QL155.S63no.82-11.7
FWSlOBS-82111.7October 1983
Species Profiles: Life Histories andEnvironmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes
TR EL-82-4
and Invertebrates (North Atlantic)
WHITE PERCH
Coastal Ecology GroupWaterways Experiment StationFish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
FWS/OBS-82/11.7TR EL-82-4October 1983
Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirementsof Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates .(North Atlantic)
WHITE PERCH
bY
Jon G. Stanleyand
Dwight S. DanieMaine Cooperative Fishery Research Unit
313 Murray HallUniversity of MaineOrono, ME 04469
Project ManagerLarry ShanksProject OfficerNorman Benson
National Coastal Ecosystems TeamU. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1010 Gause BoulevardSlidell, LA 70458
This study was conductedin cooperation with
Coastal Ecology GroupU.S. Army Corps of EngineersWaterways Experiment Station
Performed forNational Coastal Ecosystems TeamDivision of Biological Services
Fish and Wildlife SerivceU.S. Department of the Interior
Washington, DC 20240
CONVERSION FACTORS
Metric to U.S. Customary- -
EY To Obtain-Multiply
0.03937 inches0.3937 inches3.281 feet0.6214 miles
millimeters (mm)centimeters (cm)meters (m)kilometers (km)
square meters (m') 10.76square kilometers (km') 0.3861hectares (ha)' 2.471
square feetsquare milesacres
0.2642 gallons35.31 cubic feet0.0008110 acre-feet
liters (1)cubic meters (m3)cubic meters
milligrams (mg)grams (gm)kilograms (kg)metric tons (mt)metric tons (mt)kilocalories (kcal)
0.00003527 ounces0.03527 ounces2.205 pounds
2205.0 pounds1.102 short tons3.968 BTU
Fahrenheit degrees1.8(C) + 32Celsius degrees
U.S. Customary to Metric
inches 25.40inches 2.54feet (ft) 0.3048fathoms 1.829miles (mi) 1.609nautical miles (nmi) 1.852
square feet (ft')'acressquare miles (mi2)
0.0929 square meters0.4047 hectares2.590 square kilometers
millimeterscentimetersmetersmeterskilometerskilometers
3.785 liters0.02831 cubic meters
1233.0 cubic meters
gallons (gal)cubic feet (ft')acre-feet
ounces (oz)pounds (lb)short tons (ton)BTU
28.35 grams0.4536 kilograms0.9072 metric tons0.2520 kilocalories
0.5556(F" - 32) Celsius degreesFahrenheit degrees
CONTENTS
Page
CONVERSION TABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iiPREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
NOMENCLATURE/TAXONOMY/RANGEMORPHOLOGY/IDENTIFICATION AIDS : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
13
REASON FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .L I F E H I S T O R Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . z
Spawning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Fecundity and Eggs .............................. 4Larvae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Juveniles and Adults ............................. 5
GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS ........... i .................COMMERCIAL/SPORT FISHERY ............................ iECOLOGICAL ROLEENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
88
Temperature ................................. 8Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Other Environmental Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
LITERATURE CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
iii
PREFACE
This ,species profile is one of a series on coastal aquatic organisms,principally fish, .of sport, commercial, or ecological importance. The profilesare designed to provide coastal managers, engineers, and biologists with a briefcomprehensive sketch of the biological characteristics and environmental require-ments of the species and to describe how populations of the species may beexpected to react to environmental changes caused by coastal development. Eachprofile has sections on taxonomy, life history, ecological role, environmentalrequirements, and economic importance, if applicable. A three-ring binder isused for this series so that new profiles can be added as they are prepared.This project is jointly planned and financed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineersand the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Suggestions or questions regarding this report should be directed to:
Information Transfer SpecialistNational Coastal Ecosystems TeamU.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceNASA-Slide11 Computer Complex1010 Gause BoulevardSlidell, LA 70458
or
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment StationAttention: WESERPost Office Box 631Vicksburg, MS 39180
This series should be referenced as follows:
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1983. Species profiles: life histories andenvironmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates. U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service, Division of Biological Services, FWS/OBS-82/11.U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4.
This profile should be cited as follows:
Stanley, J.G., and D.S. Danie. 1983. Species profiles: life histories andenvironmental requirements of coastal fishes and invertebrates (NorthAtlantic -- white perch. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division ofBiological Services, FWS/OBS-82/11.7. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, TR EL-82-4. 12 PP.
iv
NOMENCLATURE/TAXONOMY/RANGE
Figure 1. White perch.
WHITE PERCH
Scientific name . . . Morone americana(Gmelin)
Former scientific name . .americanus Jordon and GilbLri
Roccus
Preferred common name . . . Whiteperch (Figure 1)
Other common names . . Narrow-mouthedbass, silver perch, perch, seaperch, bay perch, blue-nosed perch,grey perch, black perch, gatte.French common name: bar-oeche.
Class ........T mchthyesOrder .......... PerciformesFamily . . . . . . . . Percichthyidae
Geographic range: Coastal areas fromNew Brunswick, Nova Scotia, andPrince Edward Island south toSouth Carolina. Largest popula-tions in coastal waters of NewJersey, Delaware, Maryland, andVirginia, throughout ChesapeakeBay and Delaware canals (Hardy1978). Principal estuarine fish-ery areas for white perch in theNorth Atlantic region are notedin Figure 2. Introduced to lakesand ponds in New England, Nebras-ka (Hergenrader and Bliss 1980),and the Great Lakes (Busch et al.1977; Scott and Christie 1963).
