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Spousal Satisfaction in Entrepreneurial Couples: The Role of Congruity of Family and Business Goals
THESIS
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Master of Science in the
Graduate School of The Ohio State University
By
Trisha Garek Harp, B.A.
* * * * *
The Ohio State University
2007
Master’s Committee: Approved by Dr. Jerelyn Schultz, Advisor Dr. Kathryn Stafford
Advisor College of Education and
Human Ecology
3
ABSTRACT
The primary purpose of this study was to look at the influence of the
congruity of goals and perceived success of goals of entrepreneurs and spouses
of entrepreneurs on the life and family satisfaction of the spouses. Four
potentially confounding variables, presence of children, hours worked per week
in the business, stressful life events, and cash-flow problems in the household
and business, were also assessed regarding their influence on spousal life and
family satisfaction.
Data for the current study were collected as part of a larger study on
family businesses, the 1997 and 2000 National Family Business Surveys
(1997/2000 NFBSs). Families where the self identified household manager and
the business manager were the same person were excluded leaving (n=417 in
1997) and (n=196 in 2000). The Family APGAR (Smilkstein, 1978), a five
question measure assessing family satisfaction, and a single item overall quality
of life question were used as the dependent variables for the study. Questions
regarding most important long range family and business goal and success in
achieving that goal were used as the primary independent variables. Congruity
within these variables was determined.
4
The results of the present study indicate that congruity of success of goals
was a greater predictor of spousal life and family satisfaction than congruity of
the actual goals in entrepreneurial families. In addition, presence of children and
cash-flow problems in the household were predictive of life and/or family
satisfaction in certain circumstances and were consistent with previous research.
Implications and recommendations for future research are presented.
5
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my parents and my husband. Thank you Mom and
Dad for instilling the importance of education in me, for your unfailing pride and
encouragement. I love you both and appreciate everything you have given me.
Thank you, Derek for consistently asking what would make me happiest. Thank
you also for encouraging and enabling me to follow my dreams. Our yesterday,
today and tomorrow start here!
6
ACKNOWLEDEMENTS
I would like to offer my sincere appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Jerelyn
Schultz for her positive encouragement and support throughout this degree. I
came into this program without a true goal for my future and I now know what I
am meant to accomplish. Thank you also for your personal touch, your guidance
and willingness to work with me from afar. I certainly could not have
accomplished this without you.
I would like to thank Dr. Kathryn Stafford for enabling me to use the
research that you have worked so hard to gather. Without your efforts, this thesis
could not have been accomplished in time for me to graduate. Thank you also for
helping me determine the best use of the data for my needs. I look forward to
consulting on future research.
I am grateful to Dr. Rowena Gomez for helping me with your statistical
support. This would have been far more challenging without your knowledge,
willingness to help, and recommendations. Thank you for your open door policy,
it was greatly appreciated.
7
VITA
November 3, 1974 ………………………………………..Born – Columbus, Ohio 1993-1997………………………………………………….B.A. Psychology, The University of Michigan 1997 – 2001……………………………………………….On My Own of Michigan 2001 – 2004 ………………………………………………Franklin County Board of MR/DD 2004 – 2007……………………………………………….The Drop Spot 2004 – 2007 ………………………………………………Master’s Student, The Ohio State University
FIELD OF STUDY
Major Field: Human Ecology
Human Development and Family Science
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………….. iii Dedication ………………………………………………………………………. v Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………….. vi Vita ………………………………………………………………………………. vii List of Tables ……………………………………………………………………. x CHAPTERS: 1. INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………… 1 Statement of the Problem / Significance of the Study ………… 4 Research Questions ………………………………………........... 5 Variables …………………………………………………………… 6 Definition of Terms ………………………………………………... 7
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ……………………………………………. 8 Theoretical Background ………………………………………….. 8 Spousal Roles and Tension within the Family Business ……... 13 Business Start-up and Families …………………………………. 17 Work/Family Roles ……………………………………………….. 20 Job Insecurity, Economic Hardship, and Stress ………………. 23 Presence of Children and Couple Similarity …………………… 25 Summary …………………………………………………………... 28
3. METHODOLOGY …………………………………………………………… 31
Research Design …………………………………………………. 32 Procedures ………………………………………………………… 32 Data Producing Sample ………………………………………….. 34 Measures ………………………………………………………….. 35 Data Analysis ……………………………………………………… 37
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4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 41 Family and Business Goals and Perceived Success …………. 42 Congruity of Goals and Perceived Success …………………… 45 Presence of Children and Life Events ………………………….. 49 Hours Worked in Business and Cash Flow Problems ………… 50 Correlations Among Family and Life Satisfaction ……………... 51 Hierarchical Regression Analyses on Research Goals ………. 54 5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS …………………………………………………………………
64
Summary …………………………………………………………... 65 Conclusions ……………………………………………………….. 67 Limitations …………………………………………………………. 69 Recommendations for Future Research ……………………….. 70 Implications for Marriage and Family Therapists ……………… 71 REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………. 74
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page 3.1 Correlations Between APGAR Questions, SUM APGAR,
and Quality of Life 39
4.1 Long Range Family Goals 42 4.2 Success in Achieving Family Goal (Scale of 1-5) 43 4.3 Long Range Business Goals 44 4.4 Success in Achieving Business Goal (Scale of 1-5) 45 4.5 Congruity of Answers to Long Range Family Goals 46 4.6 Congruity of Answers to Success of Family Goals 47 4.7 Congruity of Answers to Long Range Business Goals 48 4.8 Congruity of Answers to Success of Business Goals 49 4.9 Cash-flow Problems 50 4.10 Congruity of Goals and Success of Goals 53 4.11 Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Predictor Variables of
Quality of Life in 1997 (N=341) 55
4.12 Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Predictor Variables of
Family Satisfaction in 1997 (N=341) 56
4.13 Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Predictor Variables of
Quality of Life in 2000 (N=82) 57
4.14 Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Predictor Variables of
Family Satisfaction in 2000 (N=82) 58
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Family businesses continue to set the foundation for the American
financial system, generating billions for the economy and millions of jobs for the
rest of the country. Although there are no definitive national statistics on the
number of family businesses, a common estimate is that over 90 percent of the
20 million businesses in the United States are considered to be “family
businesses”; businesses that are owned and operated by a single family (Pine &
Mundale, 1983, Rosenblatt, de Mik, Anderson, & Johnson, 1985, Small Business
Administration (SBA),2002). It is also believed that family-owned businesses
employ the majority of people in the United States and account for roughly 40
percent of the gross national product (Beckhard & Dryer, 1983). In addition,
about one-third of the annual Fortune 500 largest businesses are either family-
owned or family-controlled (SBA, 2002).
Over the years, there has been a great deal of research on the
characteristics of entrepreneurs, what goes into creating a successful business
venture, and job satisfaction among individuals who work for companies versus
those who are self-employed. Unfortunately, however, there has been little
research to indicate how the pursuit of “the American dream” impacts the family
12
and, more specifically, the relationship between the entrepreneur and his/her
spouse. Ward (1987) discussed the importance of the family to the entrepreneur
with regard to the likelihood of setting common goals, the sacrifice necessary for
success, and the notion of investing in the company with hopes for future
rewards. He notes that the family is the business owners’ greatest resource. It
provides both the entrepreneur and the company with employees, ideas, new
blood. In addition, the family also gives the owner good reason to work and
achieve success. With this in mind, some researchers have looked at the value
and importance of having a strong support network (cheerleading section) prior
to starting a new venture. In rank of biggest supporters, the spouse is often
number one on that list (Dunn & Liang, 2001; Hirsch & Peters, 1995).
Due to the close nature between husband and wife and the
interrelationship between work life and family life, it seems inevitable that the
spouse of an entrepreneur will be directly impacted by the family business. Thus,
a number of questions come to mind regarding the impact of owning and
operating a family business on the marital relationship. To begin with, at the
outset of the business venture or the marriage (if the business was already
established), did both individuals share in their vision and goals for the business
and their future, or did they differ? How often do the spouses end up working for
the business and was that determined/discussed ahead of time? Is there a
difference between being a co-preneur and working for the business without
13
direct ownership? How does the couple establish division of labor at work/home?
How does each spouse handle stress, job/financial insecurity, instability in the
workplace? Is there a higher incidence of marital instability or divorce within
entrepreneurial families? How do children impact the spousal relationship and/or
the business?
Rosenblatt et al. (1985) conducted a series of in depth interviews with 59
families who were business owners in Minnesota. Of these businesses, 95
percent were owned and operated primarily by men. With this in mind, they
looked at the definition of “family business” and molded it to include the family
members on whom the business had a significant impact; regardless of whether
or not the family member worked directly for the business (received a paycheck)
or not.
Through their interviews, they found that in more than 70 percent of their
sample, the wife of the entrepreneur either was currently or had been involved in
the business in a full time or part time role since the conception of the company.
