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Mizzarella, Jo AnnImpro-vi-ng-Sel-f-tmag-e-of---8-tudents. ACSA--Schodl-

. 'Management Digest', Series 1, Number 14. ERIC/CEMResearch Ap.altsis Series, Number 41.Association of California School idministrators.;Oregon Univ., Eugene. ER= Clearinghouse onEducational Management.National Inst. of Education (DREW), Washington,D.C.78400-78-0007. ...47p.4ssociation of California -School Administrators, 1575Old Bayskore Highway, .Burlingame, 'California 94010

nonnembers; $1..75 for .ACSA members)

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iDRS PRICE - NP-$0183 HC-$2.06 Plis Postage.DESCRIPTORS Actdemic 'Achievement; _Bilingual Students; 'delinquency

PrOvention; Delinquents. 'Disadvantaged Youth;Educational Research; Elementary-Secondary Education;'

- *Literature Reviews; *Personal Growth4, 'Potentialbr9pouts; *Program Descriptiois; Self Actualization;*Self Concept; Self ConceptaTests; *Students; TeacherAttitudes

ABSTRACT_. - Research over -file last ten lears provide's

overwhelming.evidente that the most suceSsmful.Students halve strong-. ..- positive self - concepts. This boonet. reviews literature on

self- concept and describes many prograds designed to improve student 'self - esteem. The paper begins by hot.i.ig. -that although -no Oteunderstands the order of the cause and effect relationship, there is

,. a strong correlatia 'between self-concept and achieve cent. Then waysIto improve self-concept are discussed, with a warning that .techniques

$ for measuring self - concept have problems. Methods for improving ,

. - self-concept include classroom techniques, Aounserng and 'discussion f.'groups, and teacher inservice programs. One Ciiiipt. r is devoted to

. programs for dropouts, delinquents, and the disadvantaged. A final.''' chapter documents the effects of teacher attitUdes and beliels'and

. ' 'suggests mays to imprOve teacher self-concept. The overall conclusion .. ,

- ' -'s iti. that one reason for the success of self-cOncept improveaent,..,. programs may be that positive teacher attitudes about student. abilities have strong effects, on student self- concept sand student ,

°,-"- ,N;acidemic'achievement. (JM) ... . ... .-,

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, ,* Reproductions ,supplied byEDRS are the belt thal. cah be made **,'* fom tip original document. ' *,*********Ar********************11**********************************

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Publishtd byAssociation of California .

School Adthinistrators...,,

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ACSA School ilanag ent Digest, Number FourteenERICICEN Accessio Number: EA 010 665ERIC/CEM Restore Analysis,S cries, Number Forty-One

Printed in the Uni d States of America, 19,78 ,Association of Cal' orniaacksolildmittistritors *

, 1575 Okt Baisho Highwd "-s7.7 Ft4"

Burlingame, calif ntia -94010 \.

Additional topic e available from ACSA Loi$1.7#,Ittembers;82,75, nonmembers., '

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The 'material in This publication was prepared pursuant to a contract withthe Nitional Institute of Zducation, U.S. Department of Health, Ethicaltion, and Welfare. Contractors undertaking such projects under govern-ment sponsorship ate encouraged to express freely their judgment inprofessional and technical matters. Prior to publication, the manuscript

e Was subtnitted to the Association of California School Administratorsf or critical review and determination of professional competence. Thispublication has met such standards. Points of view or opinions, how-ever. old not'netessarily represent the official view or opinions of eitherthe Association of California School Administrators or the NationalInstitifie of Educ ton.

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'Foreword ..

IntroduCtion . ,. .

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Selkeoncept and Student AdileVenientWhich Comes First? ...

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Importance of Pokitive Feedback 7.

Ways to lmpPove Self-Concept 10Measurement 10Classroom Techniques ' 13Counseling and Discussion GroupsInservice Programs

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Dropouts, Delinquents, and Disadvantaged 21

. Students with Special Problems 21

Programs for Minority Students . 23Programs for Bilingual Students 25

Teacher Attitudes and Beliefs 28 1

Good Teacher Self.Concepts' 30Improving Teacher Self-Concept 31 : .

ConclusiOn , 34

. Bibliography - 36 ...0

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elducational Resources Infoystsadon Center (ERIC) is a nationalInformation "%stem operated by the National Institute of ,Education.

', ERIC servo the educational community by disserninathig educationalresearch lesults;ana other resource information that can be rued in,developing more effective educational programs: 's

st . The ERIC CleVringhouse on Educational Management. e of several1

01 learinghouses ins:he systetts. was established at the'Universiwof Oregon

. 1966. The geiringhouse and its companion units process research. reports and journal articles for announcement in ERIC'S' index and

- abstract bulletins. . 4, .

. Research reports de announced in Rfiourcesin Education (RIP,,°, available in mans/ libraries-and by subscription for 142:7.0 a year frigis

, . , Me United States Goversidient Printing Office, Wabingtom, b.C. 204B2.. Mof< of the documents listed in RI can be purchased through the,%ERIE Pocument Repi:oduction S e, operated by Computer Micro.

tdm International Corporation. ..

ournal articles are announced in Current Index to Journals in Educe-..

4. tion IJE is also available in man libraries d can be Ordered for 162. .. a year from Macmillan Informattson, 100D rown Street, Riverside,

. New Jersey 08075. Semiannual imputations can be ordered separately." Besides processingdbcumen is and journal articles, the Clearinghousetas avother Major fusictioninformatien analysis and synthesis. TheClearisighouse prepares bibliographies, literaturc.reviewi, state of- -the-'knowledge papas, and other interpretive research studies on topics Inits educatiemal area.,, I

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FOREWORD

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Both the Association of California School Administratorsand the ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Ma4nagerhent arepleased' to, cooperate in producing the School Management .Digest, a Fries of reports designed to offer educatiottarleaders%gisential, inforrnationon a wide range of tntical concerns ineducation.

$ At a time when decisions in education must be made on thebasis of increasingly complex informatir, the Digest providesschobl administrators with concise, readable analyses of themost important trends in schools today, as well as points upthe practical implications of major research fndings.'

By special cooperative' arrangement, the series draws onthe extensive research facilities and eniertise of the ERICClearinghouse on Educational ManageMent. The titles in theseries were planned. and developed cooperatively by bothorganizitioris. 'king, the resources of the ERIC network,.the Clearinghou is responsible for researching the topicsand preparing th copy for publication by ACM.- .

The author of this report, j9.Ann Mazzarella,was corn.missioned by the.,Clearinghouse as a research analyst and

. writer.1-

S. Lee Hawkins Philip K. PielePresident Director

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Self-concept?" In 1955, if. you had asked the averageigloo] principal about student self-co ceps, you probably.would have gotten a Blank look. Up ntil the early sixties; -

few educatois were 'concerned abou student self - concept.. .

How pupils therlIselves was 'considered rcibe somethingfor psyc logists and counselors to woro about, nat teachersand ad mistrators. Self-irhage or self-esteem was,thotightbe -hie a product 9f .hore life, not of school life, andimproving' self-concept was not considered part of theschool curriculum. .

Then things.began to char*. First, psychologists and.began to discover striking correlations between ent

st4f-concept and 'success in school. Over and over again re=searchers found evidence that students with good opinions ofthemselves-aohieved snore than students who hadlow self-esteesm. Scho-olpc4le began to Wonder gleaming more 'aboutself:concept would help them to get through to studentswhom they could not reach before, Especially minorities andthe disady,antaged: ..

Studies of very -y.oung children suggested that childrencuing ..to school' withself-concepts that affected their achieve-ment. Educators then began to wonder how-much effect theyhadclott these self-concepts Ord if they could make childrenfeel better about itiemselVes and their abdie to achieve.'Re-searchers found that tiotLonly was self'- concept related toachievement, but both of these were strongly correlated with,teachers' beliefs abOut students' abilities and even withteachers' beliefs aboiit their own abilities.

in addition, the sixties 'heralded a new interest in the .

emotional life as welt as the intellectual life of' the student.Some educators, especially those calling themselv0 human-is.ts, began to focus their efforts on promoting student growthin areas not strictly academic. They began to be concernedabout the mental health of students and readied that a posi-.

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tive self-concep,t was an importam component of studentwell-being. -"-

What is self-concept? The definition to be7tiskel in theses pages is similar to that used 1?y Quandt: Self-concept refers to

all the perceptions that an individual has.of himself or herselfwith a special emphasis on the individual's perceptions of hispr her own, valuf and ability. Although self-value or self-esteem is .strictly speaking only one component of *11-'-1concept, it is the component of most interest, to schoolpeople. In fact, most educators are not as interested in stu-dents' over II self-esteem as in their self-esteem as learnershow students regard their own ability to learn.