1
/ I’
/J 1\/ MAINE \ --i
I
A TLANTIC OCEAN
River
MILES0 5 0
30STON --$&
North River 0 5 0 1 0 0
KILOMETERS
MASS. 0 Principal estuarinefisheries
Figure 2. Principal rivers and bays in the North Atlantic region thatsupport white perch fisheries.
MORPHOLOGY/IDENTIFICATION AIDS
Morphology (from Hardy 1978): D.lVII-XI; D.2 I, 11-13; A. III, 9-10; C.17; P. 10-18; V. I, 5; scales in lat-eral line, 44 to 55, in transverseseries 20, above 6-10, below lateralline 9-14, around caudal peduncle 18-24; vertebrae 11-14; gill rakers 4 t13-17, branchiostegals 7. Proportionas percent SL: body depth 28-41 (la-custrine perch may have conspicuouslymore elongate bodies than estuarineperch), HL 30-39, head depth 20-30.Proportions as percent of TL: depth24.4-29.0, HL 26.3-29.7. Proportionsas percent of HL; eye diameter 18.9-28.6, snout 28.6-30.9. Proportions astimes in HL: interorbital width 4.2-5.2. Longest dorsal spine ca. 0.5.
Body oblong, ovate, compressed;head depressed above eyes; snoutpointed, mouth oblique, terminal, low-er jaw slightly projected, posteriorend of upper jaw beneath front of eye.Teeth small, pointed, and in bands onjaws, vomer, and palatines; no teethon base of tongue, but small teethat distal periphery of tongue. Gillrakers long. Opercle ends in two flatpoints; pre-opercle margin serrate.Scales extending onto base of ventralfins and forward on head to nostrils.The two dorsal fins barely connected,with their base lengths about equal;origin of D.l just anterior to mid-point of body; C. forked. Maximum bodylength: 495 mm (19.5 inches).
Pigmentation: Silvery, greenishgray, silvery gray, olivaceous, darkgreen, or nearly black above, some-times brassy. Large individuals withbluish luster on head. Sides palerwith silvery or brassy cast and some-times indistinct lateral stripes.Belly silvery white, immaculate.Underside of mandible bluish purple orpink, particularly during spawningseason. Melanophores on rays and mem-branes of all fins; dorsals dusky, butwith pigment of D.2 concentrated oninterradial membranes of outer half offin; anal sometimes rose colored atbase; spines of A.1 and A.2 darkestdistally; caudal darkest on posterior
2/3; pectorals essentially colorless,pelvics sometimes plain, sometimeswith rose-colored bases.
White perch differ from thestriped bass (Morone saxatilis) andthe white bass ?J%iK%iechrysops) in anumber of ways.Thedorsal fins ofwhite perch are slightly joined atbase by a membrane. Anal spines arestout, not graduated in length; thesecond and third spines are subequal.Teeth are absent on base of tongue.Lateral stripes absent on body. Theseother Morone spp. have dorsal fins en-tirely separated at the base; analspines graduated in length; fine teethat base of tongue; and 4 to 7 lateralstripes. White perch have fewer rowsof scales between gill cover and baseof tail, about 48 compared to 60 inthe striped bass.
Eggs 9 larvae, and young-of-the-year of white perch can be distin-guished based on morphology (Mansueti1964). Starch gel electrophoresis bio-chemically distinguishes the larvalstages of these two species (Morgan1975; Side11 and Otto 1978).
REASON FOR INCLUSION IN SERIES
White perch are widespread, abun-dant, and subject to various degreesof fishing pressure throughout theirrange. They have social and economicsignificance in fresh and brackishwaters which are subject to variedhabitat alterations. They are impor-tant on several trophic levels--asprey and predator--and fill manyenvironmental niches.
LIFE HISTORY
Spawning
White perch spawn in estuaries,rivers, lakes, and marshes. Spawningis usually in freshwater, but mayoccur in brackish water at salinitiesup to 4.2 ppt (Hardy 1978). Preferredspawning habitats are waters that aretidal and nontidal, clear or turbid,
3
fast or slow (Wang and Kernehan 1979).Spawning is in water less than 7 m (23ft) deep; 0.9 to 6.1 m (3 to 20 ft) inestuaries, and 0 to 1.5 m (0 to 5 ft)in lakes (Hardy 1978). Mansueti (1964)stated that spawning was at similardepths in estuaries and lakes. Scottand Crossman (1973) reported spawningat depths of 0 to 3.7 m (0 to 12 ft)in marshes. Substrate may be clay,sand, pulverized shells, or gravel.
Rising temperatures stimulatespawning (Mansueti 1961). Northernpopulations begin spawning in lateMarch to early April, whereas southernpopulations spawn slightly later(Hardy 1978). Freshwater populationsspawn from April through May; estu-arine stocks spawn from May throughJuly. Wang and Kernehan (1979) re-corded spawning from April throughJune for estuarine populations. Hol-sapple and Foster (1975) stated thatspawning was most intense during Junefor freshwater white perch.