Additionally, they went on to report that regardless of whether or not the spouse
was directly involved with the business, she indirectly supported the business
through her efforts at home; taking on more of the responsibilities and chores at
home since her husband was absent much of the time as well as forgoing
expenditures for both personal and household items because the money was
being used for the business. Even wives who worked for the business tended to
14
carry out more of the household chores. They did find that some of the women
they interviewed, although not all, felt neglected, disappointed, and
unappreciated.
Statement of the Problem / Significance of the Study
It is clear that the spouse of an entrepreneur plays a major role in the
development and maintenance of a family business. With over 20 million
businesses to choose from, that is over 20 million spouses that are directly
impacted by their family’s business. Although there is no complete data on the
number of couples working together, we do know that there is a significant
chance that when an individual owns and operates a company, there is a high
likelihood that his/her spouse will be involved to some extent.
There is a great deal of data surrounding the characteristics of the
entrepreneur and his/her motivations behind operating a company. Unfortunately,
there is little to no information about the characteristics and motivations of the
spouse. Studies have indicated that common characteristics of entrepreneurs
include high achievement drive, action oriented, internal locus of control,
tolerance for ambiguity, moderate risk taking, commitment, optimism,
opportunistic, initiative, independence, commitment/tenacity or some combination
of one or more of these traits (Liang & Dunn, 2002). With regard to motivation,
many entrepreneurs are driven by a desire to gain control over their
lives/independence, to get profits/financial rewards, to enjoy what they are doing,
15
to achieve their personal goals/recognition, and to make a difference/contribute
to society (Liang & Dunn, 2002). With these characteristics in mind, is important
to determine if spouses of entrepreneurs have compatible characteristics and
motivations. It would also be important to know whether or not the dyad maintain
goals that are congruent with each other.
This study will take an initial look at the congruity of business and family
goals of both the “business manager” and the “household manager”. Using data
from a longitudinal, nationally representative data set, the 1997 & 2000 National
Family Business Surveys (NFBS), this study will generate information about the
alignment of responses regarding family and business goals between the
entrepreneur and spouse. This study will also be able to determine the variability
of perceived success of such goals between the dyad. In addition, we will be able
to look at the family and life satisfaction of the “household manager” over time.
With so little research focused on the dynamic of the spouse, this study will
contribute greatly to the knowledge base of the entrepreneurial family. It is crucial
that future research on entrepreneurial families include not only spouses, but all
members of the family when conducting research on family businesses.
Research Questions
The following research questions were addressed by the current study.
These questions were used as a guide throughout both the study and the review
16
of literature. The following questions also indicate how wide open this field really
is and the need for additional research in this area.
1. Does congruity of family and business goals influence spousal
satisfaction as defined by family and life satisfaction assessments?
2. Does congruity of perceived success of family and business goals
influence spousal satisfaction as defined by family and life satisfaction
assessments?
3. Does presence of children influence spousal satisfaction as defined by
family and life satisfaction assessments?
4. Does number of hours worked per week in the business influence
spousal satisfaction in an entrepreneurial household?
5. Do stressful life events influence spousal satisfaction in an
entrepreneurial household?
6. Do business or household cash flow problems influence spousal
satisfaction as defined by family and life satisfaction assessments?
Variables
The current study looked at the following variables. The independent
variables included: congruity of family and business goals of both the household
manager and the business manager and the perceived degree of success with
regard to achievement of those goals. Presence of children, number of hours
worked per week in the business, stressful life events, and evidence of cash flow
17
problems in the household or business also were used as independent variables.
These independent variables were correlated with the dependent variable: the
household manager’s family and life satisfaction. The study looked at these
variables using data collected in 1997 as well as data collected in 2000.
Definition of Terms
The following terms will be used in this study:
Household Manager: Self proclaimed by the respondents in the data set,
this individual is primarily responsible for taking care of the household.
Business Manager: Self proclaimed by the respondents in the data set,
this individual is the business owner and operator of the family business. This is
the primary entrepreneur in the study.
Family Business: This term will be used to describe any business that is
owned and/or operated by one or more persons in a family. The family business
will include all individuals in a family that are either directly or indirectly impacted
by the company, whether they are paid employees or not.
Co-preneur: A couple who share ownership, commitment and
responsibility for a company; those where both parties contribute labor, are on
the payroll and consider the business their primary vocation.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Due to the limited data about the impact of family business ownership on
the satisfaction of spouses, this review will address issues that relate to the
current study either directly or indirectly. Previous studies regarding business
start-ups and their impact on the family, co-preneurs and dual income earners,
issues about marital equity, stress as a result of financial instability, and the
impact of children are a few of the topics that will be addressed in this review of
literature. Each of these headings will assist the reader in learning more about
various aspects of owning a family business.
Theoretical Background
The foundation of this study will be based on two theoretical schools of
thought; the first being that of systems theory and the second being social
exchange theory. According to Rosenblatt et al. (1985), “from a systems theory
perspective, all families have patterned ways of interacting, patterned roles,
patterns of coming in contact and out of contact” (p.5). Regardless of the setting,
a family will interact with one another the same way. Tensions or problems may
arise or be exacerbated when the family must relate to each other in a business
environment as well as a family setting (Beckhard & Dyer, 1983). The way in
19
which a family interacts with one another may be entirely appropriate in one area
of their lives, but not in another.
Additionally, this theory supports the interweaving notion that people and
events occur within a context of mutual influence and interaction. It suggests that
if one member of the family is experiencing a change or a stressor, then that will
impact each member of the family regardless of gender. Thus, according to this
theory, the dynamic nature of business ownership could have a significant impact
on the marital relationship within the family. Rosenblatt et al. (1985) suggest that
patterns or experiences that may develop at work can carry over into the home
environment. This includes the interactions that will occur at home with the family
and the spouse. The most common of these patterns is when the entrepreneur
introduces the “boss” role into the home. In current US society, marital
relationships have become far more equitable than in the past. The equality and
mutual respect displayed in the family system may not work or be appropriate
within the business system. Even if the spouse does not work for the company,
s/he may not appreciate the overlap of authority their spouse may bring home
from the office.
Research has supported a connection between job satisfaction and
marital and family life suggesting that there is reciprocity between them
(Voydanoff, 1990). “Work and family life influence each other in a circular or
feedback fashion” (Larson, Wilson, & Beley, 1994, p.139). For example,
20
demands at the office, mental absorption of work concerns while out of the office,
work overload, and the psychological challenges of work can identify itself
through less energy and involvement with others at home (Small & Riley, 1990;
Staines, 1980). According to this theory, anxiety or stress over the business
could create similar feelings in the spouse. Past research has indicated that
husbands’ job stress has an adverse effect on the emotional health of their wives
(Rook, Dooley, & Catalano, 1991).
Rosenblatt et al. (1985) discuss the risk of carryover from one system to
another in terms of goals. Although many of the goals of family and business
may be similar (effective communication, rules about leadership, and rules for
developing and enforcing rules), the goals for a family are inevitably different
than the goals for an enterprise. Business goals may include things like
increased profits, productive employees, and a growing share of the marketplace
while family goals will likely include issues regarding self worth of individuals in
the family, experiencing personal competence, and establishing a sense of
comfort and belonging within the family. Thus, with the differing of so many
individual goals, it is not practical to anticipate that what keeps a business viable
is also what works for a family.
With the possibility of increased tensions and stress that business
ownership ensues, the second theoretical basis underlying this study is that of
social exchange theory. This theory purports that couples work together based
21
on an attempt to establish perceived equality among the relationship. Marital
satisfaction is thought to be at its optimal when both partners feel they are
offering an equal amount to the relationship and their immediate environment.
This theory is beneficial because it encourages a stronger look at marital
satisfaction and business ownership in terms of either offering greater flexibility
regarding division of labor at home and work or the development of frustration
and negativity among the spouse who is not running the business.
This theory directly addresses the questions regarding why some
marriages survive family business ownership and others do not. The framework
of this theory rests on relationship development, satisfaction, and stability of
three components, rewards and costs, equity and equality, and comparison
levels and comparison levels of alternatives. Individuals in the dyadic relationship
work to maximize rewards and decrease costs of being in the relationship. If this
delicate balance can be met, then both parties will express greater satisfaction
with one another. As previously discussed, however, spouses often end up
taking on additional responsibilities around the house while entrepreneurs invest
more time and resources with the business. This, along with other examples,
may impact a spouse’s perception of greater costs and fewer rewards especially
if financial gain is too far in the future.
The second component of this theory states that both partners will seek
ways to maintain both equity and equality within the relationship. As discussed
22
earlier, this aspect of social exchange may be challenged when and if a spouse
overlaps business systems and patterns with family systems and patterns and
vice versa. Rosenblatt et al. (1985) discuss some common issues, i.e. when a
husband comes home and maintains his “boss role” with his wife or a wife’s
desire for equality with business decisions or status when the husband feels
uncomfortable discussing sensitive business topics. Both situations can cause
disruption, conflict, and frustration and may result in a disturbance of a prior
sense of equity and equality within the relationship.