In this report a high self-concept refers to a feeling*of.competence or capabilit A teacher or administrator who is.concerned with fysteri igh self-concepts is not attemptingto create-a school II self-important esotists. A high or§ositive-selfcorfcept, a used here, is similar to what Jersild, in

shis pioneariffg work on self-concept,.called "self-acceptance."As he puts it, "Self-acceptance is not the same as smugness,

,or conceit, or the illusion of being perfect. Indeed, the 'self-'accepting person makes no pretense to being perfect. Heaccepts his limitations and does.the best he can with his re-.sources." '

What is of greatest concern to teachers and adininistra-tors is whether students believe they can change and growand learn. Research indicates tl-cat if student's are to achieve,they must first .see themselves as achievers. Improving self-tnitept, means helping students to have faith in their own

abilities:The pages tbat follow include a number nf.programs used

successfully in schools to raise student self-concept. These

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are not intended to be ..a representative sample, butare instead a'carefully selected sample of the.best programs.Almost all programs for which measurable results were avail-able produced significant gains. in student, self-concept, andmany produced significant gains in acbieveinent too. A fewfor which no data were collected have been fraided herebecause., they seem unusually promising. - T4

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How are gains in selfcoicept measured? Most instrumentsmeasure self-concept are basedeon self-reports. Respondents

are asked to classify themselves in many different arets,usually On a paper- and pencil test. For instance, older, stu-dents might; be asked to check "always, often, sometimes, ,

seldom, or never" for a 'number of different statements such'as "I

lotsthings more quickly than other students" or "I

have lots of friends" or "My work is neat:" Tea-chers readsimar statements aloud to younger -students who mightcircle a smiling face or a frowning face to indicate yes Dino.

Th.se tests are subject to, all the lack of objectivityreliability inherent in any self-report measure. This fact mustbe remembered when evaluating the effects of programs.

1 Furthermore,it is difficult to tell how much the result ofsuch programs depends" on the Hawthorne or placebo effect.-Like the sugar pills that the doctor assures us will cure thedisease, programs to improve' self-concept may depend_ asmuch on expectations, for success as they do on the specifictechnique.

Yet in spite of these inherent problems,- programs toitnprove self-concept appear, to liave real restilts.Arhither theydo so ,because of specific methods or because of ;teacherAttitude or because of something else' is' inipossible to tell. II

- seems probable that, like a syMpathetic, reassuring doctor, a

sympathetic, supportive teacher can, accomplish -wondersregardless of particula?methods used. lithese programs do*no .more than/help teachers to focus ,i.heir 'attentions onsupporting students, caring .'about them; as'indfviduals, andyeallf believing in their capabilities ,'sthen they aie successful.

How can administrators improve students,'.self-c' oneppts?The task for administrators will be to educate teachers about.the importance of-students' self-c6cepls. AtIttriinistrators wslI '. 4 rne,ed to encou'rageleachers to tirprogrami their own class- I'rooms and to help them eicamine.,their attitudes toward stu- ,

i dents abd develop supp'ortive attitudes:"Inadditionthey will ,need to encourage and support tea'ehiis and to help thekiexamine theirs attitudes toward themselves as teachers) The .

. goal, must be to improv4 teachers"self:concepts.id the same ir.

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' ) both teachers and students come to believe that real intellec-tual and emotional growth is possible for everyone.

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SELF-CONCEPT AND. ;STUCtEriT. ACHIEVEMENT

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4 -One of the most important reasons teachers andadminis-

tors are interested in student selfkoncept is the irrefutableits link to Achieyement. Purkey,lin,1970 in what

pro'bably the ,definitive work on self-cbncept and, achielie-merit, made an exhaustive examination ofte self-coricept,re.

' search done since 1960 and concludtd: "Over-all, the research

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evidence clearly 'shows .a persistent and significant relation- 0.0

ship between the self concept and academic achievement.'Furthermore, Purkey agreed with researchers who believed. .

there was a stronger correlation between achievemsrit and '

self-conceit than between achievement and ability. Purkeyfelt that not only research but the experience and ihtUttionof teacheis bore out this belief: . .

-Forgenerations, Ws; teacheis have sensed: the sign ificantand positive relationship bptweett a Ittudebt's concekkt ofhimself and his performance in scboot! They believed that ,the Orden ts who feel goad al?ons themselves and their Ain- .

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ties are the ones who are most likely to "succeed.

ipg noted that an ;Emergency, School Aid Actor\ (ESAA) p ct that concentrated solely on iniproving,achieVel I-

nient also produced significant gains in'self-Concept as shown ',...- by the SelfAppraisal inventory iSA1). A repqr4y.1BEX and

Roy Littlejohn Associates revelled that a Washington4D.C)Title ,.I pr4rani, that attenieted to raise math and reading'scores also' showed ifsignificint rile 'hi student selffoncept asmeasured by the SelfObservation Scalei (SOS). Nolprograms;.however, attempt to do the apposite, that is, raise aeshieve-, .-

merit scores by mErely itiiiiroving selk oncepti it is probably ,

unreasonable to expecriehievement gains-to follow immedoi-ately anckdirecily from a rise in self-e4c'ept ),,

Researcfieps haio lso lound that students, who racT

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self-esteem or have -a poor' opinip'n of .themselv4 seem` 'to dopoorly in school. The- IBEX-Liplejohn repOrt mentioned*.

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above found evidence that those students whose academic de-

. ficiencies indicated that they were most in need of a Title Icompensatory education program hid a low self- concept.

.. Which Comes First?

Although .niost researchers and educators agree that thereis a cleai and strong correlation hetween self-concept andachievement, no one lEws which causes the otheror whether,indeed, they are both used by some.thing-else. Do studentsdo 'well because they think well of tbemselves or think wellof themselves because they do well? On the,one hand:Cole--man and others, in their classic report on educationaltunity, maintained that'the relation-of a student's self-conceptto achievement is "from one perspective., inerely the accuracyof his es4imate'of his scholastic skills, and is probably more aconsequence than a cause of scholastic achievement."

On the other hand, Pardew and Schilson reported thatCombs and Soper had found. evidence that self,- concept mayactually precedg .achievement an school. Combs and Soper,found that.kindergarteners' self-conccpts (presumably formed -before they had much opportunity to experience agidemicsuccess or failure) were stror;gly predictive of their.a_cadem,ltachievement in both `first and sixth gra es. Purkey cites re-search by Lalny that revealed a similar correlation for kinder-

. gaiteners..Nevertheless, Purkey himself believed that the evidence...

was inconclusive.. . .

The basic question of whethd children see ihemselvei nep ,

tively because of their poor school performance. or ihethegi;they perform poorly in' school because they see themselvq; .

negatively is unresolved.

Purkey postulated a continuous interaction between self-concept, and achievement, a the.try`thatapparently underliesmost of prograrris and research surveyed in these rages.-Many .programs described' here avoided wrestlirk With thechickenor-theegg prOblern of achiev.emeri,t and lf-conceptby endeavoring to improve both simultancousiy. This isprobably the technique that promises the best chance of posi-

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iik results, but it-is disappointing from A researcher's view-point because of the inability td isolate the effets of eachmethod. Many other programi merely aim at improving self-concept withotitmeasuring achievement gains at all.

For many educators, a concern with helpinkstudentsevaluate themselves and 'theft potenilials more highly is basedsolely on a. desire to improve their academic achievement.For others, who define edacation anethe role they play aseducators more broadly, this concern is seen as an end in it-self, as an.ipportant component of 'a piychl5logicatlgrowth. As Franks and Dillon put4

In sum, self-esteem ii relevant not onlyseparable part of academic performance

' its empirical assoc n with a broad ranrelate to the child s state of mental heattpsyche.

cause it is an un-. but because of

e of abilities thatas a whole

importance of*Positive Feedback

Franks and Dillon note that there are two sources for achiles selfesteetn: the feedback a child gets frog( observingthe effects of his.or her own activis and the feedback thechild gets .from significant others. The first kind of feedback

" comes merely from acting in the world [When little Johnny is- finally able to stack his blocks successfully. he begins to see

himself as a good block stacker and this view of higiselfcomes one of the components of his 54f-concept. The secondl(ind of feedback comes when mother or father tells Johnnywhat a good block stacker he is and he incorporates this'evaluation as part of his own selfevalUation.

Many :authorities contend that the feedback people ,getfrom others has stronger effects on self-esteem than the feed-.

' back that comes from, merely acting, in the world. Tiachersand administrotors communicate this sort of feedback to silt-dents through grades, test scores, And tracking.

Persell, among others,t.believes ;hat testing and trackingoften destroy the selfesfeem of students of low socioeconomic status and ultimately lower their academic achieve-ment. She observes that IQ tcaing.(oFten cultUrIlly biased or

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. . _$based _I-more on previouelcamlig opportunities than on ability)

, often channels disadvantaged students into tracks Tor: thosewith low ability. She then notes that most studies.revtartliatbeing placed in a low grouptowers self-cocept. Shcacontinds , -

that this is at least partially because teachers have low clipcc ,

tats of students in loy ability groups. In this way abilitygr pings perpetuate a viciou% cycle. When teachers treat stu-dents as if they had low ability, the students begin to, see .themselves 'as incompetent, a view that in turn affects their

. . perfarmance. . .

Quandt agrees that .ability grouping may have negativeeffects on self-concept but believes that, especially when it is

1,- used withiri a classroom in a subject like reading, these effectsscancan b'e colnbaited by teacher attitude. He feels that ability .groups won't harm! self-concept if the teacher avoids compari-son and competition among groups and accepts-members of o

'both, grodpk,equally. He rccommendi that whips nit be des-ignated as lower"or "higher" and thatteachers never' peakof moving astudnt "up 4'-ot-'"doWn" to another group.

taaniitx.ecommends the elimination of grading altogether,'. . and many other authorities follow suit. Asvaluable as grading

May be for feedback on a child's progress, many believe thatthe price paid in destruction of klf-esteeni is too high. Pupilswho constantly receive low grades begin to define' themselves ras failures; their "F "s, instead of prodding them to try harder,convince them they are failures who cannot succeed no mat-. ,

ter hoW hard they try. As Kash, Borich, and Fenton so aptlyphra'se it, "The ever-present bell-shaped curve of4spinaal dis

-..p., - 0tribution has for some pupils the peal of

col...

t lanrytory andfor oilier pupils the constant tolling of doom and failure." '

, J'ersild, in his early pork on self_uncept, expressed hisbelief thit schools' emphasis on competition for grades ofathictie,perforthance is harmful for those who succeed as well

'as those ivho fail. He claimed that such competition instills asense of self-worth that is superficial and false. Competition,he stated, may "lure children into the false position of test.:ing their worth by their ability to get a slightly higher gradeor to carry the ball an extra couple of yards down the field."