White perch may spawn in the samebody of water where resident or mi-grate long distances. Migration tofresh or brackish water is requiredfor marine populations. Migrations upto 90 km (56 mi) were recorded for thePatuxent River, Maryland (Mansueti1961), and 104 km (65 mi) throughAlbemarle Sound in North Carolina(Kearson 1969). The ripe adultsassemble in large groups containinghundreds of individuals. Wang andKernehan (1979) describe ripe malespreceding females to the spawninggrounds in March.
Individual females are surroundedby several males, and eggs and spermare spread randomly. The eggs attachimmediately to substrate. With inten-sive spawning, eggs adhere to eachother and may drift freely downstreamwhere incubation is semipelagic. Eggrelease may span 10 to 21 days, withpeaks at dusk (Hardy 1978) and afterrainfall (Wang and Kernehan 1979).Mansueti (1964) noted that eggs ripenprogressively and may be released dur-ing two or three separate spawnings.It was estimated that only 10% of the
eggs were ripe at the height of theseason.
Fecundity and Eggs
White perch are fecund comparedto similar-sized fish. The large num-bers of eggs enable the white perch topropagate rapidly in introduced areas,outcompeting other species and becom-ing overpopulated. Fecundity estimatesof 5,210 to 321,000 (mean of 40,000)were reported by Hardy (1978), and20,000 to 300,000 by Scott and Cross-man (1973). A single spawning by a 3-year-old fish had 20,676 eggs, whereasa g-year-old fish had 124,289 eggs(Holsapple and Foster 1975). AuClair(1956) estimated the release of 56,200eggs/kg of fish during one spawning.Fecundity depends on size and age,exemplified by the fecundity of whiteperch from Lake Ontario (Table 1).
Ovarian eggs exist in two sizegroups in the South and three sizegroups in the North (Hardy 1978), sug-gesting two or three periods of eggdeposition. The eggs are comparativelysmall, spherical, and translucent. Un-
_
fertilized eggs are soft (Hardy 1978),and 0.70 to 0.89 mm1 in diameter (Man-sueti 1964; Scott and Crossman 1973).Fertilized eggs are 0.65 to 1.09 mm in
Table 1. Fecundity of fork length(FL) classes of white perch in LakeOntario (Sheri and Power 1968).
Size class
FL (mm)
Averagefecundity(numbers)
151-160 21,180171-180 36,687201-210 95,752241-250 234,342
1 25.4 mm = 1 inch.
4
diameter, yellow-brown, and have aflat attachment disc (Hardy 1978).Mansueti (1964) stated that fertilizedeggs range from 0.75 to 1.09 mm indiameter; Wang and Kernehan (1979)recorded a range of 0.8 to 1.0 mm.When shed, eggs are demersal and us-ually attach singly to detritus, al-though thin sheets are possible.
At maturity, eggs are slightlyyellowish, granular, and translucent,with a large oil globule (Leim andScott 1966). The eggs hatch in 30 hrat 20°C (68°F) (Thoits and Mullan1973), 44 to 50 hr at 18°C (64°F)(Hardy 1978), and 60 to 72 hr (Schubeland Wang 1973) or 96 to 108 hr at 15°C(59°F) (Thoits and Mullan 1973).
Egg survival appears to be unaf-fected by silt levels; eggs tolerate500-mg/l concentrations of particulatematter (Schubel and Wang 1973).
AuClair (1960) stated that tem-perature drops of 4" to 5°C (7" to9°F) were lethal. Hardy (1978) foundthat sudden drops of 2" to 3°C (4" to5°F) induced mortality; a minimumsummer temperature of 7°C (45°F) waslethal. Extensive mortality occurredat 10°C (50°F).
Eggs are most sensitive to hand-ling or disturbances during the firstfew minutes after spawning. Waterhardening is complete within 15 to20 min at 18°C (65°F) (Hardy 1978).
Larvae
Newly hatched prolarvae remain inthe general spawning area during thefirst 4 to 13 days, growing from aninitial size of 1.7 to 3.0 mm to alength of 3 to 4 mm (Mansueti 1964;Hardy 1978). Prolarvae have unpigment-ed eyes and limited mobility. As thelarvae grow, they alternatively swimvertically or sink (Mansueti 1964;Wang and Kernehan 1979), resulting indownstream drift in rivers or plank-tonic drift in estuaries or lakes(Hardy 1978). Wang and Kernehan (1979)found prolarvae throughout the watercolumn of streams, but suggested an
increasingly demersal perference assize and age increase. Hardy (1978)described juveniles in lakes in depthsof 2.4 to 3.6 m (8 to 12 ft).
Mansueti (1964) noted that pro-larvae transformed to postlarvae whenmouths and pigmented eyes developed atabout 3.8 mm total length (TL). Post-larvae transformed to juveniles at 7to 9 mm TL and developed fins. Tem-perature requirements of larvae aresimilar to that of the eggs; suddendrops may be fatal. Salinities up to 3to 5 ppt are tolerated and 8 ppt maybe lethal.