The third component of social exchange theory is based on comparison of
one’s perceived reality to their desired reality. The theory suggests that
individuals bring expectations into relationships based on what one would expect
from a different relationship. If the balance of costs and rewards compares
favorably to those expectations then the relationship will be considered satisfying
and will remain stable over time. In a family business, if one individual in the dyad
has a different goal or vision of the future than the other, this could greatly disrupt
a positive comparison. A wife may not have “signed up” to be a single mother
while her husband is focused on the business. This train of thought may result in
a spouse choosing an alternative choice like asking her husband to leave the
business or ultimately leaving her husband for a different lifestyle.
Both family systems theory and social exchange theory offer a firm
foundation for this study. They enable a train of thought to filter through both the
23
review of literature and the study itself. As this field develops and more studies
are conducted, both theories offer insight into the many “why” questions that will
inevitably be asked.
Spousal Roles and Tension within the Family Business
Perhaps the most important body of research on this topic was conducted
by Rosenblatt et. al (1985), who encapsulated the lives of a number of families in
their 1985 study. They interviewed 59 families who owned and/or operated family
businesses that were identified through the Yellow Pages in Minnesota. The
team did not consider physicians, attorneys, social workers, counselors, and
other professionals because they felt the requirement of formal education limited
the extent that other members of the family without the same education could
work in the business. Although the study was qualitative in nature, the
researchers uncovered a number of repetitive issues with each of the participants
in the study. They uncovered many truths about the business world that are so
vital to the American way of life. In writing this book, the first page of the preface
discusses how understudied the families in “family businesses” have been. “It is
as though a crucial part of the lives of millions of people were invisible” (p.xi).
Using this dilemma as a primary drive and focus of the book, the authors
underlying theory focused on “the interplay, overlap, intermingling and
connection of the family system and business system” (p.xi). The first issue they
address and possibly the most common (occurring in roughly 90 percent of their
24
sample) was tension. It appeared that tension was cased by a number of factors.
One issue had to do with the difficulty in leaving roles, patterns, and office
behaviors back with the business. It is a challenge for many to switch roles once
they are back at home with their families. It seems a common quote for wives
may be, “I’m not your secretary.” Here is a quote from a husband with regard to
his wife’s desire to pull equal rank at the office.
“My wife has a tendency to want to be the boss in business always. It doesn’t go too well with some of the other employees, with the result that I haven’t had her here the last couple or three years. I prefer not to have her around when the other people are here. It causes problems” (p.28).
Some other topics addressed in the book include working out division of
labor, fairness of compensation and work load, family togetherness (be it too
much or too little), and setting boundaries. Although there are some definite
challenges to being a family business owner, the authors also uncovered some
commonly held advantages. These advantages included freedom, independence
and control, financial benefits, prestige and pride, creativity, and the improvement
of family relationships. Using some of the themes from this book, the following
research touches and/or confirms many of the ideas brought forward through this
study.
As discussed in Rosenblatt (1985), tension and conflict styles are an
important aspect of a family business. In a study by Danes et al. (2000) they
looked at impact of conflict style and severity of conflict on the quality of life of
25
farm owning families. They drew a random sample from the USDA’s (United
States Department of Agriculture) Agricultural Statistics Service for Minnesota.
The sample included farm businesses of all types from every county in the state.
Data were collected via questionnaire form from both husbands and wives of 206
couples. According to the researchers, “conflict is inevitable whenever there is an
environment in which boundaries between systems and subsystems are not
clear” (p.262). Farm owning families are often included in entrepreneurial studies
because their economic survival is reliant on their business.
Campbell (1981) questioned individuals about the meaning of “quality of
life”. He found the two most highly ranked responses included economic security
and family life, two clearly interlinked aspects of an entrepreneurial household.
Danes et al. (2000) broke down this concept to include values, beliefs, attitudes
around finances and family life, holding to the belief that compatibility of these
values and beliefs is what constitutes the foundation for a strong relationship
between couples. They hypothesized that severity of conflict (made up of
assessments measuring aggression, assertion, withdrawal, submission, denial,
and adaptation) would result in a negative relationship with quality of life (as
determined by level of living and family life).
Results did, in fact, suggest a statistically significant negative correlation
between severity of conflict and quality of life. More specifically, conflict
resolution styles appeared to have a strong impact on severity of conflict and
26
thus on quality of life for both men (R²=.25) and women (R²=.41) with stronger
results for women. Additionally they found that both the social indicator
(satisfaction with family life as a whole) and the economic indicator (satisfaction
with level of living) held relatively equal weight with regard to quality of life. Based
on this study, it appears levels of conflict and how they are resolved have a
significant impact on quality of life, thus stressing the importance of balance
among an entrepreneurial household.
Continuing to use the random subsample of data gathered on 206 couples
within farm families in Minnesota, Amarapurkar and Danes (2005) studied the
relationships between business tensions, relationship conflict quality and
satisfaction with spouse. The study was designed using education, off-farm
employment, farm size, locus of control and decision involvement discrepancy as
the independent variables and business tensions, relationship conflict quality
and satisfaction with the business owning spouse as the dependent variables.
According to Gottman and Krokoff’s (1989) relationship problem solving model,
spousal satisfaction is mediated by partner’s conflict management strategies.
With this in mind, they hypothesized that the more constructive the
relationship conflict quality, the higher the level of reported spousal satisfaction.
Additionally, they hypothesized that the higher the level of business tensions
reported, the lower the level of spousal satisfaction. Results indicated that both
relationship conflict quality and business tensions were significant predictors of
27
spousal satisfaction. Satisfaction with the business owning spouse as reported
by husbands was higher when the couple engaged in more constructive
relationship conflict strategies. With regard to business tensions, they found that
the higher the business tension, the lower the satisfaction with the spouse as
reported by the wives but not the husbands.
Business Start-up and Families
These previous studies focused on family businesses that have been in
existence for a while. Dunn and Liang published a few studies that focused on
the impact of starting a new business venture on the family and the entrepreneur.
In one study (2001) using a sample of entrepreneurs from 65 retail and service
firms that had fewer than 50 employees and were less than five years old across
the United States, the entrepreneur was asked a series of questions. Results
indicated that although many felt that sales were higher than predicted, they
found that their profits were lower than originally expected (indicating some
concern over economics). They also indicated that while 80% of the
entrepreneurs felt that their expectations about being happier were met, they did
not feel that their families’ expectations were met. Of the sample, 39.6% agreed
that their relationship with their spouse was strained as a result of starting the
business and slightly over 50% felt the business had an impact on the
relationship. Among the 58 married entrepreneurs, 6.9% had divorced, 3.4%
were separated, and 3.4% were estranged. Of those who were married, 80% felt
28
there was no effect on their marriage although some indicated that it had put
strain on their marriage while others indicated that it had actually strengthened
their marriage. Results of this study indicate that divorce among entrepreneurial
couples may not be as high as expected.
In another article by Dunn and Liang (2002), the researchers looked at
135 entrepreneurs and asked questions pertaining to expectations, reality and
willingness to start again from the perspective of the entrepreneur, and their
perceptions of their spouse. Of the entrepreneurs who started a business less
than five years ago, the results indicated that 46.5% would start again, while 50%
would not. Of those who would start again, the results showed that they had
lower expectations regarding their families’ happiness versus those who would
not start again. Additionally, 59.04% of those who would start again felt their
spouse was happier, while 40.96% felt their spouse was not happier.
In a third study, Dunn and Liang (2003) looked at both the entrepreneur
and the spouse. They designed two parallel questionnaires for the entrepreneur
and their spouse and had senior and graduate students at a university interview
a convenience sample of 53 entrepreneurial families in northern Louisiana. In
order to guarantee independency, they did not mail out the questionnaires.
Although this impacted the random nature of the sample, they felt that it was
more important to ensure that the entrepreneur and the spouse filled out the
questionnaires independently and simultaneously.
29
The framework of the questions surrounded the notion of a potential link
between expectations and reality about new venture creation for entrepreneurs
and their families. Variables surrounding this topic included business process,
financial situation, family attitude, and impacts of family/spousal relationship.
Specific variables related to marriage included divorce, estranged, etc.
Results of this study indicated that a little over half of the sample felt the
business had no impact on their marriage and a little under half did. Most
entrepreneurs and spouses agreed that starting the business was harder and
took longer than expected. In spite of this, however, they reported that they had
realistic expectations prior to starting the company. They also agreed that finding
time for themselves and their families was problematic. The results also found
that there was a definite split between couples who felt the business had no
effect on their marriage and those who did. The individuals who were not happy,
did not meet financial goals, did not feel better off, and had no time to spend with
their families were more likely to feel the business had a negative impact on the
marriage. Regardless, a majority of entrepreneurs stated that they would start a
business again and believed their families would support them again. These
studies were groundbreaking in that they were the only qualitative measures that
directly assessed the relationship between business ownership and some aspect
of the impact it had on the marital relationship.