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'Whither testing, grading, and tracking ought to be .abol-ished' entirely will long be matters for debate. No one willdeny the value of some method to give students feedbackwhen they have mastered skills or concepts. Few deny theworth of the sort 'of "tracking" that allows students to workat their own levels of achievement. Yet this kind of grading.or tracking emphasizes what students know or can do ratherthan,what they do not know or cannot do. At any rate, itteems likely that emphasis student failures will lower student .hrfself.conCepts and thus bre uter failures

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WAYS TO IMPROOE*LF;CONCEPT

Although home experiences 'have a profott,nd effect.9nthe self - Concepts children bring with them to school, schoolexperiences are also extremely significant in the developmentof student self' esteem. Darrigrand and Gum report on Trick"-ett's research, which indicates that changes in self-Concept are.possible as late as ageleti, AKash, Borich, and Fenton explain,

Regardles:s of the state of selfesteem with which each pupil .1_ elite's the school system, it is possible' for the teacher as a

significant or alien) other #nd for the environment of theschool to provide psychological gxperiences from which thepupil can derive a sense of positive self-esteem.

A ;umber of successful 'programs have been used by edti-htors to improve student self-concept. Although there issome overlap, these can be roughly ciNided into .

ieachirig tecliniqttes or techniques focused on aca-demic subject natter

discussion *g9 rouri -oilottriseling techniques, ,

inServiceprograntsfiar teachers ,

Measurement

*fore' describing these 'program, we must give someattention tci the first and List step in any program for improv-ing student rieliconcept: Measurement of self-concept. Thismeasurement usually takes the fomi of selfareport by studentsor Olgcry ation by *teachers,

There -are almost as many tests for measuring self-concept. .

as tliere are programs to raise it, The twenty-eight prograntssuiveyed for this report actually used twenty-eight diligent-measures ofnumber'self;concept, though some duplication wascaused by, a f programs using several different tests.Although the proliferation of instruments admittedly makesdirect comparison-of program outcomes difficult, the situa-

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4.5Lion is not so ab urd as it Sounds since the instruments ire'similar. (- .

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Some of the self-report tests mentioned most often in-chide the

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Coopersmith Self Esteem Inventory v,;

Self Appraisal Inventory ,

. Tennessee Self Concept Scale.

How-I-See-Myself Scale

Teachers or administrators wishing to see how theic studentsscore on measures of self-concept might begin with one of

' these.Observation instruments are less formalized than self-..

report measures and often, consist of nothing more thanhomemade squestionnaires filled out by teachers about theirstudents' selflorkepts.

There are lefinitp problems *kb both measures of self-: ..,concept. Kash', Bdrich, and Fenton have noted that "the most

`obvious constraint is our primitive state of knowledge as towhat to measure, when to measure, .and how to measure inorder. to obtain evidence of change in i pupil's psychologicalcorfstrpcts of self."

. Quandi explains that self-concepl is a construct, not a'be-havior, and produces no pattern of behaviors consistent across*.all individuals. Yet tests call only assess, behaviors. It is un-known whether the actual beh4vior being assessed is s.elf-, .concept or hxerely the way students answer toestiOns on tests..:

Furkey explains that most sfudies on seirconcept prove.a to be in fact sap:lies of the selfirepott of self-concept. He sums

..upCchtihs'sinsights on this problem:. .

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The 'difference, in Contbsis words, is that the self concept is"whit an individual believes be is. Thetalf repott, on theother hand, iswbat the subject is ready, waling, able or cad ,be tricked to say he is. Clearly, the concepts, ale by no

' means the same:," ".

Observations by-teachers avoid some ofthe problems of .the student self - report, but have problems of thbir own. Oneis that teachers (especially those trying to 'Oro* the self-'

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"tOnCept of students) lack objectivity about their students'

. ,,selif-concept.

fr" As Purkey put it, current measures of selfconcept."must' 6e taken with a great deal of salt." Yet he himself did acceptAnd use then, as do other researchers. Why? To say that mea-sures 9f self.conceptar'e accepted and used because they areall that is available is not very reassuring, but it is near thetruth. .

Purkey did dote, however, that psychologists like CarlRogers accept the selfreport as a valuable source-of informa-tion about the individual. Purkey maintains that the self-.report's value depends or the subject's.

*clarity of awareness

command of adequate symbols for expression

perceptions of social expectancy

cooperation ,

freedom froth threat v.Finally, lack of certainty about the Value-of -self.report or

teacher-observation measures, does not necessarily mean that, these test& are worthless or that programs to improve self-

concept produce no effects. It means merely that no one really,knows exactly what the tests measure, and that no one hasany hard or objectiVe data (aside from achievement scores)about the effec / of programs. '

MOst im rtant, improving students' self-soncepts is so ,

necessary, both asarc attempt to foster achieveinerit and as acomponent of overall student mental health, that it would betragic to allandon eftorts to raise self - concept mcrely/tecauseself-concept gains cannot be measured objecietely.

In assessing the results of future progtts, one answermay be to follow Quandt's suggestion that the.:1est Measuremay be observations of students by outside obseArs trainedto assess behaviors such as

1,

self-talk (things one says about oneself)

interest fevdls

it

4

44t

4

; .

interactions (and lack of .them with others

evidence of pees e_valuations___

For. the pLesent, perhaps, leachers and administrators cin. isuly experiment with programs an techniques in the hope

that tht ,effects that are now apparent will sorlieday ptqve to! bereals.

,1

Classroom Tedhnigues

.;

4

; A publication issued by. the Colorado Springi PublicSchools, reports on their PARADE Project, aimed at improv-ing achievement in reading and raising student self- concept.An acronym standing .for Projects Advancing Reading andDeveloping Ego - Strength, PARADE focused on students ofall grade leVels wlio soared lois in reading and seliconceptsou:thepARADE Learner Self Concept Inventory, an inStru .

meet devised, specifically. for the program. Elementary stuaents in the program attended regular dazes for most of the

:day but, depending on test scores, participated in some or all t

.1-

of the folloWing activitiesrt

ungraded grouping for instruction .in specific rea dinga skills

, reading lab -1

assignment to self-concept up sessions .

Secondary suidents.,were kssi ed to some or all of the .

following:.

courses in which they would e likely (o succeed

reading lab . ..,

vocational work study

group or individual counseling

The program emphasized indi "dualized instruction ofreading ,skills and provided an clip° tunity for some successfor each student every day. The self- oncept group arid*coun-selling' sessions included field tripk, r le playing, and discus.'sion techniques centering on self-c nc pt.

13 ',sip

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0

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..

.

... , .. .

After two- semesters' work, '60*percent of, students" te-dived reading scores.that allowed them to return to the regu-ir program whip 88 percent showed significant gainsDn thePARADE Ifcirner Self 'Concept Inventory. Cost of the' prd- .,gran:1,Rn 1972-73 was about $.88.000 or $33.75 per 'pupilper month. , .. N

In another type of 'stye, Franks and Dillon examined the . --

effect of the "ope " clisstoom on'studenNelf-concept: Theautgois looked at we open parochial schools that emphasized

individualize nstructictp geared to sttldenifiterest

teacher-student negotiated, contracts. ... . ,

. learning based on activity rather than on reading and,listening ' . . ,

..

They, compared the fit;e open schools with two traditionalparochial schools: Although all the schools had *a tieyement

.

., scores 'that were comparable, self-concept Was significantly,higher in the open schools.. Franks arid Dillon believe thatpart of the reason students-in the open schoOl&scored higherid self-concept was that the schools gave students the oppor-

'` tunity to choose from many kinds of activities in Which theyfelt successful. The puthOri also feel that providing the pro-per balance between student freedom and external strueturewas unportgt.

Coopersinith and Silverman have offered several sugges-tions helpful to the teacher or administrator who wants to, .,improve students' self-concepts. Although not backed bydata, these techniques are valuable because they are based on-Coopersmith's extrisive research on parental. influence onself- Concept. Toformulate the suggestion's, Coopersmith and '-Silverman applied the pyinciples 'gleaned from Coopersmith's.researcn to the classroom.Ahe authors recommend thatteachers attempt to .

. .. .

set up. realistic class itawlrds that itre clear anddefinite -

praise and support each child ,... .

g ive criticism that offers constructive alternative;.

. .

tf

- ,

et.

.:: @challenge each child so that success does not come .

. .)f- too.'easily - . ' :i.

. -, ,The-last suggestion serves, as a reminder that noutishing .

-,Istudent serfconcept involves more than just simple praise atrd ...

support. TA have high ielf-esteem, students need to feel they,

.-.hfve accomplished something difficult and have mastered ° A

r skills inciconcepts they didn't know before:.0.f cbuise, find. ". . .,0,

ing the fine line between fhallenginrstudents with something..

difficult.apd overwhelming them is noralways easy. :Ralcuin and Thomas, physical education AA.) teachers P

T' i concerned ,abbut fosiering a positive physical. self-focept,

a.

. ...

rA study by .hwartz indiEated that .play production pc- , -

.. i)eriences tail en nce- the self-concept of students. Wing the..Adeptance of Se f and Others Scale,Schwartz fountl.signifi- k .