Juveniles and Adults
Wang and Kernehan (1979) suggest-ed that inshore zones of estuaries andcreeks are nurseries. Juveniles stayin these areas up to 1 year, until 20to 30 mm in length. They inhabit wa-ters with silt, mud, and plant sub-strate (Hardy 1978). Mansueti (1964)suggested that fry prefer a demersalhabitat, although they often are foundat depths of 2.4 to 3.6 m (8 to 12ft). Hardy (1978) described largeschools of fry moving downstreamthrough brackish waters to beach andshoal areas. The schools occasionallyventure to offshore waters during day-light, but return to protected beachand shoal areas it night and duringrough water. In August, with decreas-ing temperatures, juveniles return tobrackish waters to overwinter eitherin deep pools of tidal creeks andtributaries or deep waters of riversand bays (Wang and Kernehan 1979).
Adults show similar seasonalmovements, catalyzed by temperature(Mansueti 1964; Markle 1976; Hardy1978). When temperatures increase inspring, white perch begin their spawn-ing migration. They move shoreward andgenerally upstream, sometimes in largeschools to shallow areas in tidalcreeks and freshwater areas. Afterspawning, they may seek deeper water.Summer movements are local and random,rarely covering more than 19 km (12mi) (Mansueti 1964; Hardy 1978).
5
Hardy (1978) stated that mostnales and females mature at 2 years,some females at 3, and all by 4. Hol-sapple and Foster (1975) stated thatat age II 20% of the males and none ofthe females were mature; by age IIIall males and 75% of the females weremature. Mansueti (1964) believed thatlength was the determining factor formaturity with males maturing at 80 mmand females at 90 mm. Length at firstmaturity of 72 mm for males and 98 mmfor females was given by Hardy (1978).
GROWTH CHARACTERISTICS
Scott and Crossman (1973) statedthat the growth rates of white perchdepended on the region and habitat.Landlocked populations in small oligo-trophic lakes along coastal regionshave a slower growth rate than newlyexpanding populations such as those inLake Ontario. Growth is usually fasterin newly established populations, andcan continue for long periods, as Taub(1966) found in Quabbin Reservoir,Massachusetts. According to Bryant(19X), white perch grow relativelyslowly and tend to stunt throughouttheir range. Mansueti (1961) compareda population in the upper Patuxentestuary (Maryland) that was stunted,with a fast-growing population in thelower Patuxent. Growth was affected bytemperature, food supply, and popula-tion density. The greatest incrementin length was during the first year oflife. He believed that this incrementalone would best indicate ecologicaleffects on growth. The number of daysin spring with water temperatures be-tween 10" and 15°C (50" and 59"F), andthe amount of solar radiation bothwere positively correlated withgrowth. Increased spring rainfall(which affects salinity) and popula-tion density both inversely correlateto growth. Hines (1981) suggested thatstunted populations are often associ-ated with eutrophic waters.
COMMERCIAL/SPORT FISHERY
Significant commercial harvestsof white perch are made from Massachu-
setts to North Carolina with the bulkof the landings originating from theestuarine waters of the ChesapeakeBay. The total harvest in 1979 was 563metric tons, with Maryland.leading allother States in commercial harvests(Table 2). There is no commercialcatch at the northern and southernextremes of the range.
The greatest landings were madeat the turn of the century; after-wards, production decreased. In 1897Delaware recorded landings of 180
Table 2. The commercial catch of whiteperch in the United States during 1979(from various issues of Current Fish-ery Statistics, NationalUceanicandAtmospheric Administration).
State Pounds Value
Maine 0 0New Hampshire no dataMassachusetts 3,698 $ 1,601Rhode Is1 and 145 39New York 3,861 15,468New Jersey 38,220 11,667Delaware no dataMaryland 687,371 185,072Virginia 147,095 40,795North Carolina 361,032 94,557South Carolina 0 0Georgia 0
Total 1,241,422 $ 349,1990= 563 metric tons
tons; by 1940 they were down to 7tons. Temporary upsurges in abundanceperiodically occur because of goodyear classes (McHugh 1981). Between1960 and 1980 the commercial landingsin the United States ranged from 272to 1,412 metric tons (Table 3). Thelandings since 1973 were about half ofthose during the 1960's. Tables 2 and3 do not agree for the catch in 1979.
White perch are caught year-roundwith largest catches in spring. Fish- -ing is by trawl, haul seines, and
6
drift gill nets in Chesapeake Bay.White perch are marketed as bay perchand sold fresh. The roe is occasional-ly sold for human consumption duringwinter and early spring (Mansueti1964).
Table 3. The catch (in metric tons) ofwhite perch in the United States be-tween 1960 and 1980. The recreationalcatch is for saltwater only for yearsin which surveys are made (from McHugh1977 and Food and Agriculture Organi-zation 1981*).
Year Commercial
1960 8361961 10061962 13331963 9801964 6961965 10081966 13951967 10491968 12571969 14121970 11091971 11561972 8441973 6521974 651*1975 605*1976 482*1977 559*1978 375*1979 272*1980 593*
Recreational
3370
4716
5727
2267*
White perch, although common inlakes throughout northern New England,New Brunwick, and Nova Scotia, occurin few estuaries north of Cape Cod.White perch have no commercial or rec-reational importance in the Gulf ofMaine (Bigelow and Schroeder 1953).Maine recently proposed commercialfishing of freshwater populations forlobster bait.