30
Work/Family Roles
Another important and often referenced study was conducted by
Marshack in 1994. She studied the difference between dual career and co-
preneurs. Marshack (1994) used self-report inventories and cross-sectional
survey methodology to compare responses of 30 co-preneurs and 30 dual earner
couples. Participants were all volunteers from the Chamber of Commerce listings
in two small communities in Washington.
She reported that the literature on dual career couples shows that these
couples struggle to establish equality within their relationships, that wives
shoulder more of the domestic responsibility, that they are no more dissatisfied
with their relationships than the general population, that their marital satisfaction
is based more on their perceived equity in the relationship than on equality, and
that relationship satisfaction is highest among both partners when both feel their
careers are supported by their spouse. Unfortunately, there is currently no list of
traits that are associated with co-preneurs. It is clear to see, however, how social
exchange theory could produce insights regarding the marital satisfaction of co-
preneurs as well as dual career couples. Results of her study indicated that
based on sex-role orientations, co-preneurs divided household responsibilities in
a fairly traditional manner whereas dual career couples tended to be more
androgynous. She found that 80% of the co-preneurial husbands took on a
stereotypical male role while 76% of wives took on a stereotypical female role.
31
Marshack (1994) defined marital equity as a way to measure how satisfied
each spouse was with the division of responsibilities. She found that there was a
high level of satisfaction among all four groups even though the actual division
was quite disparate, especially for co-preneurs. This suggests that regardless of
the fact that the division of household responsibilities may not be equal, they
were perceived to be fair and reasonable. Both types of couples were generally
happy with the relationship. She also found that husbands tended to work more
hours than their wives, leaving more time for the wives to complete household
tasks. In general, both dual career couples and co-preneurial couples were
satisfied with their relationships.
In support of past research, Hochschild (1989) found that regardless of the
movement of women into the workplace; there has not been a significant change
in family roles. Stoner et al. (1990) also examined the work-family role conflict as
experienced by women. They found that time pressure, family size, support, job
satisfaction, and marital and life satisfaction were important factors that impact
the work-family role conflict.
In another study by Lee et al. (2006) they looked at the relationship
between the management activity of married women within family businesses
and their perceived well being controlling for work roles, family context, personal
and financial resources. Using data from the 1997 National Family Business
Survey, a national probability sample of 14,000 households, they focused on a
32
subsample of 545 married women who were self-proclaimed household
managers within an family owned business. They identified four work roles,
working only for the family business, working only for employer other than the
family business, working for both the family business and another employer, and
not working for pay in either situation.
Results of this study indicated that over 40% of the women worked for the
family business while 27.5% worked for both the family business and another
employer outside of the family business. Of the women who worked for both
family and outside businesses, results suggested that they tended to have the
highest number of children under the age of 18 and the lowest household
income. When looking at success of achieving the most important family goal,
they found women who did not work for pay were the most successful in
achieving their goal while women who worked for an employer other than the
family business reported the lowest level of achievement. Additionally, they found
that success in achieving their family goal was a positive and significant
determinant of the woman’s perceived level of well-being. With regard to cash
flow problems within the household, they found that women with a greater level
of cash flow problems reported a lower level of perceived well being than those
without cash flow problems. Ultimately, they concluded that “married women who
work in business-owning families may be different from married women in typical
33
dual-earner families because they face constraints and barriers at the interface of
the business and family systems” (p.539).
Job Insecurity, Economic Hardship, and Stress
Another topic that often comes into play with regard to business ownership
is the ongoing emotions surrounding job insecurity and the potential or reality of
economic hardship. As noted in the previous study, household and/or business
cash flow problems can cause stress and tension within the home. Larson,
Wilson and Beley (1994) conducted a study that assessed the impact of job
insecurity on marital and family relationships. This study looked at a stratified
sample of 150 faculty and staff members and their spouses at a northwestern
university. Results of this study showed that, regardless of employment status,
job insecurity stress was negatively associated with both marital and family
functioning for husbands and wives.
Conger and his colleagues (1990) developed and tested a general model
of marital satisfaction based on their research of economic hardship. The model
is based on the expectation that economic hardship could be associated with
hostility (a negative behavior) and warmth/supportiveness (positive behavior).
Ultimately, the model was designed to shed light on the effects of positive
(warmth/support) versus negative (hostile) marital interactions on spouses’
evaluation of their relationship (Conger et al, 1990). Using a sample of 76 white,
34
middle class couples from a Midwestern county, the researchers conducted a
series of self report measures.
They hypothesized that economic hardship would promote interactional
difficulties if the spouse psychologically experienced the stress that changes in
their economic position may alter their standard of living. Males were
hypothesized to react more negatively with regard to economic hardship. Results
of their study indicated that economic strain did increase hostility and decrease
warmth/supportiveness of husbands toward their wives. Additionally, both wives’
hostility and/or warmth were highly correlated with husbands’ hostility and/or
warmth. They also found that economic strain had an indirect impact on marital
quality through husband’s behaviors. In addition, they found that economic
hardship can have an adverse effect on marital quality and that couples with a
strong marriage are less likely to suffer both personally and as a family.
In another study, Conger, et al (1993) looked at differences in the way
husbands and wives react to undesirable life events. They recruited a sample of
451 white married couples from eight predominately rural Midwestern towns. The
families consisted of the husband and wife as well as a child in the seventh grade
and another sibling. Of the sample, 34% lived on farms. The study involved
measures on the following domains: gender, psychological distress, undesirable /
negative life events, and some socio-demographic information. Results of this
study indicated that men reacted in a more hostile manner than wives in
35
response to sex-typed negative events including financial problems and income
loss. Additionally, they found that women reported significantly higher levels of
somatization, depression, anxiety, and hostility than husbands.
Since economic hardship, stress and instability are often associated with
business ownership, it would be interesting to determine if these studies are
consistent and generalizable among all marital situations that experience
economic stressors. Additionally, it would be interesting replicate these studies
with entrepreneurial couples. This information could be crucial to future research
with regard to entrepreneurs and their marital quality. Conger’s models could be
used with a family business sample to investigate the importance of a hostile vs.
supportive manner and the impact of a solid marriage from the outset of the
venture.
Presence of Children and Couple Similarity
When looking to determine the impact of congruity of goals for spouses of
entrepreneurs, it is important to take into account the role children play. Studies
have shown that both number and age of children weigh heavily on the
adjustment and life satisfaction of the mother (Abbott & Brody, 1985). It has also
been suggested that wives shoulder a significantly larger share of the household
duties across the lifespan of a marriage, peaking during the early child rearing
years (Suitor, 1991; Cowen et al., 1985). Abbott and Brody narrowed the scope
by finding that wives with only preschool aged males and wives with two male
36
children (an infant and a preschooler) reported lower levels of cohesion and
satisfaction in their marriages compared with childless wives.
In a meta-analytic review on parenthood and marital satisfaction, Twenge
et al. (2003) suggested that research supports that couples grow less satisfied
with their marital relationship after having children. Current studies show that the
presence of children increases chores, stress, and strain due to decreased time
(Anderson et al. 1983). Children also are reported to interfere with couple
companionship, the couple’s sex life, cause an overload of social obligations,
exacerbate inequality between partners, and create negative evaluations of
marriage especially among non-traditional wives (Twenge et al. 2003). Across 90
studies, they found that fewer parents (45%) experienced marital satisfaction
than nonparents (55%). Ultimately, they also concluded that women were more
negatively affected by parenthood than men.
Clearly the presence of children seems to have a significant impact on
marital satisfaction. Researchers have also been trying to determine whether or
not couple similarity plays an important role as well. Because the current study
focuses on the congruity of responses by both entrepreneur and spouse, it was
necessary to determine if there is any indication that couple similarity comes into
play with regard to satisfaction. Apparently, in spite of the growing number of
studies on this topic, it remains an unresolved debate. Studies conducted by
Blum and Mehrebian (1999) and Caspi and Herbener (1990) indicated that there
37
is a positive association between spousal similarity and marital satisfaction. In
contrast, Gattis et al., (2004) and Watson et al., (2004) found that there was no
such association.
In an attempt to offer additional research to the current pool, Gaunt (2006)
studied 248 Jewish Israeli heterosexual couples who were recruited through day
care and community child-health facilities. The following measures were
considered: values, gendered personality traits, family role attitudes,
sociodemographic characteristics, marital satisfaction, and positive and negative
affect. In order to compute couple similarity, Gaunt looked at both the profile of
the couples’ ratings as well as the difference between their scores.
Results of this study indicated that for both husbands and wives, similarity
on the gendered personality traits and values domains were strongly associated
with satisfaction and affect. In addition, husbands’ satisfaction was significantly
associated with wives’ satisfaction and vice versa. All in all, the data suggest that
the greater the similarity between partners, the higher levels of marital
satisfaction and the lower the levels of negative affect. Although gendered
personality traits and values demonstrated the strongest correlation, role
attitudes and religiosity domains were weaker and more inconsistent. The results
of the study indicated that a profile-based similarity assessment tends to be a
better measure of the correlation of relationship measures than score-based
similarity.
