at leastpartly explain Peters problems. It was possible that Mr Blakeys death had hadsome kind o f long-lasting effect upon Peter, and Mrs Blakey had said that Peteroften asks about him. Mr Walker felt sure that the difficult birth was an importantfactor and thought that mild brain damage had probably been sustained. And li-nally, while Mrs Blakey seemed a caring and well-intentioned mother, she clearlywas not very bright herself, and maybe this was a factor. Whatever the cause of theproblem, Mr Walker agreed with Mrs Jones that expert help should be soughtimmediately, and so he wrote to the Special Needs Advisory Service and asked theschool medical officer to check Peters hearing.

Whilst Mr Walker received prompt acknowledgements to his requests, it wassome time before he heard anything further. He knew that the school medical of-ficer and the Special Needs Advisory Service had quite long waiting lists andtherefore did not expect Peter to be seen by either much before Easter.

Eventually Mrs Blakey was asked to take Peter to the school clinic for a hearingtest. This she did, and the results of a thorough audiometric investigation indi-cated, as Mrs Blakey had anticipated, that Peters hearing was normal. A letterconfirming these findings was sent to the school.

In the meantime a speech therapist had visited the school to see another childand Mr Walker took the opportunity of mentioning Peter. The speech therapistkindly agreed to see him that morning and, after talking to him for some time, re-ported back to the headteacher that, although Peters speech was rather immaturefor an eight-year-old, there was certainly no sign of any abnormal articulation. Theproblem would solve itself with time, she said, and she could not justify giving himregular individual, speech therapy.

Just before the April holidays, Mr Thompson, a teacher from the SpecialNeeds Advisory Service, visited the school to see Peter. He took him to the medicalroom and administered a number of tests. Throughout the session Peter workedwell for Mr Thompson and showed no signs of distractability. This did not sur-prise Mrs Jones because she knew Peter was capable of concentrating for quite longperiods if he was really interested and she was prepared to give him her individualattention. This was one of the main problems-she had thirty-eight children in herclass and she could not ignore them to deal with Peter.

Before leaving, Mr Thompson discussed his findings with Mr Walker and MrsJones. A number of interesting points emerged. Mr Thompson had administered arange of tests including the Picture Vocabulary Test. This test, he explained,measures receptive vocabulary, and Peter had a standard score of 73. This meantvery little to either Mr Walker to Mrs Jones, but it seemed to worry Mr Thompsongreatly. This test result, coupled with Peters low attainments across the curriculum.and his deteriorating behaviour, led him to feel that the case should be referred toan educational psychologist.

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Mr Thompson listened with interest to Mr Walkers information about Petershome circumstances and the difficult birth. He agreed that these factors might wellbe the cause of Peters learning difficulties, but again felt that an educational psy-chologist would be better qualified to judge.

A number of useful suggestions were made by Mr Thompson. He had used aReading Skills Test with Peter. This test attempts to identify which of a wide rangeof skills have been acquired, and which have not. In actual fact, Peter could notmanage much of the test and most of the information it yielded was already knownto Mrs Jones. Nevertheless, a booklet is supplied with the test which contains avariety o f teaching suggestions as well as instructions for administration, and MrWalker felt that the test would be useful with other children who had reading dif-ficulties. In addition, Mr Thompson described a Programmed Reading Kit con-taining a wide range of materials which would be appropriate for Peter, and saidthat he would loan one to the school so that they could evaluate its usefulness.

By now Mrs Jones had mixed feelings about all that had happened. On the onehand the school medical officer, the speech therapist and the special needs teacherhad presumably acted as promptly as their work load permitted, and each had donetheir job properly. The medical o fficer and the speech therapist had answered thequestions they had been asked about Peters hearing and speech, and MrThompson had made a number of useful and practical suggestions. On the otherhand, Mrs Jones was aware that Peters problems still existed, the gap between himand the rest of the class was still growing, and his behaviour, if anything, had fur-ther deteriorated. Peters name was now to be placed on yet another waiting list. Inall probability, by the time he was seen by the psychologist the end of the SummerTerm would be in sight and then Peter would be moving into someone elses class.She was frustrated, believing that more should be done for Peter but not knowingwho to blame.

It was late June before the psychologist arrived at school. Mrs Blakey hadconsented to the referral which was made in writing by Mr Walker in April. MrsArmitage, the educational psychologist, observed Peter for a while in his classroomand then took him to the medical room for an interview which lasted slightly morethan an hour.

A meeting was held following afternoon school on the same day between MrsArmitage, Mr Walker and Mrs Jones. The first important point to emerge was thatPeter, in the opinion of Mrs Armitage, did not need to be sent to a special class.This was a considerable relief to Mr Walker. Neither he, nor Mrs Jones, wantedPeter to be off-loaded. They simply wanted to know what more could be done tohelp Peter in their own school. Apparently, Mrs Armitage had administered theWechsler Intelligence Scale for Children which provides a Verbal Scale IQ andPerformance Scale IQ. Peters scores were 79 and 94 respectively which, accordingto Mrs Armitage, indicated that Peter performed rather better on tasks which didnot rely heavily on understanding or using language. This did not surprise

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Unit 2.2What can schools doabout special needs?

Unit aimTo help particip

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