Recreational fishing is importantfor both marine and freshwater popula-tions. According to the Marine Recrea-tional Fishery Statistics Survey
(1980) the total number of white perchcaught by marine recreational anglerswas 5,494,OOO fish in 1979, 96% ofwhich were from the mid-AtlanticStates. Of the North Atlantic States,New Hampshire had none, Maine andRhode Is1 and each had less than30,000, Massachusetts had 103,000 (72%of the North Atlantic catch), andConnecticut had 30,000 (21%).
Freshwater recreational fishingoccurs throughout the range of thewhite perch, but is most important inthe North. In a winter creel census inthe Patuxent River, Maryland, whiteperch dominated the catch during allmonths sampled (Moore and Frisbie1972). Jordan (1981) reported anaverage standing crop of white perchin Maine at 60,175,OOO individuals(10,590,800 lb), most of which were ininland lakes and ponds. The annualcatch was about 3.5 million fish,which was only 6% of the standingcrop. The recreational catch in NewHampshire was estimated to be 664,000fish (New Hampshire Fish and GameDepartment 1978).
Mansueti (1961) computed annualmortality for white perch in the Pa-tuxent River to range from 0.37 to0.59 for age groups IV and older. Theaverage for males was about 0.50 andfor females, about 0.56. These mortal-ities are similar to those reported byCooper (1941) in surveys of lakes andponds of the Androscoggin and KennebecRivers in Maine. Wallace (1971)calculated mortality of white perch inthe Delaware River to range from 0.49to 0.59 for males and 0.53 to 0.65 forfemales. St. Pierre and Davis (1972)calculated the mortality for whiteperch in the York River to be 0.59 formales and 0.57 for females. Wallace(1971) and Mansueti (1961) believedthat the mortality rates for maleswere lower because females grew fasterthan males up to year V and enteredthe desirable size category forharvest at an earlier age.
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ECOLOGICAL ROLE
The trophic niche of the whiteperch is broad. This species may beplanktivorous, benthotivorous, or pi-scivorous depending on season, age,competition, and available food. Whiteperch frequently play an importantrole in aquatic systems because ofpredacious and opportunistic feeding.They feed on zooplankton as fry andlarger prey as juveniles. In fresh-water, adults feed mainly on aquaticinsects, but also take crustaceans andfishes, including their own young(Scott and Crossman 1973; Zuerlein1981). Seasonality and food avail-ability influence feeding habits(Hines 1981). Zooplankton and insectsare eaten in spring and early summer;when these populations decrease,white perch eat fish fry, crustaceans,and detritus (Elrod et al. 1981).White perch also eat amphipods,snails, crayfish, and a variety ofeggs. In estuaries, white perch eatshrimp, squid, crabs, and fish eggs.After white perch are 22 cm (9inches, they eat fish almost exclu-sively.
As prey, white perch are consumedby larger predatory fish, such asAtlantic salmon, brook trout, chainpickerel, smallmouth and largemouthbass, and other piscivorous fish(Smith and Kernehan 1981). Terrestrialvertebrates also prey heavily onschooling white perch. The fry ofwhite perch may be preyed on bycopepods.
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
Temperature
White perch live in waters withtemperatures of 2.0% to 32.5'% (36"to 90°F). They are found in Mainelakes where temperatures seldom riseabove 15.5X (6O"F), and in Massachu-setts lakes where summer water temper-atures seldom go below 27°C (81OF). Inother populations mortality may occurif the temperature attains 27°C (81OF)for several days (Hardy 1978).
Interactions of temperature,season, and physiology influencespawning. Spawning begins at 12" to14°C (54" to 57OF) in the ChesapeakeBay (Morgan and Rasin 1982). Spawningtemperatures ranged between 10" and19°C (50" to 66°F) in the DelawareRiver Estuary and spawning began at12.5"C (54°F) in North Carolina (Hardy1978). The temperature must remain at18" to 21°C (64" to 7O'F) in Mainelakes for several days prior tospawning (AuClair 1956). In YorkRiver, Virginia, spawning peaked at
to 16°C (52"$8).
to 61°F) (Hardy
Hatching occurs in 24 hr at 16" to20°C (61" to 68°F) and in 144 hr at11" to 16°C (52" to 61"F)(Hardy 1978).Morgan and Rasin (1982) found that theoptimum hatching temperature was 14°C(57°F) at a salinity of 0.0 ppt. Theoptimum hatching temperature wasdetermined by highest point on thegraph of:
H = -41.0 + 14.6 T - 0.55 T2,
where H is the percent hatch at a dgiven temperature T ("C). The size ofthe newly hatched larvae was relatedto temperature; the maximum lengthoccurred at 16" to 18°C (61" to 64°F)at all salinities (0 to 10 ppt).
Adults acclimated to 18°C (64°F)lost equilibrium at 34°C (93°F) andfish acclimated to 27°C (81°F) func-tioned until 35.5OC (96°F) (Dorfman1970). The upper lethal (LD50) dependson the season (McErlean and Brinkley1971). Fish collected in March at2.9OC (37'F), then acclimated to 10°C(50°F), had an LD50 of 26°C (79°F).Fish collected in September at 24.5OC(76"F), then acclimated to 28.5OC(83"F), had an LD50 of 33°C (91OF).Preferred temperatures are equal to orhigher than those to which the fishare acclimated, ranging from 5" to32°C (41" to 90°F); fish acclimated tocold preferred a cool temperature andfish acclimated to a warm temperaturepreferred hot water.