38
Summary
This review of literature covers a variety of topics closely associated with
factors that come into play when looking at spousal satisfaction among
entrepreneurial couples. Starting with the foundation that both family systems
theory and social exchange theory offer, the variables mentioned above are all
impacted by elements of these two theories. Beginning with tensions and conflict
as a result of family business ownership, both theories touch on the potential for
both satisfaction and/or dissatisfaction based on spousal roles within the family
business as well as conflict resolution strategies within the couple. When looking
at business start-ups, the research has briefly looked at issues including
expectations and realities of business start-ups and potential strain on the marital
relationship.
Another focal area of research investigated the differences between dual
career families and co-preneurial couples and the establishment of work and
family roles. Not surprisingly, the research has been consistent over time
indicating that regardless of work role, women continue to bear a greater
household burden then men. Additionally, the research indicated that traditional
gender roles were found more often in co-preneurial households. Perhaps when
couples work together, they are able to see how hard each other is working. This
may increase respect for the spouse and offer a greater level of tolerance for
his/her lack of participation with household duties. The division of labor may be
39
viewed differently when a spouse has insight into the rest of the person’s day.
The level of work may feel more equitable due to the knowledge of level of
difficulty experienced during the work day. Perhaps dual career couples are more
androgynous because the spouse can more defiantly say, “I work just a hard as
you do”, and the spouse may not know if this is accurate or not.
The intermingling between work and family in entrepreneurial families can
be a backdrop for stress related to job insecurity and economic hardship. As the
data suggest, regardless of employment status, job insecurity stress was
negatively associated with both marital and family functioning for husbands and
wives. Thus, in the unpredictable and often cash strained world of
entrepreneurship, this could put an additional strain on the marital satisfaction.
When looking at potential strains on the relationship, the data is fairly consistent
that the presence of children on the marriage can decrease satisfaction. With all
of these potential stressors, it appears that consistent conflict resolution
strategies and potentially couple similarity may mediate marital satisfaction in
entrepreneurial families.
As with most research, the studies presented in this review of literature
suffered from several limitations. To begin with, there was a disproportionate
number of studies conducted in Midwestern communities. This was quite
surprising because companies exist across the United States. In addition, many
of the studies focused on businesses in small communities. Perhaps small town
40
business owners are more likely to participate in studies of this nature, but it
would be helpful to gain access and insight to family owned businesses in urban
and suburban environments as well. More representative samples would have
enabled greater generalization of the results in the studies presented.
Additionally, because this is such an understudied topic, not all of the
studies discussed used valid and reliable inventories. For example, the studies
conducted by Dunn and Liang used self report measures that were developed
solely for the purpose of a single study. Additionally, they often relied on a
perceived vision into the spouses’ opinions and a memory of their thoughts and
feelings up to five years prior to the study. This can pose a significant challenge
when considering issues of selective memory and self report bias. Because two
of the studies relied on interviews (both in person and over the phone) there is a
possibility that some of the responses suffered from social desirability bias.
A final limitation of the current research is that it generally does not take into
account the dyad. The various studies often had feedback from both males and
females, however, they did not question both the husband and wife. When
researching topics regarding a married couple, it would be far more powerful to
generate data based on responses from both individuals. Although not without its
own share of limitations, the current study attempts to look at the relationship of
responses between both members of the dyad. This is a rare, yet powerful
opportunity to gain insight into both entrepreneur and spouse.
41
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
This study focused on the congruity of family and business goals and
congruity of perceived success of family and business goals on spousal
satisfaction. The methodology in this study was designed to answer the following
six questions:
1. Does congruity of goals influence spousal satisfaction as defined by
family and life satisfaction assessments?
a. Does congruity of business goals influence spousal satisfaction?
b. Does congruity of family goals influence spousal satisfaction?
2. Does congruity of perceived success of the chosen goal influence
spousal satisfaction as defined by family and life satisfaction assessments?
a. Does congruity of perceived success of the business goals
influence spousal satisfaction?
b. Does congruity of perceived success of family goals influence
spousal satisfaction?
3. Does the presence of children influence spousal satisfaction in an
entrepreneurial household?
42
4. Does number of hours worked per week in the business influence
spousal satisfaction in an entrepreneurial household?
5. Do stressful life events influence spousal satisfaction in an
entrepreneurial household?
6. Does the presence of cash flow problems in either the household or
business influence spousal satisfaction in an entrepreneurial household?
Research Design
Data for the current study were collected as part of a larger study on
family businesses, the 1997 and 2000 National Family Business Surveys
(1997/2000 NFBSs). The 1997 NFBS used a household sampling frame that
was limited to families in which at least one individual owned or managed a
family business. Additionally, family business owners had to have owned the
business for at least one year, worked at least six hours per week year round or
a minimum of 312 hours a year on the business, be involved in the daily
operations of the business, and lived with at least one other family member
(Heck et al, 2006). The 2000 NFBS involved re-contacting the original sample
three years later.
Procedures
The sample for the 1997 NFBS was purchased from Survey Sampling in
Fairfield, Connecticut for financial purposes. Because the study was
administered via telephone, the sampling frame consisted of those families who
43
were listed with a telephone number. In 1997, staff at the Iowa State University’s
Statistical Laboratory conducted 14,115 telephone interviews resulting in 1,116
eligible households. When the initial interviews were complete, the 1997 NFBS
consisted of 794 participating households, a 71% response rate (Lee, Danes, &
Shelly, 2006; Heck, Trent, & Kaye, 1999).
The families that qualified through the screening questionnaire were re-
contacted for 30 minute follow-up telephone interviews – one for the business
manager and one for the household manager. If the household manager and the
business manager were the same person, a longer interview (45 minutes) that
combined aspects of both questionnaires was used. After all interviews were
complete, the final sample size was 708.
In order to look at family businesses over time, the researchers attempted
to re-interview the 1997 NFBS sample three years later. With the goal of re-
contacting the sample in 2000, the team mailed a one-page summary of the
research results to the participants every six months. By following this process
and updating the database of addresses as necessary, only 61 out of 708
households could not be located for the 2000 survey. An additional 93
households opted not to be interviewed in 2000. As a result, 553 households
participated in the data that were gathered in 2000, just over 75% of the original
708 households surveyed in 1997 (Heck, 2000).
44
Data Producing Sample
For the purposes of this study, a sub-sample of couples was drawn from
the larger sample in 1997 (n=417) and in 2000 (n=196). The present study
focused on the congruity of answers relating to goals and success of goals for
both household managers and business managers. Therefore, households
where the business manager and the household manager were the same
individual were excluded. To be eligible for the present study, data had to be
available from both the business manager and the household manager for each
family.
The mean age of the household manager in 1997 was 44.38 years (SD =
10.90) and the mean age of the business manager was 46.79 years (SD =
11.33). In 1997, 98% of the sample (n=417) was married and in 2000, 94.4% of
the sample (n=196) was married. In 1997 the mean household size was 3.47
(SD= 1.33), and 63% of the sample (n=417) had children, while in 2000, the
mean household size was 3.11 (SD = 1.35). Unfortunately, there were no data
available about the percent of families with children in the 2000 data. The
sample was primarily Caucasian (95%), with 1.7% being African American and
3% being Asian, Native American or Other.
Data from 1997 indicated that 25% of the sample (n=417) made less than
$10,000 annually from the business and 75% made $50,000 or less. Data were
similar in 2000, with 21.8% of the sample (n=133) making less than $10,000
45
annually from the business and a little over 75% making $50,000 or less. In
1997, 90.7% of the business managers were male and in 2000, 85.2% of the
business managers were male. Interestingly, 96.2% of the household managers
were female in 1997 and 83.2% of the household managers were female in
2000. Almost four fifths of the businesses (79%) remained operational in 2000.
Measures
Dependent Variables: Spousal Satisfaction
Life Satisfaction: In order to gather data on satisfaction measures, the
researchers asked the household managers: “How satisfied are you with the
overall quality of your life?” They were asked to respond using a 5-point scale (1
“very dissatisfied” to 5 “very satisfied”).
Family APGAR: In addition, they were asked a series of five satisfaction
questions relating to their family. They were asked to rate the following questions
on a 5-point scale (1 “Never” to 5 “Always”). Are you satisfied that you can turn to
your family for help when something is troubling you? Are you satisfied with the
way your family talks over things with you and shares problems with you? Are
you satisfied that your family accepts and supports your wished to take on new
activities and directions? Are you satisfied with the way your family expresses
affection and responds to your emotions, such as anger, sorrow, or love? Are
46
you satisfied with the way your family and you share time together? (Smilkstein,
1978).