.7.: cant changes in-self-concepts for 144 students aiter participit-, .:

rt j ing in play production activities. For controls, shi testedseventy-eight students participating in debate and speech ..

., ..activities and eighty/students who wer) not, participating in

..

:any activity. The selfconcepts of both controls ch9ged '3.. a. signifitantly less than thoseof these participants in tite"play 7,,

.

have fonnUluted techniques fo r improving self- concept ih,P.E.that are applicable,ta other areas alsO. Thy suggegt, among,other things, some grading techniques that will improve estu-deptse'lf-concepts in P.E.: -

eaat student at "the beginning. of the yearand uEitting with the student how far he or sge will.progress.

biealsing up skills intcomponetit parts and giving:credit fop successful execution of each part

'spreading out grading unobtrusively among other ac:tivities

grading students by having them perfortn priia dlywhile only the teacher ismatching %

if?

41.

,production., .1;7

Schwartz hypothesized the reasons for the etfectt this'way: rThe interactions and reward structure of the experiences'

, .

- . etovided opportunities for students to enhance their self-

e

**le. . -

ttp.,1-!:

erresteem and their opinions of other people. Peer approval,and acceptance, commendations from the director, and posi-tive responses from the audience acconspanied the rehear-

: sals and public performaisce of the-play. Security and statusresulted.froin membership in the play production group to`those stddents who worked cooperatively with others anddiligentlriperformed complex my& 4,

Principal Tea Gary reported to the writer his feelingsabout a "Hide peograttriLthat goes, beyond Me classroom toinclude his wifoleUhtol (the Hazel Valley Elementary Schoolin Seatt le)(Mtd even the community. In this program, patInts,teachers, and students all have worked togetlfe; to formulate .

and carry out projects designed to make students proud .of 2 -

their school and ofthemselves. For instance, allIciur hundredstuderoirin the .school contributed to theconstruction of a .ceramic mural to beautify -the halls.

Although Gary reports no real data about. self-concept. t gain, have arisen from this ,program, he, and most of the

teachers believe it is responsible for the students feeling bet-4. ter about-themseves. .

Couhseling andDiscussionGrouiss

Darrigrand and Gum describe.a program in "developmen-tal guidance" that produced significant improvement in the

, scif-concePts of second- and third-grade on the Sears SelfConcept Instrument. The program include fifteen counselor-led discussion sessions that; centered aroun 'such topics as

building wholesome attitudes toward bneself

learning to get along with age mates 1

developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, andcalculating

4 learning physical skills A

The program emphasized sharing 'feelings with othersthrough pantOmime and picture drawing, and being aware of ----ah onstrating one's own special tents. The counselorfOs an open atmosphere and pro ed students with a

. ,lot o positive feedback.

16

Significant increases lri selfconopts of thirdgrade stu.tints were found -following a prIgrain of tcac,herled "Masseriscussions." Fletcher explained that the reason for using

his sort of group counseling wall the belief that self-ender-standing ultimately results in a More favo ble self.conceptand improvedschool.schievement.

Glasser himself .explained that t core' of. these discus.sions (which h4 called merely "e meetings") is the nonjudgmental attitude of the leader. opics of discussion in.

. chided, such things as the' social behav of th se in the clals,friendship, loneliness, vocational choice, topic§ suggestedby students. Glasser stressed that the discuss were to beopen-ended with no suggestion of right or wrong- artswerijomake real gains in self-conCe0, students must believe that thediscussion is .worthwhile, that others are. listening to them,and that everyOne gets an opportunity to participate. Glassercontended that ,the efficacy of these meetings is based on theidea thait "whin" a child carimpeak,satisfaltorily for himself,he giirts a confidence that is hard to shake."

A promising' program- built on a 'philosophy srmilar,tothat of Giaiser's is the Human Development Program'. UvaldoPalomares, Geraldine Ball, and Harold BessellAvised thisro-. .

grarii to help build students' awareness and respect for thefn-selves and others. The program, called ",the Magic Circle" foreleinentary students and "Innerchange" for high schcol siudents, involves a detailed set of comniunication activities pra..freed daily by participants, The emphasis in these exercises isencduraging participants to share experiences and -feelingsand to listen carefully and reflect-, to each oiher' what theyhave heard.

I

For elementary students, topics discussed include 'suchthings fi "Soinething I Did That I'm' Proud or and "Some:thing' I Do..Well." For high .school students, topits includecareer educationxniiiliicultural understanding, and crime antidrug -abuse prevention; Aetording to a. publication from theHuman Development Training Institute, `1,eaders, iparentsiand circle participants therriselvi, have observed the increased .understariaing _and appreciation participants have gained for'

e4u,94;

4 ' 17

444,

s-->.

t R

themselves and others."One of the most useful collections or practical\exercises

.

teachers can use to improve student self-conOpt has beencompiled by Cantle an Wis. Writing in 'a clear and livelystyle, the authors provide one hundred suggestions gatheredfrom many different sources. They recommend that adthinis-

, j trators encourage teacher* to set aside ten to twenty minutesevery ,day or every other-day (Or completing the exercises inthe bookOne tyfficalexercfse is the "autobiographical ques-tionnaire," a list of tyre nty:Cluestions designed to help stu-dents become aware of their own unique identities. The ques-tionnaire asks students, "What is there about you that makes.)your friends like you ?' and asks them to "list ten words thatdescribe you." In another.. exercise called "success sharing,"small groups of students share an accomplishment or achieve-ment they had before age ten, one froth between age ten tofitted!, and another from age fifteen,to the present. Canfieldand Wells aim!) suggest significant events atidIutcesse* thatmight' be included on a personal coat of arms. .

Carmichael and her associates briefly describe resultsof ,};sing the ,VFirst Things" program with primary students;This .packaged- program uses filmstrips, cassettes,' activities,'discussion, and sociodrama to "help each child grow in under. ,standing otself and others." The authors sent a questionnaireto a total of 116 teachers, counselors, administrators, student 'teachers, and aides who had used the program through theIndiana Career Resource Center. Seventyseven percent inch-.

:cated that, as a result of using le program, "student develop-ment.of positive attitudes toward self was good or e'accellent.. Pardew and Schilson report on a similar program usedover an eleven-week period with fifty-two fotir-Year-olds. On

- thZ ThOmas Self-Concept Values Test, the DevelopmentalProfile, and the Questionnaire. of Child Character, results*ere gains in selfconcept significantly larger than those of aconttol group. fardew and Schilson describe in detail activi-ties used in the programs most of them adapted from pub-lished developmental guidance programs such as Don Dink- -

meyer's Veielop'ing an.Understanding of Self and others'

4- .

9

, .

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0'

(DUSO) Program..Actiyities include storytelling by the tea her foilcvsca by

A discussion wititchildren. One typical story centers around ared and white bird who wanted to be a blue bird but ultimatelylearned to accept himself as he was. Another, focused on di f-ferent ways of leamirig and how older children dO not alwaysknow more than younger children in every area. Pardew andSchilson,11ern that such activities require care in selection tothat they are relevant-and praseded in a logicd ordertovertime.

inservice Programs. t

.

Many programsforraising self - concept are of special interest 'too administrators becatise dry are ire form' that can beused for 'teachers! inservice 'raining 'br staff development.Brown and MacDougall'describe such a program presented toteachers ins, an urban elementary school in Virginia. Six two-

:hour sessions focused on sw&h things as ,self-percepth,sand.

_how they are learned, adult ructions with children, andvideOtape anal'sis of the.teaching behavicri of participants.In additiOn, teachers were asked to use 'techniques to improve;thg efficacy, of their teaching as revealed by the research ofRosenshine and Karst. These researchers found that effectiveteachers use such lectiniques as clariti, of p"resentation,Wide

.s;variety of instructional procedures, enthusiasiii, and ufe of,

,student .Brown and MacDougall; measuring student e4selkoncepts

on the SelfPerceptions Index of their Personal Competence" Ixieentory, found ignifitagnairis in the self-concepts Of stu-dent's in grades three and fodr and no significant gains- ingrades five/Ind *six. the ,authors hypothesize$that older stu-dents, having more completely develoiied selfConcepts,, maybe less easily influenced.Although this theory is logical, it isdubipus in the light of many other programs that successfullyimprove self-conCepts of students .older than fourlh graders.Nevertheless, the program, produced enough\ significantchkriges to be worthy of further eXploration.0 -

Creating a more supportive classroom climate was .the *

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focus of an inservice program for third-, sixth-, and eighth-. , grade teacheks. As described by Lynch and Barnette, this pro-

gram Utilized discussion sessions about.. creating supportiveclaisroom climtes. After teacher's viewed a videotape of theirown classroom behavior, they attempted. to change this be-havior to include the use of more learner-supportive andlearneracceptant statements and less reproving statements.

The staff of the, rogram created their own instrument,the.University Scale,,to measure student self- concept befoteand after the program. Although self-concept did ease "stib-4tantially7 the change 'was nto statistically significant. Lynchand Barnette ftel that even ihisl-change is enough to prove thevalue of the program since most studies reveal that (withoutspecial programs aimed at self-concept) student self-conceptgoes down sift& the school year. And indeed, self-conCept ofcomparison groups lrr the same schoofat the same time didgo down. . .

Teaching students and teachers the principles of `self re-warding".behay3or was the theme of a twelve-weekrogrgn,in Selfconcept enhancement described byFelker, Stanwyck,and 14y. This program began with a teacher workshop ses-sion focusing on the five prinCiples of self-rewarding behavior:

"*

losowt..