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Salinitv
White perch live in waters rang-ing in salinity from zero to full-strength seawater. They spawn innature generally at salinities lessthan 4.2 ppt (Hardy 1978), but fishhave been observed spawning at salin-ities up to 30 ppt. Salinity affectsthe water balance of deposited eggs.Morgan and Rasin (1982) observed thategg diameter in freshwater was 0.86mm and in brackish water, 0.80 mm.Eggs tolerate salinities higher thanthose in which they normally occur, upto 10 ppt, in tests (higher salinitieswere not tested) (Morgan and Rasin1982). Larvae are usually in waterswith salinities of 0 to 8 ppt, al-though they have been found at 13 ppt.Juveniles are found from 3 to 8 ppt,rarely to 13 ppt. The normal salini-ties for adults are between 5 and 18ppt (Hardy 1978).
Habitat
White perch are ubiquitous inestuaries and freshwater ecosystemsbetween South Carolina and theCanadian Maritimes. This species wasessentially estuarine in its originalrange. They exhibit semianadromousmigrations in tidewater and spawningruns in lakes and ponds. White perchtolerate a wide range of salinities;hence they become easily acclimated infreshwater ponds and other impound-ments. They have extended their rangenorthward in historical times and intothe Great Lakes more recently (Buschet al. 1977). They were inadvertentlyintroduced and established in Nebraskaand the Missouri River system (Hergen-rader and Bliss 1980; Zuerlein 1981).
White perch prefer areas withfairly level bottoms composed of com-
pact silt. Mud, sand, and clay arealso preferred substrates. Soft muck,decomposing organic substrate, orgravel and rocks were found by AuClair(1956) to be less utilized by whiteperch. In shallow water they spawnwith no preference for bottom type(Scott and Crossman 1973). White perchdo not depend on vegetation, rocks,debris, or manmade structures forshelter, since they are commonly foundin open water. Water depth may providedaytime shelter, in both estuarine andfreshwater habitats. Daily verticalmigrations from shallow water (0.9 to1.2 m or 3 to 4 ft) at night, to deep-er water (4.0 to 9.0 m or 13 to 30 ft)during daylight in the summer havebeen observed. White perch overwinterat depths to 40 m (131 ft), butusually at 12.2 to 18.3 m or 40 to 60ft (AuClair 1956; Sheri and Power1969). Similar movements in marineenvironments, onshore at night andoffshore at dawn, occur.
Other Environmental Factors
Neumann et al. (1981) calculatedthat the oxygen consumption rate of a50-g white perch was 17.6 mg/hr whenswimming at 8.6 cm/set, and 25.5 mg/hrat 31.7 cm/set. The rate for a 150-gwhite perch was 23.5 mg/hr when swim-ming at 8.6 cm/set and 39.0 mg/hr at31.7 cm/set. They concluded that whiteperch are better adapted for swimmingefficiently at low speeds, which re-flects a more sedentary existence inestuaries.
White perch adults tolerate pH'sbetween 6.0 and 9.0 in freshwater.Turbidity has little effect during anylife stage, but may limit food produc-tion and thus secondarily restrictpopulations (Hardy 1978).
9
LITERATURE CITED
AuClair, R.P. 1956. The white perchMorone americana (Gmelin), Sebas-ticook Lake, Maine. M.S. Thesis.University of Maine, Orono. 84PP.
AuClair, R.P. 1960. White perch inMaine. Maine Department of InlandFisheries and Game, Augusta. 16PP.
Bigelow, H.B., and W.C. Schroeder.1953. Fishes of the Gulf ofMaine. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv.Fish. Bull. 53. 577 pp.
Bryant, M.D. 1972. Growth character-istics, population dynamics, andangler harvest of white perch inSouth Branch Lake. M.S. Thesis.University of Maine, Orono. 47PP.
Busch, W.D.N., D.H. Davies, and S.J.Nepszy. 1977. Establishment ofwhite perch, Morone americana, inLake Erie. J. Fish. Res. BoardCan. 34(7):1039-1041.
Cooper, G.P. 1941. A biological sur-vey of lakes and ponds of theAndroscoggin and Kennebec Riverdrainage systems in Maine. MaineDepartment of Inland Fisheriesand Game, Fish Survey Rep. No. 4.238 pp.
Dorfman, D. 1970. Responses of someanadromous fishes to varied oxy-gen concentrations and increasedtemperatures. Ph.D. Thesis. Rut-gers University, Brunswich, N. J.114 pp.
Elrod, J.H., W.D. N. Busch, B.L. Gris-wold, C.P. Schneider, and D.R.Wolfert. 1981. Food of whiteperch, rock bass and yellow perchin eastern Lake Ontario. N.Y.Fish Game J. 28(2): 191-201.
Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO). 1981. 1980 Yearbook offishery statistics--catches andlandings, Vol. 40. United Na-tions.