Independent Variables: Family Goals
Both the household manager and the business manager were asked to
answer the following question regarding family goals. “Now think about long-
range goals for your family. In your opinion, which one of the following is the
most important long-range goal for your family?” Answers included “good family
relationship, a balance between work and family, adequate family income, a
secure future for younger family members, or secure retirement resources.” Then
they were asked about how successful their family had been in achieving those
goals. They were given a 5-point scale (1 “Not at all Successful” to 5 “Very
Successful”) and were asked to choose.
Business Goals
Both the household manager and the business manager were
asked to answer the following question regarding business goals. “Now think
about long-range goals for [Business Name]. In your opinion, which one of the
following is the most important long-range goal for the business?” Answers
included “adequate financing, profit, a positive reputation, long-term viability, or
growth”. Then they were asked how successful they felt the business had been in
47
achieving this goal so far. They were given a 5-point scale (1 “Not at all
Successful” to 5 “Very Successful”) and were asked to choose.
Life Events
Household managers were given the top 10 stressful life events from the
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS14) (Holmes & Rahe, 1967). They were
asked in both 1997 and 2000 whether they had experienced the death of a
spouse, divorce, marital separation from mate, detention in jail or other
institution, death of a close family member, major personal injury or illness,
marriage, being fired at work, marital reconciliation, or retirement from work.
Cash Flow Problems
Household managers and business managers were both asked about the
occurrence of cash flow problems in 1997 and 2000. The household managers
were asked, “How often was there a cash-flow problem in the household?”
Answers included: every week, every month, several times in [insert previous
year], once or twice, and never in [insert previous year]. Business managers
were asked the same question about cash-flow problems in the business and
were given the same answers from which to choose.
Data Analysis
Data were coded and entered into the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS, Version 15) for PC computer programs to analyze the data.
Frequencies and descriptive statistics were conducted on all variables of interest:
48
family and business goals, perceived success of family and business goals, life
and family satisfaction, presence of children, number of hours worked in the
business, number of stressful life events, and cash flow problems in the business
and the family.
Congruity was established by taking the most important long range goal
(family or business) for the household managers and subtracting the most
important long range goal (family or business) for the business managers.
Congruity of goals was coded in SPSS as 0 = congruent and 1 = incongruent.
This was done for the data in 1997 as well as 2000. Because perceived success
of these goals was already coded 1-5, congruity of success was determined by
subtracting the perceived success of the business managers from the perceived
success of the household managers for both the business and family goals.
Correlations were computed between the individual questions that make
up the Family APGAR and the SUM APGAR 2000 (See Table 3.1). Significant
high correlations were found between SUM APGAR 2000 and can turn to family
(r = .762), family talks (r = .826), family supports (r = .738), family expresses
affection (r = .782), and family share time (r = .672). Because of these high
correlations, only the summed variable (SUM APGAR) was used in further
analyses. The coefficient alpha reliability estimate for the SUM APGAR was .84
in 1997 and .81 in 2000.
49
The following analyses were conducted on the variables of interest.
Initially, Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were used to examine
relationships between: congruity of family and business goals in 1997 and 2000,
congruity of perceived success of family and business goals in 1997 and 2000,
parental status, hours worked per week, death of a family member in 1997 and
2000, injury and/or illness in 1997 and 2000, cash flow problems in the household
50
and business in both 1997 and 2000, and spousal life and family satisfaction in
1997 and 2000.
Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the
relative influence of each of the variables of interest on life and family satisfaction in
1997 and 2000. Parental status, hours worked per week in the business, stressful
life events, and household and business cash-flow problems were entered in step
1. Congruity of family and business goals were entered in step 2 and congruity of
success of goals were entered in step 3.
51
CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The present study explored the role of congruity of family and business
goals and success in achieving family and business goals among entrepreneurial
couples on spousal satisfaction. Data were collected at two times, in 1997 and in
2000. Participants were questioned about their most important long range family
goal and their most important long range business goal. They were given several
options from which to choose. They were also asked about their perceived
success in accomplishing these goals. The research questions suggest there
may be a relationship between the congruity of the answers to these questions
by both the entrepreneur and household manager and spousal satisfaction. It is
possible that confounding variables including the existence of children, stressful
life events, and cash-flow problems also may influence spousal.
This chapter is organized according to the research questions posed in
Chapter 3. Prior to discussing the findings regarding these research questions,
participants’ responses to each of the variables of interest will be reported and
discussed.
52
Family and Business Goals and Perceived Success
While the primary focus of this study was on congruity of goals and their
relationship with spousal satisfaction, learning about which goals were selected
most often and the overall perception of success of these goals was of interest
as well. The most frequently selected family goals by both the household
manager and the business manager in 1997 and 2000 are presented in Table
4.1. The most important family goals were good family relationships, a balance
between work and family, and one of the two security (future or retirement)
options. Two of the goal options relating to security (secure future and secure
retirement) were combined. Note the similarities and differences between the
household manager and the business manager. It appears the business
managers are almost equally split among the three options whereas most of the
household managers selected good family relationships as their most important
family goal.
53
When looking at perceived success in achieving these goals, household
managers scored slightly higher than business managers (See Table 4.2). In
1997, their mean score was 3.90 and in 2000 their mean score was 4.15. The
business managers, however, averaged approximately 3.75 in their rating of
family goal success at both time periods. This indicates both household and
business managers viewed perceived success of goals as relatively high, which
in turn may influence the household managers’ life and family satisfaction.
When looking at the most important long range goals for the business,
three primary answers emerged as the most frequently selected (See Table 4.3).
Both household managers and business managers were most concerned with
establishing a positive reputation with customers, the profitability of the business,
54
and the long-term viability of the business. It is interesting to note that the
entrepreneurs and their spouses agreed that having a positive relationship with
customers was the most desired goal.
Answers regarding perceived success in achieving business goals
followed a similar pattern to those for perceived success of family goals (See
Table 4.4). Household managers rated success in achieving their business goal
close to 4 out of a possible 5 at both time periods while business managers
averaged around 3.75.
55
When looking at the theoretical foundations for this study, it is possible
that the lower average scores of the business managers for both family and
business goal success may play a role in the way these individuals relate to their
spouses. Both social exchange theory and systems theory offer possible
underlying explanations for the discrepancy in the perceived success numbers.
As social exchange theory suggests, a fear of unsuccessfully achieving both the
family and business goals may impact the perceptions of the costs and rewards
of business ownership on the marital relationship. In addition, social exchange
theory could explain a fear of unsuccessfully balancing the crossover nature
between family and business roles.
Congruity of Family and Business Goals and Perceived Success
Looking at the actual goals as well as perceived success of these goals
offers insights into similarities and differences between the responses of the
56
household and business managers. Because this study was most concerned with
the congruity of goals and the congruity of perceived success of said goals, the
tables below offer frequencies about the congruity of goals. It is rare to find
couple data, let alone couple data from a longitudinal perspective. By viewing the
information in terms of congruity, this study took advantage of a unique
opportunity to gain insight into this aspect of the dyadic relationship.
Table 4.5 presents data on the congruity of answers to long range family
goals. In both 1997 and 2000, the data shows that just under one third of couples
who responded chose the same long range family goal. The percentages
remained relatively similar in 2000.
57
When looking at perceived success of family goals, couples responses
appeared to be similar. Table 4.6 shows that on average about 77% to 79% of
couples felt either the same or about the same in their perceptions of perceived
goal success in both 1997 and 2000. As the data in the table show, most people
responded with a score of either 3 or 4 out of a possible 5.
When looking at congruity of the long term business goal, the percentage
of couples who shared the same goal was greater than the percentage who
shared the same long term family goal. Data in Table 4.7 show that 37.6% and
40.4% of couples agreed on the long term business goal in 1997 and 2000
respectively. This is of particular interest because, as the literature suggests
58
(Dunn & Liang, 2001; Hirsch & Peters, 1995), spouses tend to be the biggest
supporter of their partners in their business enterprises. The higher level of
congruity of business goals suggests that couples may share greater similarity
around the business goals and therefore may be more supportive of the family
business.
Data on the congruity of perceived success of the business goal is also
higher than perceived success of the family goal (see Table 4.8). About 85% of
couples either believed success of the business goal was exactly the same or
very similar. As noted in Table 4.3, a high percentage of couples chose “a
positive reputation with customers” as their long range business goal. It is
important to note that there is greater congruity of business goals than family
goals in the present study. It is possible couples have discussed their business
59
goals more often than their family goals because many entrepreneurs create a
mission statement and business plan whereas fewer families may spend time
developing a family mission statement and family plan.
Presence of Children and Life Events
In 1997, 67.6% of the sample (n=417) had children between the ages of 0-
17 years old. The average number of children per household was 1.41 (SD =
1.30), with 21.3% having children under the age of 5 and 50.6% have children
from 6 to 17 years of age.
60
When looking at stressful life events, only two of the 10 were of notable
interest in the present study. Death in the family was experienced by 26.7% of
the sample (n=417) in 1997 and by 43.4% of the sample (n=189) in 2000. The
second stressful event experienced by a significant number of the sample was
injury or illness. In 1997, 26.7% of the sample experienced either injury or illness
and in 2000, 11.3% of the sample suffered from an injury of illness. Therefore,
only these two variables were used in further analyses.
