THE ARGUMENTATIVE ENVIRONMENT

What Is An Argument?

• Destructive Argument- A person disagrees for the sole purpose to win the argument. The “winner” feels superior. It is not positive and usually does not help matters.

• Constructive Argument- A person truly wants to find a valid solution to the disagreement. The goal is to arrive at a better conclusion.

CLAIMS

• Claims- What the arguer is telling the audience to do or think

• Claims of – Fact - something is, was, or

will be

– Value- something is good or bad

– Policy- something should or should not be done

RESPONSIBILITIES IN AN ARGUMENT

• Burden of Proof - providing "good and sufficient" reasons to accept the claim.

• Burden of Presumption - providing reasons to maintain the status quo, reject the claim.

• Burden of Rebuttal - the obligation of both sides to respond to each other. Remember, silence equal consent, in other words, you agree with the previous argument.

PROOF

• Artistic Proof

– Ethos• An appeal to the authority, integrity, or

honesty of the speaker

– Pathos• an appeal to the audience’s emotions

– Logos• logical appeal or the simulation of it

• Inartistic Proof- Using persuasive strategies such as blackmail, torture, bribery… etc

Stephen Toulmin

• Authored “The Uses of Argument”– Evaluated Arguments and

critiqued modern philosophers

• Created the Toulmin Model– Identifies 6 aspects of

argument that are common

The Toulmin Model• Grounds: what you have observed either

first hand or second hand.

• Warrant: A general rule which links the claim to the grounds.

• Claim: The conclusion of the argument. What the arguer is attempting to convince the audience to do or think.

• Backing: Specific support for the grounds or warrant. Where did it come from.

• Reservation: Reasons why the warrant not apply. Exceptions to the rule.

• Qualifier: A word or phrase which suggests the degree of validity of the claim.

Grounds

• Another word for data, this is the basis of real persuasion and is the reasoning for the claim.

• Provide reasoning

Warrant

• These link the grounds (data) to the claim. They show that the provided data is relevant to the point the arguer is trying to prove.

Claim

Grounds

Backing

• This is the support for the warrants and provides additional information and proof that answers various questions.

Reservations

• Indicates the strength of the relationship between the grounds and warrant.

• Indicates the relativity of the claim in relation to specificity

• Grounds------>WarrantStrong<--------------------------> Weak

Is it a Universally accepted claim?Who all does it pertain to?Are the grounds really that

supportive?

Qualifiers

• Words or phrases that tell the validity of the claim. They enforce the strength of the argument to observers.

Rebuttal

• A chance for the opposing view to give a case and respond to the Claim.

• Rebuttal’s can attack the Ethos, Pathos, or Logos of the Burden of Proof

Examples