I

.raise yourselves when appropriate

help children evaluate themselves realistically

- teach children to set reasonable goals

teach children to praise themselves

teach children toPili4se others

The participants were instructed in self-concept enhance-ment techniques, including how to teach the selfrewardingprinciples to studentztutors and how to lead studern#44 class-room games enhawing self-concept. Teacheli then tried theprinciples and techniques in their classrooms and returned foranother workshop. The program produced moderate gains instudent self-concept and was enthusiastically: received byteachers.

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DROPOUTS, DELINQUENTS ,'AND DISADVANTA3ED

ob.

.. All students can benefiefrom self-concept enhancement.

programs, but some students appear to be in special need, fthem. Disadvantaged students, potential delinquents or drop-.outs, minority students, and bilingual studen may wrestlewith special selfconcept prqbleins. Many pro s aim espe-

_. cially at improving the self-toncepts eif such student.

4

Student with Special Problems,/e

"Teachers who have positive, reasonable expectations forstudents will have successful students!! was the philosophy ofthe Fo&is program as reported by the Roseville Area SchoolDistrict 621, in Roseville, Minnesota. This itossam*aimed atimprbving academic achievement and self-concept of potbn-tial dropouts. Potential dropeuts'we're identified as students

.who . . ' 4

cannot, function properly in a traditional setting

perform academically below ability .

have apoor self-image .

. The program was structured around the "Family Group"consisting of eight to ten students and one teachei who meifor one class period every day. Here teachers attemptedthrough discussions to communicate respect and acceptanceof all students but rejection of desteuctive social behavior.Teachers itressed too that each student must be responsible ,

Ibr his or her own individual behavior. . .

The academic component or the piogrim emphasized..kdivicrualized instruction in each subject area, goal- setting bystudents, and tutoring of poorer students by better etudents.4 The program produced significant gains in 'self-Concepon ti4 10X Self Appraisal Inventory and the MMPI EgoStrength Scale. Significant gains in grade point average wer

,

28 2 k

^

also achieved:.._ The Curtailment of Dzopouts (C.O.D.) Program served

109 students at the Cooky Education and Vocational' Guid-ance Center in Chicago. This program for potential dropbutearmed at rising self-concepts to prevent students froin &op-

,ping out.

Bennett reports that, in C.O.D., self-concept enhance-ment activities centered on group 'discussions in which stu-dents attempted common problem-solving, discussed decision-

,- _making techniques, ,expressed their values and beliefs, andtried to learn more about each other. %op-

Nit

To help students get in touch with their own values, in-still ors used a,continutim line technique. To make students'

ncepts explicit, a line.was titawn on the floor represent-*

7mg some area of accomplishment such as academic achieve-ment. One end of the line represented the highest achievement.

'possible while the other represented no achievement at all.Students weld asked to place themselves where they felt theybelSnged on the line. Then they were asked to; stand wherethey thought ,their parents would place them and finally atthe spot classmates would place theme

Bennett notes that the keystone of the program was good,listening, and uncionditional acceptance by the teacher. Theprogram produced significant gains on the How-I-See-MyselfScale as will' as a significant rise in achievement grades,con-ducrgrades, and attendance.

tStudenii With a history of truancy and delinquencyattended the "Office of ProbationRichmond College Read-ing Center" in Staten Island, New York. Open from 3:30 to8:30 p.m., the center focused on improvement of self-conceptthrough individual tutoring in reading. Brown reports that re-'suits were growth in reading mafkedly above the nationalaverage rate and improved student self-Concept as reportedby .tutors. In addition, 47 percent of students felt they had t,made a, fist of progress toward becoming "the person theywant to be" and 40 percent felt they had made some progress.

There is some disagreement about whether disadvantagedstudents hive a lower self-concept than students of high socio-

-,.

22; 2

economic status. Bennett is one of many authors who reportthat host research on the.self-concept of disadtlantaged Child.ren keveals that they have a poor self-concept. Yet a few researchers have found just the opposite: disadvbntaged studentshave on the whole a more positive seloncept than other stu.dents have. It is possible that the inconsistency might be. ex-plained, by the fact that these researchers are using differentinstruments. While disadvantaged students may see themselvesas competent in such things as making friends, physical prow-

, ess, or basic survival skills, they may see themselves, as less.,.competent in academic' areas. Since some tests of self - concert'- concentrate primarily on selencept as. a learner, While

others measure a broader, multifaceted selfconcept, differ-ent instruments could produce very different results. Unfor

. - tunately, most reports of studies do notinclude copies of theinstrument so specific comparisons cannot be made."

4

Progqms for Minority,Students

Most programs for disadvantaged students focus on mi.. nority or bilingual students. Bennett summarizes ErlIcson's... explanation of why black stu'dents have special problems

With self-concept:Erik H. Erikson envisiredthat the individual [black]. stu

Ant, belonging to an oppressed and exploited minority,which is aware of the dominant 6ultural ideals, but pre vente.dfroth emulating thtm, is apt to fuse negative images held.upto him by the dominant majority with his own negativelcienlity.. "

Ac-cordingly, Bennett corrdnuest a negative selfimage ,begins' early for black .students. The dame problems$ are facedby Chicano and Latin American students Racism. in Ibiscountry continues to have pernicious effects on the self-images of minority students. This is especial], true when sub-conbcious racism causes teachers to have_pogropinions andlowered expectations of minority students:

In Atlanta, soon after desegregation efforts', educatorsrealized that previous racial isolation had caused severe academic defickncOssitrminority students. Henning reports that

30 i 23-.

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stbdents, with the greatest deficiencies were selected for par-ticipation in a program That utilized

individualized and smallgroup instruction

team teachers assisted by aides')high interest, low difficulty multimedia materials --

. . .Although the program aimed solely at improving aehieye:

pient, significant self-coin ept gains were registered on theSelf Appraisal Inventory. Students also gained three times as

-much in reading achievement as did those not in the prThis program suggests that significant gains in -conceptcan be prbdufed by concentration on academi areas alone.Henning felt that the program's success depended heavily onthe "enthusiasm, dedication, and competence of the staff."

An Eniergency.,School Aid Ace(ESAA) grant financedthe pr6grani,which cost a total of $866,000 for forty-sevenschools or $281.40 per pupil per year.

Bewley describes a Waco (Texas) program to improve theself-concepts of black, elementary students with low self-esteem. Teachers and principals identified fifty-one second-

( and third-gr.ade students with low self-concepts. These stu-dents participated in thirty-minute group counseling sessionsonce a week. Sessions included play-therapy techniques anddiscussion activities that empbasized,self-awareness and groupdynamics. At the close of the program, moderate increases inself-esteem were recorded on the California Test of.Personal-ity and the Coppersmith Self-Esteem Inventory.

An exhaustive guide to materials and resources relating toraising self-concepts of migrant students has been compiledby 111ACk0" Educational 'Associates.. A review of relevant re-. .

search is provided, as well as a 284 -item biblipgraphy. Itaddi-tio'n, &lengthy list of specific techniques for improving self-concepts of migrant children is.especiallir helpful for teachers:Thc authors include such recommendations as using migrantchildren as resource persons for questions about their particu;lar experiences. They sufrgest discussions about cultural and

. . lifetstyle differences to communicate the idea that differ-. ences do, not mealy inferiority. They &commend classroom

24

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displayl centering around famous American minority personsand a bulletin hoard for boy or girl of the week. '

Programs for Bilinglial Stuilenis

Students w ho do not speak or write fluent English butWho must nevertheless do ,all their schoolwolk in Englishhave several piohlems with self- concept. One is That by doingall their school work in in unfamiliar language, they mailahead more sli,wly and feel less competent than other child.-ren.:Another is thit the school Is giving them an implicit mes-sage that their, Ian- guagyind culture are inferior. Since non-English-speakirig students need opportunities to impiovetheir English as well as to rectil/ instruction in iheir nativelanguage, programs using both la*ages have been found tobe effective for them. `These bilingual programs often improveachievement as well as raising self-concept.

e ' In tits San Marcos consolidated Independent School Dis-trict3s .Bilingual Education Program staff -of bilingualteachers and aides taught classei in both nglis6 and Spanishfor 717 students in grades one -through'six. Harrison reportsthat a community advisory board provided suggestions con-

. serning many aspects- of the program, including evaluationand curriculum. revision. Twenty -three sessions of inservicetraining were provided on such topici as using Spanish as amedium of instruction, tcsting tbr language dominance, andusing techniques for develbping oral language proficiency.

At the start of the piogram, medians in reading, language,and math ranged from the tenth to the thirty-third percen-tile. Atter five years they were up to the national average. On .

)i The Conoly-Harrison Projected' Self Concept Inventory (a bi-lingual instrument), 40 percent of students showed signifi-'cant gains in self-concept.

Replacing a negative self-image with ethnic pride was oneaim of the Bilingual/Bicultural Education Program in thewaukee (Wisconsin) Public Schools. This program "empha-

. sized Latin American history ayki Spanish culturaicontribu-dons to contemporary life." Bilingual teachers of Latin heri-tage taught all subjects in both Spanish and English. In addi-

tiIII

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tion, Mexican and Puerto Rican holidays were celebrated, 4Ira

and Hispanic music, foots, dress, arts; crafts, and' customswere emphasized.