Hardy, J.D., Jr. 1978. Developmentof fishes of the mid-AtlanticBight--an atlas of egg, larval,and juvenile stages. Vol. III.Aphredoderidae through Rachy-centridae. U.S. Fish and WildlifeService, Biological ServicesProgram, FWS/OBS-78/12.
Hergenrader, G.L., and Q. Bliss.1980. Current distribution andpotential for dispersal of whiteperch in Nebraska and adjacentwater. Pm. Midl. Nat. lQ3(2):404-406.
Hines, R. 1981. The ecological signif-icance of a stunted white perchpopulation in a eutrophic Mainepond. M.S. Thesis. University ofMaine, Orono. 45 pp.
Holsapple, J.G., and L.E. Foster.1975. Reproduction of white perchin the lower Hudson River. N.Y.Fish Game J. 22(2):122-127.
Jordan, R.M. 1981. White perchmanagement plan. Planning forMaine's inland fish and wildilfe.Vol. II, Part 1. Maine Departmentof Inland Fisheries and Wildlife,Augusta.
Kearson, L.L. 1969. Effects of storedpulp-mill wastes release uponChowan River fishes. North Caro-lina Wildl. Res. Comm., Annu.Prog. Rep. Job IX-B. 18 pp.
Leim, A.H., and W.B. Scott. 1966.Fishes of the Atlantic coast ofCanada. Bull. Fish. Res. Board.Can. 53. 484 pp.
10
Mansueti , R. J. 1961. Movements, re-production and mortality of thewhite perch, Roccus americanus,in the Patuxent Estuary, Mary-
bland. Chesapeake Sci. 2:142-205.
Mansueti, R.J. 1964. Eggs, larvae andyoung of the white perch, Roccusamericanus,, with comments on itsecology in the estuary. Chesa-peake Sci. 5:3-45.
Marine Recreational Fishery StatisticsSurvey, Atlantic and Gulf States1979. 1980. Current fishingstatistics. No. 8063. U.S.Department of Commerce. NationalMarine Fisheries Service, Wash-ington, D.C.
Markle, D.F. 1976. The seasonabilityof availability and movements offishes in the channel of the YorkRiver, Virginia. Chesapeake Sci.17(1):50-55.
McErlean, A.J., and J.J. Brinkley.1971. Temperature tolerance andthyroid activity of the whiteperch Roccus (=Morone) american-us. J.Fish- Biol. 3:97-114.
Neumann, D.A., J.M. O'Connor, and J.A.Sherk, Jr. 1981. Oxygen consump-tion of white perch, Morone amer-icana, striped bass, %?%e sax-atil, and spot, Leiostomus xan-thurus. Comp. Biochem. Physi ol.AComp.Physiol. 69(3):467-478.
New Hampshire Fish and GameDepartment. 1978. Hunting andfishing in New Hampshire. Inlandand Marine Fisheries Division,New Hampshire Fish and GameDepartment, Concord. 149 pp.
Schubel , J.R., and J.C.S. Wang. 1973.The effects of suspended sedimenton the hatchina success of Percaflavescens (yecow perch), Moroneamericana (white perch), MoronesaxatilisAlosa
(striped bass), andpseudoharengus (alewife)Chesapeake Bay Institute,eggs*
Johnsmore,
Hopkins University, Balti-Ref. No. 73-3. 77 p.
Scott, w.1963.Great
BT'h;
and W. J. Christie.invasion of the lower
Lakes by the white perch,Roccus americanus. J. Fish. Res.BoardCan. 20:1189-1195.
McHugh, J.L. 1977. Fisheries and fish-ery resources of New York Bight.U.S. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv. Tech.Rep. Circ. 401. 23-24.
McHugh, J.L. 1981. Marine fisheries ofDelaware. U.S. Natl. Mar. Fish.Serv. Fish. Bull. 79(4):575-600.
Moore, C.J., and C.M. Frisbie. 1972.A winter sport, fishing survey ina warm water discharge of a steamelectric station on the PatuxentRiver, Maryland. Chesapeake Sci.13(2):110-115.
Morgan, R.P., II. 1975. Distinguish-ing larval white perch and strip-ed bass by electrophoresis. Ches-apeake Sci. 16(1):68-70.
Morgan, R.P., II, and V. Rasin, Jr.1982. Influence of temperatureand salinity on development ofwhite perch eggs. Trans. Am.Fish. Sot. 111(3):396-398.
Scott, W.B., and E.J. Crossman. 1973.Freshwater fishes of Canada.Bull. Fish. Res. Board Can. 184.996 p.
Sheri, A.N., and G. Power. 1968. Re-production of white perch, Roccusamericana, in the Bay of Quinte,Lk Ot . J. Fish. Res. BoardCzne 2;(;;;:;225-2231.
Sheri, A. N., and G. Power. 1969.Vertical distribution of whiteperch, Roccus americanus, modi-fied byl??$X. Can. tield-Nat.83(2):160-161.
Sidell, B.D., and R.G. Otto. 1978. Abiochemical method for distinc-tion of striped bass and whiteperch larvae. Copeia 1978(2):34-343.