Hours Worked in Business and Cash Flow Problems
Forty three percent of the sample worked fewer than 10 hours per week in
the business, 31.5% worked between 11 – 20 hours per week, 19.2% worked
between 21-30 hours per week, and 6% worked 30 or more hours on the
business. Three years later 79% of the businesses still were in operation.
Data on cash-flow issues as perceived by both the household manager
and the entrepreneur in both 1997 and 2000 are presented in Table 4.9.
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As the data shows, both household managers and business managers
were relatively similar in their answers regarding financial problems in the
household and in the business. Based on data from previous research, families
who experience cash-flow problems weekly to several times during the past year
were more likely to have lower levels of satisfaction. As Conger et al. (1990)
found, economic hardship increases hostility and decreases the
warmth/supportiveness of husbands toward their wives. Although this study did
not look at marital satisfaction, cash-flow problems may be correlated with family
satisfaction and overall quality of life.
Correlations Among Family and Life Satisfaction
A highly significant correlation was found between Overall Quality of Life
and SUM APGAR in both 1997 (r = .494) and in 2000 (r = .477). These results
are consistent with expectations that someone who scores high on family
satisfaction is also likely to score high in overall life satisfaction.
CongruityofGoalsandSpousalSatisfaction
After determining the final variables used to access the appropriate data to
answer the initial research questions, a correlation matrix was generated to
assess all congruity variables with all satisfaction variables. As shown in Table
4.10, there were no significant correlations between congruent family goals and
congruent business goals in 1997 and any of the four satisfaction variables
(quality of life 1997, quality of life 2000, Sum APGAR 1997, Sum APGAR 2000).
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Congruent success of family goals in 1997 was significantly correlated with
quality of life 1997 (r = .256), the sum APGAR 1997 (r = .201), and congruent
success of business goals 1997 (r = .254). In addition, congruent success of
business goals in 1997 was significantly correlated with quality of life 1997 (r =
.225) and congruent success of family goals 1997 (r = .254). Examination of the
correlations also indicates that congruent success of business goals in 1997 was
significantly correlated with congruent success of family goals in 2000 (r = .230).
Similar to the 1997 data, no significant correlations were found between
congruity of family and business goals in 2000; however, some significant
correlations were found between congruity of success of these goals and spousal
satisfaction (See Table 4.10). Congruent success of family goals in 2000 was
significantly correlated with the sum APGAR 2000 (r = .216) and congruent family
goals 2000 (r = .209). Additionally, congruent success of business goals in 2000
was significantly correlated with congruent success of family goals 2000 (r =
.463) and with sum APGAR 2000 (r = .248).
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Hierarchical Regression Analyses on Research Goals
Next, hierarchical multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to
determine the relative influence of parental status, hours worked per week in the
business, stressful life events, cash-flow problems in the household and
business, congruity of goals, and congruity of perceived success of goals on
spousal family and life satisfaction in 1997 and 2000. Sample size varied from
341 in 1997 to 82 in 2000 for whom data on all variables of interest were
available. Results of the four multiple regression analyses are presented in
Tables 4.11 – 4.14. Discussion of the findings related to these analyses are
organized around the major research questions posed in Chapter 3.
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1. Does congruity of goals (family and business) influence spousal satisfaction as
defined by family and life satisfaction assessments?
An examination of the hierarchical multiple regression analyses presented
in Table 4.11 – 4.14 indicates that congruity of family and business goals in 1997
and 2000 were not predictive of family and life satisfaction. This is not surprising
because the correlation matrix also showed no correlations between congruity of
goals in either 1997 or 2000 and any of the satisfaction measures. The lack of
significant relationships between congruity of goals and spousal satisfaction may
be a reflection of the way the question was asked on the original interview.
Individuals were asked to select their most important goal from among 5 possible
options. If they had been asked to rate each goal instead, different findings may
have resulted between congruity of goals and satisfaction.
In addition, as past research has indicated (Blum & Mehrebian, 1999;
Caspi & Herbener, 1990), the debate about couple similarity and marital
satisfaction remains unresolved. This lack of consistent data suggests that
congruity of family and business goals may simply not be correlated with spousal
life or family satisfaction regardless of the manner in which the questions were
asked.
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2. Does congruity of perceived success of the chosen goal (family and business)
influence spousal satisfaction as defined by family and life satisfaction
assessments?
An examination of the t-values for congruity of success of family and
business goals in Tables 4.11 – 4.14 indicates that perceived success of some
goals was predictive of both life and family satisfaction in 1997 but not in 2000.
Specifically, perceived success of family and business goals were significant
predictors of life satisfaction and perceived success of family goals was a
significant predictor of family satisfaction in 1997.
Anexaminationoftheresultsofthehierarchicalregressionanalysesforthe
2000datashowsthattheywerenotconsistentwiththeresultsfrom1997.
Congruity of perceived success of family and business goals in 2000 was not
predictive of either life or family satisfaction in 2000. The lack of significant
results may be a reflection of the small sample size and not because perceived
success is not an important predictor of satisfaction. Previous research
discussed in the literature review section of this study does not provide an
explanation as to why some of these findings may have been significant and
others not. It appears logical, however, that a person’s perception of their
success would indeed impact their level of satisfaction.
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3. Does the presence of children influence spousal satisfaction in an
entrepreneurial household?
Presence of children predicted life satisfaction in 1997 when it was
entered in step 1, however, it was not significant predictor of family satisfaction in
1997 (See Tables 4.11 – 4.12). On the other hand, parental status was not
predictive of quality of life in 2000 although it was predictive of family satisfaction
in 2000. An examination of the Beta weights indicates that the presence of
children resulted in decreased satisfaction. These findings are consistent with
prior research (Twenge, 2003), which found that couples grow less satisfied with
their marital relationship after having children. These results also are not
surprising because most of the household managers were women and Twenge
(2003) concluded that women were more negatively affected by parenthood than
men.
4. Does number of hours worked per week in the business influence spousal
satisfaction in an entrepreneurial household?
Inspection of the beta weights and t-values in Tables 4.11 – 4.14 indicate
that hours worked per week in the business were approaching significance as a
predictor of life satisfaction in 1997. Hours worked was not a significant predictor
of family satisfaction in 1997 or of life and family satisfaction in 2000. Prior
research by Rosenblatt (1985) found that spouses of entrepreneurs often
shoulder most of the household responsibilities and this can negatively impact
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their satisfaction. The Rosenblatt sample was drawn from families whose welfare
rested on the family business while the sample for the present study focused on
individuals with family businesses in which nearly three fourths of the
entrepreneurs worked 20 or fewer hours per week.
5. Do stressful life events influence spousal satisfaction in an entrepreneurial
household?
An examination of the beta weights and t-values for the two identified
stressful life events, death of a family member or injury or illness, in Tables 4.11
– 4.14 indicates that neither were significant predictors of life and family
satisfaction in either 1997 or 2000. Death of a family member was approaching
significance as a predictor of family satisfaction in 1997. As discussed earlier a
relatively small number of household managers had experienced either death of
a family member or an injury or illness. This may have impacted the lack of
significant results. Prior research by Conger et al. (1993) when looking at
undesirable life events found that males reacted in a more hostile manner than
women in response to sex-typed negative events. Stressful life events used for
this study were the top 10 stressful life events from the Social Readjustment
Rating Scale (SRRS14) (Holmes & Raye, 1967). It is likely these stressful life
events may be different from those experienced by respondents in the Conger et
al. study, which focused on regularly occurring stressors rather than major life
events.
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6. Does the presence of cash flow problems in either the household or business
influence spousal satisfaction in an entrepreneurial household?
Cash-flow problems in the household emerged as a significant predictor of
both life and family satisfaction in 1997 but not in 2000. The lack of significant
results in 2000 may be a reflection of the small sample size and not because
cash-flow problems in the household are not an important predictor of
satisfaction. Cash-flow problems in the business were not significantly related to
spousal satisfaction, perhaps because the business was not the major source of
income for many of the families in the current study. These results are consistent
with Conger et al.’s (1990) model of marital satisfaction which is based on their
research on economic hardship. Although they looked at marital quality, not
family or life satisfaction, they did find that economic hardship can have an
adverse effect on the marital relationship. In addition, Lee et al., (2006) found
that women with a greater level of cash-flow problems reported a lower level of
perceived well being than those without cash-flow problems.
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS
Family businesses make up over 90 percent of the 20 million US
businesses (SBA, 2002). Each of these businesses impacts not only the
entrepreneur who started or runs the business, but his/her entire family as well.
There has been a great deal of research over the years about building
businesses and the individuals behind the companies; however, the role of the
family, and more importantly to this study, the role of the spouse have been
grossly under researched. In spite of the commonly held notion that the spouse
often ranks as the number one supporter for the entrepreneur (Dunn & Liang,
2001; Hirsch & Peters, 1995), there is a relative lack of information about the
impact of business ownership on marital, family, and overall spousal satisfaction.