After five years, all students were performing academi-cally at grade level except third graders who were learning to

, read' a second language. Other results, though largely.anecdo-

, tai, were quite positive. Students, parents, community, andstaff expressed strong support of the bicultural studies com-ponent as a strengthener of self-image. The program has b enextended to twelve schools in Milwaukee, and ESEA fedsupport has continued because the program has bee con-sidered exemplary. Program peltndfl reported an increitie inthe propoition of Spanish-stirnarried students who remainedin school until, graduation. The School Attitude Question -nacre indicated that students had positive attitudes towardschool, and 85 percent of parents responding to alquestion-naire indicated they felt the program helped students to feelproud oftheir heritage.

. Offenberg and his colleagues cite evidence that the self..concept of Puerto Rican students is probably lolver than thatof either blaCk or white stUdents. They describe an atternptto raise self-concepts of Puerto Rican children in the form ofthe "Let's Be Amigos" Program. This program had two com-ponents, the "Arriba Program,".4,which served Puerto Rican,students newly arrived to the mainland, eid "Model A," aprogram serving both Arlin and Puerto Rican students ingrades K-5..

Both programs were bilingual a nd included original cur-ricular materials on Hispanic *tory and culture developedby ptogramkadets: In the Amiga component, "five hundredstudents each year in grades three through twelve studiedfour major.subjects in Spanish, as well as studying English asa,secopd language., In the Model.A Program, over a thousindstudents.t.each year worked with teams of both English- .dominant and Spanish-dominant teachers.. Up tp grade three,students received one hour per day instruction in a secondlanguage,, and In grades three through fiv,e each day wasdivided equally between both languages.

411,

28'g3 v.

To measure results, a Spanish trattlition of the Cooper-smith Self-Esteem Inventory was devised. Scores showed asignificant, gain self-esteemr4t was higher than for those

in English-is-a-Second-Language progran!As. Cost of. the pro-gram, partially financed through Title VII, was about $300per pupil per year, includini teacher salailies.

27

tOtirly,a,

ti

TEACHER ATTITUDE AND BELIEFS

,.

. '''...r YOu see, really and truly, art from the things anydne cati!..pick up (the dressing and th proper way of speaking, and

-... so on), the difference hem n a lady and a flower girl is.not how she behaves, but ho she's treated. I shall al ays .

be a flower girl to Professor iggins, because he al ays, 'treats nre7ns a flower girl, and ays will; but I kno0 canb!, lady to you, because you ways treat me as lady

-.Aid alwaysrwill.., G.13.. Shaw, Pygmatio,u,

4' t'' quoted by Rosenthal and JacobsonN

In spite of the suaess of self-corcept imrovement pro-

.

grams, a nagging question remains: Why dos they worlt?. 9f,-, .course, no one really knows the answer, but it seems4likely '

that the answer may revolve around something beyond gioupdiscussion techniques or bilingual or remedial reading pro-grams. the, 'answer may have something to do with teacher. '

.attitudes. _ ..

It has already been noted that the evaluations of .others iii..-- t. ...:.

have ken found to have profound effects on self.esteem.Qtiandt points out that although a sense of one's compet.,en- ''cies can be learned' by trial and error, self-value seems to.:.come principally, from the opinions and evaluations of otherpeople. . . , .

Next to parents, teachers probably Kaye the most Perva-sive effeci on children's self-.concepts, especially on their be:liefs about their .own academic abilities. Some evidence forthis can be found in research indicating that teacher attitudesabout,suident abilities have qtrong effects on student ptrfor-

ols mane. To corroborate this, Purley cited a six-year study by,,.Brookover, Erickson, Ind Joiner that concluded, "When the

teacher believes that his students can achieve, the studentsappear to be more. successful; when the teacher believe's thatthe students cannot achieve, then it influences their perfot:mancenegatively." Kash, Borich, and Fenton put it in terms.of teacher expectations: "Pupils who perceive the teacher's

28 35t

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expectationi as too low or unchillenging may respond 'withjust enough effort to meet the low expectations, depressingtheir performance in response to feelings.of personal devaluatioh."" :

Richmond anti White fouild that "there is considerableevidence that pupils who are described unfavorably by theirteachers tend to describe themselves unfavoiafily, to be awareof their teacher? poor opinion of them, and to receive lower ti

grades than do the pupill aftrom the teacher des6lbes favor-ably." 0

The most striking evidence appeared in Rosenthal andJacobsqn's classic study of the "pygmalion effect." These; '

authoreconducted an experiment in which they gave-teachersthe names of "special children" whose performance on'ipre-viqus test had supposedly indic..ated that key were about To'"bloom intellectually" or to show a spurt of growth, inAt the end of the year, these children, who had in fact been

.

chosen randomly, did show growth in IQ significantly greater'than those in a control group. The authors coricluded,thatthis effect coulif only be the result of the teachers' belief thatthe students would gain.

Indeed, Rosenthal had already found in.-an earlier 'studythat when ,examiners were interacting with students allegedto be earning higher grades, they behaved in a more frienaly,

,likeable, interested, encouraging manner. Likely, teacher be-°`haviqr toward the "special children" in the later experiment'

. changed in these same kinds of ways.Rosenthal and Jacobson felt that this kind of effect of

the attitudes of teachers could confound the results of alinostany experimental program; it seems likely that teat er atti 'tudes would have evert stronger effects'on prograins d signed,to faiSC student self - concept. ,.

How can teachers communicate attitudes that ourisbpositive self-concept? Several author§ have suggestes 1.44steachers can convey to students that they value and thave ith in their abilities. Coopersmith and verma e.Neve teachers must strive to be interested each chile) in. cdniceineil aboUt him or her as an indi idual. They urge

3f; 29 -.

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teachers to provide a warm supportive climate, to genuinelyaccept Children, and io communicate that they sinker* care

.about each child.Purkey suggests several ways teachers can communicate

an attitude of respect and warmth to -students. Teachersshould 4

elearn the name of each student as soon as possibleand use the name often

share feelings with studgnts r

calWaysbe as courteous with; students as with adults

arrange some time for quietly talking alone with each. student .

notice and comment favorably on the things that.areAimportant to students

Quandt .warns against using embarrassment as a methodof punishment since this crushes self-concept,'Ire recommends;correcting behavior by condemning the specific act ratherthan the child. Glasser echOes the opinions of many otherauthors cited in these pages when he states that the corner-stone of his previously described techniques to improve self-concept is a nonjUdgmental, accepting attitude'by teachers.Like Quandt, he emphasizes the necessity for rejecting un-desirable behavior while at the same time accepting the child.

Good Teacher Self-Concepts

Not only are teacher beliefs about, student'selatedrostudent self-concepts ;and ultimately student achievement,but also teacher self-concepts appear to be related to student,Self-concepts and theyeforc ultimately to student achievement.

Edeburn and capdry, using the Self Appraisal Inventoryand the Index of*cijustmat of Values, folind that studentand teacher. self-colicepts were closely correlated. Curtis andAltman,-surveying 755 fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade studentsand their teacheri by using the Tennessee Self Concept'. Scaleand the Cooper smith Sel nventory, found thatteachers with hiih self-concepts tended have it4ents with

/$0 . 37

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e.-high self-concepts. - Furthermore; Wispy and Buhler, usingtrained observers mid Fiedler's QSpri to evaluate the self-colicepts of six thirdgrade 'teatheis, found that, over thesclhool year, students who gained the most in achievementscres had teachers with high self -concepts.

Of Ourset no cause and effect relationship can be inferredfrom these colrelaVions. No one knows whether high teacherself-ciincepts cause studenti to have higher self-concepts orwhether it is the self-fmcepts of the students that affect theteachers. Aspi and Buhler.warned. in the report describedabove thac teachers might have high selfconcepts hecalf7---.they are more -knowledgeable and thus promote high achieve-ment gaini in their students because they are inore effectiveteachers.

In ite of the impossibility of proving conclusively from4he research cited above that self - confident teachers produceself-confident -students, many authors believe this is so, tur-key maintains `.`there seems to be general agreement that theteacher needs. to have positive and realistic attitudes abouthimself and his abilities before he is able to reoch out to like

P. and respect others." .Kash, Boyish, and Feiiton note that -a study by Combs

and Soper found that self-confident tcachcrs actually exhibited classroom behavior that fostered a positive selfimagein pupils.

Coopersmith, in his landmark study, found. that parents,

t1ofhildren with high selfconcepts are themselves active,

. poised, and selfassured and feel capable of handlinpsehilclrearing.- ft seems likely that these. parents had a strdngereffect on their children's selfconcepts than the childien didon their parents' self-concepts. And thus it seems equally

. "-likely that elfconfident teachers can create' more Self-corifidont students.

Improving Teacher Self- Concept. .

If teachers with positive self-concepts tend to have stu-_dents with high selfconcspts and high achievement, it seemslogical that improving selfconcepts of teachers might be a

31

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good way to attempt to increase self- c&nfidence and achi4e-, mein. of stkdents: Yet programs to improve the self- coneCpts

Of teachers are rare.In one such program, thirty hours of human rerations

training were offered to twenty-five intern teachers as a wayof iinpro;ing their self-concepts. The training; as described indetail by Acklen, included theoretical insatiction as well asskill development in taxman relations with:an emphasis on ex-

'preping empathy, respect, and warmth. Techniques used inthe sessions included such small-group exercises,videotaping, audiotaping, and role playing. After the training,participants showed significantly greater gains on the Tennes-see Self Concept Scale than did those not participating. Aek-len concluded that human relations. training should be in -,eluded in the inset-vice program for all teachers now workingwith children.