Smith, R.E., and R.J. Kernehan. 1981.Predation by the free livingcopepod, Cyclops bicuspidatus
(Thomasi), on larvae of thestriped bass, Morone saxatilis,and white perch, Moroneamericana. Estuaries 4(l):-
St. Pierre, R.A., and 3. Davis. 1972.Age, growth, and mortality of thewhite perch, Morone americana, inthe James and York Rivers,Virginia. Chesapeake Sci. 13:272-281.
Taub, S.H. 1966. Some aspects of thelife history of the white perch,Roccus americanus (Gmelin), inQuabbin Reservoir, Massachusetts.M.S. Thesis. University of Massa-chusetts. 63 pp.
Thoits, C.F., and J.W. Mullan. 1973. Acompendium of the life historyand ecology of the white perch,
Morone americana (Gmelin). Mass.Div. Fish, Game. Fish. Bull.(24):1-16.
Wallace, D.C. 1971. Age, growth, yearclass strength, and survivalrates of the white perch, Moroneamericana (Gmelin), in themware River in the vicinity ofArtificial Is1 and. ChesapeakeSci. 12(4):205-218.
Wang, J.C.S., and R. J. Kernehan.1979. Fishes of the Delawareestuaries--a guide to early lifehistories. Copyright by theauthors. Towson, PJrl. 410 pp.
Zuerlein, G. 1981. The white perch inNebraska. Nebr. Game Parks Comm.Tech. Ser. 8. 108 pp.
12
,“L,L -,o,
REPORT DOCUMENTATION 1. REPORT NO. 2. 3. Recipient’s Accession No.
PAGE FWS/OBS-82/11.7*4. Title and SubtitleSpecies Profiles:
5. Report Date
Life Histories and Environmental Requirements October 1983of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (North Atlantic) -- Whitecerch
6.
7. Author(s)8. Performing Organization Rept. N O.
Jon G. Stanley and Dwight S. Danieb. P e r f o r m i n g O r g a n i z a t i o n N a m e and A d dr e s s 10. Project/Task/Work U n i t ~0.
Maine Cooperative Fishery Research Unit313 Murray HallUniversity of Maine
11. Contract(C) or G r a n t ( G ) N o .
Orono, Maine 04469(0
(G)
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address
National C.oastal Ecosystems Team13. Type Of Report & P e r i o d C o v e r e d
U.S. Army Corps of EngineersFish and Wildlife Service Waterways Experiment StationU.S. Department of the Interior P.O. Box 631
14.
Washington, DC 20240 Vicksburg, MS 3918015. S u p p l e m e n t a r y N o t e s
*U.S. Army Corps of Engineers report No. TR EL-82-4.
16.. Abstract (Limit: 200 words)
Species profiles are literature summaries on the taxonomy, morphology, range, life historyand environmental requirements of coastal and anadromous species. They are designed toassist in environmental impact assessment. The white perch, Morone americana, is a majorsport and commercial species in Chesapeake Bay and a major spmsh in New England. Itoccurs between South Carolina and the Canadian Maritimes, and inhabits water that is saltor fresh, clear or turbid, fast or still. Spawning takes place in freshwater in spring.Juvenile nurseries are inshore areas of lakes, estuaries, or creeks. High reproductivepotential and scarcity of predators often lead to stunted populations. Adults areimportant predators and young serve as forage for economically important species.
17. Document A n a l y s i s a . D e s c r i p t o r s
EstuariesFishesGrowthFeedingb. Idenfifien/Open.Ended T e r m s
White perch Salinity requirementsMorone americana Temperature requirementsFishery Habitat requirementsLife history Spawning
c. COSATI F i e l d / G r o u p
8. Ava i l ab i l i t y S ta tement 19. Security Class (This Report) 21. No. of Pages
UnlimitedUnclassified 12
20. Security Class Vhis Page) 22. Price
Unclassified;;,, A N S I - 2 3 9 . 1 ” ) OPTIONAL FORM 272 (4-77)
(Formerly NTIS-35)
Department of Commerce
Research LibraryU.S. Department of the InteriorNational Biological ServiceSouthern Science Center700 Cajundome Blvd.
* Headquarters, Division of BiologicalServices, Washington, DC
X Eastern Energy and Land Use TeamLeetown. WV
* National Coastal Ecosystems TeamSlidell, LA
l Western Energy and Land Use TeamFt. Collins, CO
+ Locations of Regional Offices
Lafayette, LA 70506-3 152
Species proiiies :Staniev. Jon G.
25152(ii55 A3 n o . 8 2
REGION 1Regional DirectorU.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceLloyd Five Hundred Building, Suite 1692500 N.E. Multnomah StreetPortland, Oregon 97232
REGION 2 REGION 3Regional Director Regional DirectorU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceP.O. Box 1306 Federal Building, Fort SnellingAlbuquerque, New Mexico 87 103 Twin Cities, Minnesota 55 1 I I
REGION 4Regional DirectorU.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceRichard B. Russell Building75 Spring Street, SW.Atlanta, Georgia 30303
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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIORU.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE
As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the interior has respon-sibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includesfostering the wisest use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife,preserving thsenvironmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places,and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department as-sesses our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their development is inthe best interests of all our people. The Department also has a major responsibility forAmerican Indian reservation communities and for people who live in island territories underU.S. administration.