Although past research has not been conclusive on whether or not
spousal similarity predicts greater marital satisfaction, it is conceivable that
having similar goals or perceived success of goals may be significant predictors
of spousal satisfaction when looking at business ownership. This study focused
on the congruity of family and business goals and congruity of perceived success
of family and business goals on spousal satisfaction. It also took into
75
consideration confounding variables including cash-flow problems, the presence
of children, hours worked per week on the business, and stressful life events.
A summary of the primary findings by research questions are discussed
first, followed by the major conclusions of the study. Next, the limitations of the
study are addressed followed by implications and recommendations for future
research and therapeutic practice.
Summary
1. Does congruity of goals (family and business) influence spousal satisfaction as
defined by family and life satisfaction assessments?
Findings of the current study suggest that congruity of goals (family or
business) was not predictive of spousal family and life satisfaction. The lack of
significant relationships between congruity of goals and spousal satisfaction may
be a reflection of the way the question was asked on the original interview.
Individuals were asked to select their most important goal from among five
possible options. If they had been asked to rate each goal instead, different
findings may have resulted regarding congruity of goals and satisfaction.
2. Does congruity of perceived success of the chosen goal (family and business)
influence spousal satisfaction as defined by family and life satisfaction
assessments?
The present study found that congruity of success of chosen goals
influenced spousal life and family satisfaction in 1997 but not in 2000.
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Specifically, congruity of perceived success of family and business goals
predicted life satisfaction and congruity of success of family goals predicted
family satisfaction.
3. Does the presence of children influence spousal satisfaction in an
entrepreneurial household?
Consistent with previous research, the data indicated that presence of
children predicted life satisfaction of the spouse in 1997 and family satisfaction in
2000. Families with children were more likely to report lower satisfaction levels
than families without children.
4. Does number of hours worked per week in the business influence spousal
satisfaction in an entrepreneurial household?
The current data indicated that number of hours spent on the business per
week was not significantly predictive of spousal satisfaction. However, hours
worked per week was approaching significance as a predictor of life satisfaction
in 1997. Unfortunately, the sample used for this study focused primarily on
individuals with household businesses who spent relatively few hours per week
on the business (74% spent 20 or fewer hours).
5. Do stressful life events influence spousal satisfaction in an entrepreneurial
household?
Neither of the two identified stressful life events, death of a family member
or injury or illness, were significant predictors of quality of life or family
77
satisfaction in 1997 or 2000 with one exception. Death of a family member was
approaching significance as a predictor of family satisfaction in 1997. Because
the majority of the sample in both 1997 and 2000 had not experienced a major
stressful life event, it is impossible to draw conclusions about the relationships
between life stressors and spousal satisfaction for entrepreneurial couples. It is
possible that regularly occurring stressors rather than major life events may have
a greater impact on spousal satisfaction.
6. Does the presence of cash flow problems in either the household or business
influence spousal satisfaction in an entrepreneurial household?
Cash flow problems in the household were predictive of both quality of life
and family satisfaction in 1997. Cash-flow problems in the business were not
related to spousal satisfaction, probably because the majority of families in the
current study did not rely on income from the business as their major source of
family income.
Conclusions
In conclusion, data from the present study suggest that congruity of
perceived success of family and business goals is more important to family and
life satisfaction of the spouses of entrepreneurs than congruity of the goals
themselves. Other relevant predictors of the family and life satisfaction of
spouses of entrepreneurs in the present study were the presence of children and
cash-flow problems in the household. Because the numbers of hours worked per
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week in the business was relatively low and the number of stressful life events
experienced was few, no conclusions can be drawn regarding these variables
and spousal satisfaction.
Of the two theoretical foundations presented as possible bases for
examining the relationships between congruity of goals and perceived success of
goals and spousal satisfaction, social exchange theory seems to be most closely
aligned with findings related to perceived success of goals and spousal
satisfaction. When viewing satisfaction in terms of rewards (as proposed in
social exchange theory), the greater the level of perceived success, the more
likely an individual is to feel rewarded or satisfied. Further research to determine
the broader applicability of this theory to entrepreneurial couples is
recommended.
Systems theory, on the other hand, appears to be useful in understanding
the relationships between the presence of children and spousal satisfaction. The
presence of children changes the family interactions and dynamics and therefore
influences the marital relationship.
Both social exchange and family systems theories offer possible
explanations for the relationship between cash-flow problems and spousal
satisfaction. Social exchange suggests that when costs outweigh rewards,
individuals in the dyad are more likely to be dissatisfied. Therefore, when there
are cash-flow problems in the household, the spouse or household manager is
79
more likely to experience lower levels of satisfaction. Cash-flow problems are
present stressors, which in turn can impact the way the family system functions.
Further research is necessary to clarify which of these theories may have the
most relevance for understanding how economic problems in entrepreneurial
households influence spousal satisfaction.
Limitations
As with all research, there were limitations in the present study. To begin
with, the sample size in 2000 was considerably lower than the sample size in
1997 because data were not always available for both members of the couple in
2000. This decrease in sample size may have impacted the power of the study.
A second limitation of this study was that a self-report measure was used.
Common problems with self-report measures include issues related to reporter
bias and the possibility of inaccurate or dishonest responses. In addition, the
questionnaire was given via phone interview. As a result, respondents may have
answered questions according to their perception of what the interviewer wanted
to hear.
A third limitation was that one of the satisfaction measures used focused
on family rather than marital satisfaction, and the other was a single item
assessment of quality of life. Another limitation concerns the measures that were
used to assess family and business goals. Asking respondents to rate each of
the possible goals would have strengthened the current study and provided
80
greater variability. It also would have been helpful to have included data on
marital satisfaction not only for the household manager but for the business
manager.
A final limitation relates to the generalizability of the results of this study.
Because a majority of the subjects worked fewer than 20 hours per week on their
business, it appears that the sample for the study was made up primarily of
family business owners rather than entrepreneurs whose well being and that of
their families depends on the success of the business. As a result, the
conclusions of this study cannot be generalized to the entrepreneurial population.
Recommendations for Future Research
There is still so much to be learned about the impact of business
ownership on the family and the marital unit. Because the data used in the
current study was not initially designed to answer these questions, further
research is necessary to understand the interactions between work and family
life in an entrepreneurial family and to unlock the keys to a successful marriage
within these families. While conducting this study, additional research questions
came to mind. It would be helpful to gather data on the dyad instead of the
individual to illicit greater knowledge about the couple as a unit and how they
work together.
To begin with, at the outset of the business venture or the marriage (if the
business was already established), did both individuals share in their vision,
81
goals, and expectations for the business and their future, or did they differ? How
stable was the relationship at the beginning of the venture (or marriage) and how
did it evolve over time? Is there a higher incidence of marital instability or divorce
within entrepreneurial families who do not have congruent goals for the family
and the business or congruent perceptions of success? Does regular
communication about the family and the business impact not only congruity of
goals, but also perceived success of goals?
Does the spouse working for the business have any relationship to
congruity of goals and perceived success of goals? How does the couple
establish division of labor at work/home? How does each spouse handle stress,
job/financial insecurity, instability in the workplace? Do similar personality
characteristics and motivations of the entrepreneur and spouse impact congruity
of vision and goals for the family and the business? What is the association
between stress among entrepreneurial families and marital satisfaction? The
possibilities are truly endless because this is an untapped area of research.
Implications for Marriage and Family Therapists
This study is just a small step toward learning about important factors that
contribute to spousal satisfaction in entrepreneurial families. Based on the
current research, it is possible that couples who own a family business may
suffer from complications that do not plague other families. Marriage and family
therapists need to be considerate of this point. These couples may have to spend
82
more time working out communication strategies and configuring division of
household labor.
Also, results of the current study suggest that satisfaction appears to be
most related to perceived success of goals. Therapists need to ensure that both
partners have set goals not only for the family, but also for the business. They
also need to feel that they are successful in achieving those goals. Fear of failure
can be a heavy burden for an entrepreneur and his/her spouse. Failure in an
entrepreneurial household can result in catastrophic financial outcomes or a lack
of ability to balance work and family responsibilities. Either way, business
ownership inevitably carries with it a great deal of self-induced stress that needs
to be addressed by both members of the dyad. Thus, it appears to be important
that both partners in the marriage feel they are successful in achieving their
goals.
There is currently no research to support the notion that entrepreneurial
households experience more stressors than other households, they may simply
be dealing with different issues. It is important for marriage and family therapists
to take this into account when working with a couple that is self-reliant for their
income. Although this study did not produce significant results regarding hours
worked and stressful life events, it is important to note that both presence of
children and cash-flow problems were predictors of spousal satisfaction. This is
83
consistent with previous research. Marriage and family therapists who work with
individuals who own a family business need to be aware of all of these issues.
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