In, anothFr study that is of interest though quite incon-dusive, Hai?num, Thoresen, and Hubbard fried, to raise twoteachers' selfacceptance by ,changing ". evaluative selfthoughts.". E;aluative self-thoughts are merely the thoughtsthe teachers had about their own worthind capabilities. Theexperimental -taught 'teachers a "thought stopping" tech-

= niquc that required them to say to themselves the word"stop" whenever.they were aware of negative self - thoughtsand to immediately begin thinking about something else. In.addition; stimulus cues (like a small,splored decal) wereplaced around the room to stimulate p%itive self-thoughtseach time they were noticed by the leater.- One teacher,after counting positive and negative self-thoughts with a.wrist counter, found. that positive Silfthoughti increasedsignificantly, while negative thoughts went down. At. thesame time, an observer reported that this teacher's negativeresponses to students (such as criticism or scolding) decreasedsignificantly. The other teacher also decreased negative re-sponses to studetAr and ne *ative self-thoughts btit, inexplkcabby, decreased positive self-thoughts as well. Although theresults of this program are difficult to evaluate, they seempromising enough to warrant further experimentation.

4.2 s

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s -

...-- .:

Schmuck has recommended several teOniques facilitatorsmight...use to "decrease teacher feelings of inferiority." Hesuggests encouraging teachers 1

-4.- ,-

to sex realistic goals

( to specify goals in clear languagei 1 .. ., tot are goals with each other -.

**challenge each other's unrealistic goals ,r.....--

He also, suggests a "strength" eltercisjin which each teacher... is instruCtfd to think 'about his or her own strengths and the

.9- strengths of others in the groupsanddiscuss them.. _ l'hese techniques and ideas a only preliminary sketches

of the kinds, of things that mighTbe tried to improve teacherself-concept. Few have given much thought or energy to thisgoal. Whether improving teacher §elf-concept is the mosteffective techniqueofor improving student self-concept re-

, rOE,-.ins to be seen. ....1

.4

. -:

..a .,-1, . ..../ ..-.;

,

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33

CONCLUSION *.1.4

A

si * .'t

. .

'Research over the last ten years provides overwhelmingevidence- that the most sucqessful students have, strong posi-tjve self-concepts. This positiie self-coniept is.nat the sameas conceit oteven pride.; When students h;ve high self-conceptsit 'doesn't mean_ they feel superior or acre content to rest ontheir laurels. It doe; mean they feel .confident about tileir "ts.abilities to learn and grow and reach the goall they set fOr

: . theInielves. ..

'Whether this kind of self:confidence. precedes achieve-. mentor is a product, of it no one really knows. At any rate,

over the'last few year,s, educators 'have begun to fell that a. , ..,good student self-condipt is important as an end in itself, C . ,necessary ,conipottent of true maturity and self - actualization.

Many programs appepr.to have had good success with rais:,,,..

Mg student self-concept for the average middle-class student,. for the disadvantaged, and_for those whosi.self-concept has

been damaged by t acism and cultural bias These programs-produced significant gains o,n tests of studertirseirconceptt ..

and were heralded enthusiattically by particiPani's. Manyshowed significant achievemeht gains too. . .

.- , yst no one knows hOw these programs work, 'whythey.,- work, or, in the strictest sense, if they work, sinteniealuro- \\

merit of self-concept gains ultimately is al lost entirely stib4jest tie. .0 .. , s 1.. . Pt ' - "

_ ,

The best guess is that the kell-concepts'.of students a .

re .- ..strongly dependent _on the attitudes of teadhers. Whenteachers accept students, value them, praise them; and help .,

_them to 1,,,e the,ir strong poihis, students begtititaikept awlv,. .alue themselves. In so far 4 self-concept enhancement'grams influence teachers toward- More. accepting. attitudes,they are effective. If 'these programs encourage teachers to lfoals their. concentration and energies _toward improling'

... rather than tearing down the self-cancepts oUsttidents, then-

.eF,"--...f....they'hive accomplished s lot. .- ..... ,.. . ......t-, . ._.% A A..,.., .:.

,. -,..

0.

Mr

O

0

4.4

Resea rch suggests that the task of administrators must beto aster positive attitudes in teachers in two ways". The.firstisby strengthening teachers', own self - concepts and helping-'them to feel capable of helping children to learn and-grow.The second is to help teachers understand the effect they canhave on the self-concepts of students. Teachers must realizethat they have the potential foi dOing both good and harm tostudent? self-concepts. Purkey was aware of this potentialwhen' he quoted from Abraham isiaslow's Motivation andPersonality:

, Let people realize clearly that every time they Threatensomeone or humiliate or hurt unnecessarily or dominate orreject another human being, They become. forces for theCreation of psychopathology, even if these be small forLet them recognize that every man Is) kind, heipfcent, psychologically democratic, afile nate and warm,.

'a psyChotherapeutic force even though a small ope

Perhaps this quote should, be'postednon,every classroomwall.

3.e

wk..

4.

:,,161.r

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4. .. -

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35

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Many If the items in this bibliography are indexedin ERIC'S monthlycatalogs Resources in Education (RIE) and Current Index to Journals inEducation, (CIJE).-Reporti in RIE are indicated jy an "ED" number;journal articles in CIJE are indicated by an "E.J" number. ,

ED numbers. Availability is noted, from the publisher or from theERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS), P.O. Box 190, Arlington, VA 22210. To order from EDRS, specify the ED number, type ofreproduction desiredmicrofiche (ME) or paper copy (HC), and numberof copies. Add postage, figured at the following rates, to the cost of allorders and include check or money order payable to EDRS.

1st class: (ME dilly) 1.3, $0.15; 4-7, $0.28..4th class: 75 or )'ewer MF or HC pages, 0.48; each additional 75

ME or HC pages through 525, $0.18; 526 or more ME orHCopages, $0.11 per each additional 7; pages.

UPS: 75 or fewer ME HC pages, not to exceed 31.04; eachadditional 75 ME or HC pages through 525, $0.30; 526

:04 or morehiF or HC pages, $3.13 to $15.64 per each addl., . tional 75 pages.

EJ tatmbeis. Availability is noted, from the publisher or from Univerity Microfilms International (UMI), 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann ArborMI 48106. To order fiorn UMI, place orders through toil-free hotline(800) 521-3042 or prepay by cash, check, money order, or credit card.Specify quantity, EJ number, jou%il tide, article Ode, and volume,issue, and dile. Additional copies oisurne article. $1.00 each..

Acklen, Leila McCormick. "A Studs of the Effect of Human RelationsTraining on SelfCOncepts of Student Teachers." Research papersubmitted to the Association of Teacher Educators, 1973. 23

.4. pages: ED 131 070 ME $0.83 HC 161.67.Aspy, David N., and kider, June H. "The Effect of Teachers' Inferred

Self Concept upon.Student Achievement." The Journal of Educational Research, 68, 10 (July/Augliit 1975), pp. 386.89. EJ 130181. Contact Heldref Publications, 4000 Albemarle St., N.W.,Washington, D.C: 20016. Complete issue, S3.00.- -

-Bennett, Edward C. "Operation G.O.D. ''.Curtailment of Dropouts.' AProgram Designed. to Improve PULtil SelfEsteem Thereby Reduc-ing Future School Dropouts. Maxi- 11 Practieum." Ed.D esis,ItNova University, 1975. 252 pages..ED.196.-09.1 MF S0.8 HC

,$14.05. ' - - .

Bewley, Kenneth W. "SelfEsteem: The Alternative to Genelle InieriorN-ity." Theliegro4ducatiottal Review., 28, 2 (April 1977), pp. 9599. EJ 163 293. Contact R. Grann Llnird,A9. Box 2895, General

L

. Mail CcnterJucksonville, FL 2202. Comilre issue, $3.25.. Joo4 4..

. _ 1 .... .....

.;

.

--.x.1 4-t ..:..+436 7,

. ;..

.

4

it

Brown, James M. Office of, ProbationRichmond College: Reading. Center Assessment. -Evaluation Report. Staten. Island, New York:

Richmond College, City University of Nei), York, 1974. 41 pages.ED 117 261 MF $0.83 HC not available from EDRS:

Brown, Jeannege A. and MacDougall, Mary Ann.."The Impact ofTeacher Cotsultation on 'the Self Perceptions of ElementarySchool Ckildren." Education, 934 (April-May 197'3), pp.)39-45. ,Est 080 210. Order reprints from UM1, $600.

Canfield, Jack, and Wells, Harold C. 100 Ways to Enhance Self-Concept4.40, in the Classroom: A Handbook for Teachers ,and Parents. Engle-

wood Cliffs, New Jersey: 'Prentice-Hall, 1976. Docdment notavailable from EDRS. Copies available from Prentice-Hall, Inc.,Englewood Cliffs,'Ig 07632 ($11.95 cloth, $6.95 paper).

Carmichael, Margivet; Donnelly, Nancy; Foster, Carolyn; and Wells,Diane. Evaluation of Four Career Education Media Used by the \Indiana Career Resource Center. ResearCh ant Evaluation ReportSeries. Report NUmber 2: Career Education /Career Development,Study. South Bend, 'Indiana: Indiana Career Resource Center,Indiana University, 1973. 60 pages. ED 085 489 MF $0.83 HC

; $3.50.Colortah,James S. and others. Equality of Educational Opportunity.

Washington, D.C.: National Center for Educational Statistics .(DHEW), 1966. 235 'page;. ED 042 275' MF- $0.83 Ht 812.71.

Colorado Brings Pukrlic Schools. PARADE,Replkation Minuali Prit. fects Advancing Redding Achievement and Developing Ego..

Strength. Colorado *rings, Colorado: [1974) . 75 pages. ED 144328 MF $0.83 HC $3.50.

Coopersmith, Stanley. The Antecedents of Self-Esteem. earl Francisco:W. H. Freeman,and Company, 1967.' .

Cciopersmtth, Stanley, and Silverman, Jan. "How to En,hance Pupil Self-Esteem." Today's Education, 58, 4 (April 1969), pp. 28-29. EJ001 937. Contact, National Educational Assotiition, 1201 16th

. St.,-N.W.,Washington, D.C. ,20036. 9901ele issue, $2.00..Curtis, J; and Altmann, H.:ThetReiationship betWeen TCachers' Self.

-_concept and the Self-Concept of Stuilents.t.Child Study journal,.3 7, 1 (1977r,pp. )7-27. EJ.162 732. Contact Child Study Center,

State. University College., 1300 Elmwood- Ave., Btlffalo; NY.14222. Complete issue, $2.50. ,.; e

Darrigrand, Grace E., and Gum, Moy F. "A Comparison of the Effects T,

of Twodlethodirof Developmental Guidance on the Sig-Cc:rept,Peer Relationships, and School Attitudes ofSediniPGrarcle Chid-

ten." In Additional Studies-in ElementamSchool GUidance: Psy.chological Education Activities Evaluated;-,41fited...by G. Dean

' 37-"41Th

7

- Kr.

..-t ,

Miller, p p. 63.1 fi. St. Paul: Minnesota State Department of Edu-cation, 1973 Entire document, 445 pages. ED 085 617 MF$0.83 Hc $23.48. ; - ,

Dinkraeyer: Don. "Developing an Understariding of Self and OthersDUSO." Americanitddance Service, Inc., 1970.

-Edeburn, Carl E., and Landry, Richard G. "Teacher SelfConcept and

, Student Self7Concept." Paper presented ,at the American Educa-clonal Research AssoCiation annual meeting, Chicago, Apiii 1974. "

24 pages,'ED 088 892 MF $0.88 HC $1.67, .

Felker,_ Donald W.; Stan*yck, Douglas J.; and Kay, Richard S. '=The-Effects'of a Teacher Program in Self-Concept EnhanCement onPupils' Self-Concept, 'Anxiety, and Intellectual AchievementResponsibility." The Journal pf Educational Research, 66, 10{July -Augalit 1973), pp. 44315. Et, 082 255. Contact HeldrefPublications, Coinplete issue, $3.00. See Aspy above; for address.

Fletcher, M. Josephine. Glasser' Discussions in Elementary School:119741. 22 pages. ED I,13 621 MF $0.83 11,C Sl.67.

Franks, David D., 'and Dillon, Stephen. The Effects of Open Schools on! Children: An Evaluation, Final' Report. Denver. Department of

Sociology, University of Denver, 1976 474 pages. 138 606'MF $0.83 HC $24.77.

Gasser, William. Schools Without Fbilure. Neiv'Yoric: HarperPublishers, 1969.

Hannum, James W.; Thoresen, Carl and -Hubbard; David R., jr.Changing the Evaluative SelfThoughts of Two ElementaryTeachers. Research and Development Memorandum No. 122,Stanford, California: Stanford Center for Research and Develop-

, meet in Teaching, Stanford University, 1974. 19 pages. ED 092519 MF $0.83 HC $1.67.

Harrison, Helene W Evaluation Report of the San Marcos Co:>,solidated Independent 'School District's Bilingual Education Fie:

. gram, 1975-1976. San Marcos, Texas: San Marcos Independent"Segioi District, 1976. 30 pages. ED -125 837 MF 80.83 HC

" $2.06..

Henning,Ratrick:EmergencySchod tad tat, Basic FiojectResearch and Evaluation'ileport, Volume 10, Number 11, March1977. Adaistal Atlanta Public ,SehoOis, 19/7. 67 pages. "AD 141459 11F-$0.83 NC not avaiiiiile from ERRS.

*Wynn Development Training initikute. What Is the. Human Develop-meat Program! Mesa, California: 1975. 16 pages. Copies s

"front Human Development Training Initiate, 7574 UniversityAve:, Li Mesa, CA 92041: et

-

38 , ,

I

IBEX, Incorporated; and Littlejohn (Roy) Associates. Evaluation olthe ErEd Title I Program of the Public Schools of the District ofColumbia, 1975.76. Final Evaluation Re)ort. Durham, North .Carolina; an,d Washington, D.C.: 1976..173 pages. MO 141 452laiF $0.831-1C $8.69. ,

Jersild, Arthur T. In %Search of Self: dnExploration ofethe Role of theSchool in Promoting IfellUnderstandfng. New- York: Bureau ofPublications, Teachers College, Columbia Universitz, 1952.

Kash, MarBytanM.; Borich, Gary 13.; and Fenton, Kathleen S. Teache:Behavior and Pupil Self-ConcePt. Final repo?". Austin, Tejtas:Research and Developnieitt Center for Teatherl Education, Uni.versity Of Taos, 1970. 512 pages. ED 124 540 MF $1.00' HC

. $27.45.Lynch, Patrick D., and Barnette, J. Jackson. "An, Intervention to Assist

0% Teachers in Creating Supportive Classroom Climates." Paper pre,sensed at the American Educational Research Association annualmeeting, New York, April 1977, 5,f1 pages. ED 137 235 MF$0.83 HC $3.50.,

MACRO raucationa1 Associates, Inc. Teacher Resource Guide for theDevelopment of Positive SelfCcinceprin Migrant Children. Gene-

. seo, New .York: GeneseoMigrant Center, State University Collegeof Arts & Sciences, 1974. 199 pages.,Eb 147 081 MF $0.83, HC$10.03.

...r

Milwaukee Public Schools. Bilingual /Bicultural Educatiotr. ProgramEvaluation 'Report 1973.1974; with- a Five-Yeir .Summary. Mil-waukee-. 'Department of Educational Research and 'ProgramAssessment, 1974'. 264Pages,ED 106 374 MF $0.83 HC $14.05.

Offenberg, Rol;iert M., and others. Title VD' Bilingual Project "Let's Be- Amigos." Evaluation of the Fifth Year 1973-74. Philadelphia:Office of Research and Evaluation, Philadelphia School District,1974. 106 pages. ED 109 933 kw $0.83 HC $6.01. .

Pardew, E., Michellerand Shilsop, Elizabeth A. "Self.Concept Change::" The Effect of a Sslf-Concept Enhancement Program on Preschool

Children." In Additional Studies in Elementary School Guidance:Psychological Education Activities taaluated, edited by G. Dean

. Miller, pp. 1.62, St. Paul: Minnesota State Department of EducaLion, 1973. See Darrigrand, above, for ordering information. 4 '

- Persell, Caroline Hodges. Testing, Traci:Ai, andirachers EZpectations:Their Implications for Education and Inequality. A Literature Re.view arta Synthesis:- New York: Departmtnt of Sociology, NewYork UniversitY::1976. 197 Pages. ED 126-150 MF $0.83 HC$10.03.

Watson.. Self Concept and Sea; I Achievement. Engle-

39

ts.

woodCliffs, New Jersey: PrenticeHall, 1970,(Windt, Ivan. Self-Concept and Reading. Bloomington: ERIC Clearing-

house on Reading, Indiana University, 1973. 39 pages. ED 071064 ME $0.83 HC $206. Copies also available from International Reading Association, 800 Barksdale Rd., Newark, DE

. . 19711 ($3.00 nonmember, $2.00 member).Ralston, Nancy C. and Thomas, G. Patience. "The Role of the Physi

eal Educatot In Developmental Guidmce." foiirhal of Health.Physical :Education and Recreation, 41, 8 (October 1970), pp.44-47. EJ 027 921. Contact American hifilince for Health, ftlysi..cal Education and Recreation (AAHPER), 1201 16th St., N.V.,Washington, D.C. 20036.

stRichmond, Bert 0., and White, William F: Teacher? Percep

tions of Pupil Behavior." Medsurema and Evaluation in Duionce, .4, 2 (July 1971), pp. 71-78,11..i (KO 205. Contact'APGAPublications, 1607 New Hampshire Ave., N.W Washington, D.G.

-20009. Complete issue, $3.50. . 'Rosenshine, Barak, and Furst, Norma, "Research in "Rather Perform.

ante Criteria." hykesiarch in Teacher Educations: A Symposium,edited by B. Othanel Smith, pp. 37.72. Englewood Cliffs, NewJersey: PrenticeHall, -1971. pomplete.:document 166 pages, ED049 193 ME and-HC not available from EDRS. Copies no longeravailable frOm publisher,

Rosenthal, Robert, and Jacobson, Lenore. Pygmalion in the Classroom:`reaper Expectation and Pupils' Intellectual Development. New

YbrIn Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968,Roseville Area School District 623, Minnesota. FOCUS! 4 Accessful

High School PrOgram for Dealing with Disaffected Youth. Itose-ville, -Minnesota:. 1975. 28 pages. ED 118 714 ME $0,83 HC

a $2.06,.Schmuck, Richard A. Self-Confrontation of Teacher& 'Eugene, Oregon:

University, of Omit" 1971. 28 pages.. ED 062 700 ME $0:83s.HC $2.06.

Schwartz, Henrietta. "Open CurtainLOpen Mind." Administrator's` Notebook, 21, 7 (1973), pp. 1A. EJ 078 882. Contact Univer-

sity of Chicago, Midwest Administration Center, 5835 Kinsbarh,Ave., Chicago, IL 60637. Complete issue, $0.60.

interview.Garx, Ted, principal, Hazel Valley Elementa$y School, Seattle, Washing:

tort Telephone interview, June 12, 1978.

40